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Combustion performance of high water content hydrous ethanol

Rafael Lago Sari
Gabriel Azevedo Tatsch
Macklini Dalla Nora
Mario Eduardo dos Santos Martins
Thompson Diordinis Metzka Lanzanova
Federal University of Santa Maria

ABSTRACT
The need to tackle global warming and to reduce greenhouse gaseous emissions calls for the ever growing research of
renewable and alternative fuels. Novel processes and ways to use current fuels have been extensively addressed.
Biomass products like ethanol, renewable and well established as an excellent fuel for IC engines, would be of even more
importance should its production costs get reduced. One of the ways to reduce the cost of ethanol made from crop
fermentation would be to use it with a higher water percentage. Currently, the normal composition of ethanol fuel has
around 6-7% of water, due to the azeotrope mixture reached during distillation. However, the production costs could be
dramatically reduced if the energy consuming distillation process could be interrupted earlier, leaving a higher water
percentage. However, this may impose combustion issues that may call for a different thinking regarding current engines.
This paper evaluates both via simulation and experiments the performance of an engine fueled with high-water content
ethanol mixtures, varying from 5-40% of water. The engine used was a naturally aspirated 0.668-L single-cylinder portinjected SI engine, with swirl-chamber spark-ignition. Combustion related parameters were analyzed through in-cylinder
pressure data processed with AVL Boost, providing several experimental and calculated results. Results show that
combustion duration remains more or less constant despite of the water addition. Higher efficiency IMEP values were
possible with increased water content. It was possible to realize that increased water content enhances knock avoidance
capabilities and makes wet ethanol even more promising for high efficiency engine concepts and with a lower fuel cost.

INTRODUCTION
Fossil fuels currently used have a significant environmental impact concerning pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions.
Research aiming at developing environmentally friendly engines with low carbon footprint has lead the automotive
industry use alternative fuels, being ethanol originated from biomass one of the major players.
In Brazil, ethanol began to be used in internal combustion engines since 1920. In the year of 1931, when a decree
required the addition of 5% ethanol in gasoline, it became even more usual. In the1970s the Brazilian Alcohol Program
(ProAlcool) was created to reduce the effects of the oil crisis [1]. Nowadays, the country is now the largest user of ethanol
as an automotive fuel. This occurs due to its great amount of solar radiation, large territory, an abundant water resource
[2]. It is estimated that in the future, with increased productivity of sugarcane per hectare and the higher efficiency of
ethanol production process, the environmental impacts per unit of fuel produced will decrease even more [3]. Comparing
with gasoline, ethanol has a higher octane number, inflammability limits, laminar burning velocities and vaporization heat.
These properties enable run with higher compression ratio, the combustion duration decreases and makes possible to
operate with lean mixtures, achieving higher efficiency over the gasoline in internal combustion engines. Some negative
points in this comparison are the lower energy density, corrosion, lower vapors pressure, total miscibility with water and
aldehydes emissions [4]
The obtaining process of ethanol consists in agricultural production, transportation, cooking and crushing, fermentation
and distillation. At the end of the process, high amount of energy is necessary to obtain the biggest concentration of
ethanol in function of energy dispended in distillation, which grows exponentially in a percentage higher than 80% as
showed in figure 1. Thus, the use of ethanol with higher water percentages can be a good alternative in order to reduce
production costs, and increase market competitiveness compared to fossil fuels.

Figure 1 dispended energy in distillation process relative to ethanol LHV

Researches were made using a single cylinder engine 375 centimeter cubic of volumetric displacement, carbureted,
combustion chamber in L and compression ratio of 7.5:1, utilizing water and gasoline emulsions. The water in gasoline
percentage varied from 0% to 15% of volumetric content in regular operation. With the water increase, was possible to
save fuel, showing the better results for 10% of water in the mixture. The water addition makes the combustion
temperature decrease, since water consumes part of the heat generated to evaporate, taking at a lower NO x emissions.
CO emissions decreased, but in other hand hydrocarbons emissions increased [5]. Christensen, M.; Johansson evaluated
the water addition effects at the inlet manifold and combustion processes using a Volvo six cylinders engine, 1.6L, with
compression ratio of 18:1. The study was carried deactivating five cylinders and just one cylinder operated in HCCI
operation cycle. The engine ran with iso-octane, ethanol and natural gas, in order to control auto-ignition the inlet air was
heated. The water utilization increased the limit of power generation without Knock occurrence by the reduction of the in
cylinder charge temperature. On the other hand, there was an expressive increase in HC and CO 2 emissions due to the
lower combustion efficiency with the water addition [6].
Studies carried out by Idaho University in partnership with RAI (AutomotiveResources, Inc.) investigated the catalytic
igniters utilization with blend of 30% of water in ethanol in volumetric content. A 3 cylinders engine, 0.998-L- Diesel
originally, modified to run with wet ethanol in lean regime, was used to perform this analyze. The diesel injectors were
replaced by catalytic igniters and a fuel system controlled by electronic injection was installed. The catalytic igniter was put
in a pre-chamber where starts the combustion, giving the combustion flame torch ignition characteristics. Due to the
catalytic converter utilization, the activation energy for the beginning of combustion reactions takes it in lower
temperatures when compared with normal situations, and it is not necessary pre heat the inlet air. In comparison with the
original engine, was found decreases in CO and NO x emissions in modified engine. NOx reductions are mainly due to the
lowers temperatures in the combustion processes in function of water presence. There was an increase in HC emissions
caused by flame quenching effects. In all tested cases, an increase in efficiency was observed [7].
Pure ethanol and ethanol blends of water (6.5%, 13%, 20% of water mass) were studied in a spark ignited engine by
Brewster et.al. For the study it was used an air-assisted direct injection system in turbocharged engine. Tests were
conducted evaluating ignition timing, air charge and burning speed effects. It was demonstrated that for a fixed lambda
value (stoichiometric value) changes the ignition timing leads to reduction of torque when out of MBT. Increasing water
content and varying the ignition timing away from MBT, the burn rate was reduced due to greater delay in the onset of
combustion, causing a reduction of torque and efficiency .There is a gradual increase in the temperature of the exhaust
gas due a longer duration of combustion. HC emissions increased due the effacement mechanism of the flame, while NOx
emissions were reduced due to lower peak temperature with the addition of water. In MBT, there was an Exhaust Gas
Temperature (EGT) reduction due to the higher heat capacity of the load and also the heat of vaporization. Finally, there
was a reduction of the peak temperature associated with the reduction of pressure gradients demonstrates anti-knock
potential in addition of water, bringing other opportunities like higher compression ratios, and extension of the operating of
the turbocharger regime [8].

Mack et al. evaluated the wet ethanol utilization effects in a range from 0% to 60% in volumetric content of water mixtures.
The research object was an engine Volkswagen 1.9L, 4 cylinders, with compression ratio of 17:1, PFI injection running in
HCCI combustion mode. The air heating was made by an electrical pre heater with the aim to control the ignition start and
to evaporate completely the water-ethanol mixture before entry in the cylinder. To high charge dilution (60% of water), was
found some troubles as incomplete combustion and high temperature necessary to ignite the mixture. The total heat
release decreased with the water addition, in the same way that in cylinder peak pressure. The powers increase limit was
the air fuel mixtures heating [9]. In 2012, this work was extended with the aim to use energy recovery of exhaust gases to
pre-heat the inlet air by a heat exchanger. Running with only one cylinder, the turbo compressor utilization was
compromised. Thus, an electrical compressor was used to simulate the behavior of the turbo compressor. The water
percentages reached 20%, higher power were achieved when compared with the previous study by the use of rich air fuel
mixtures. Knock limit was controlled by the inlet air temperature, which have direct influence in the combustion start,
therefore was demonstrated that is possible use ethanol with 20% of hydration, what reduces the energy dispended in the
production process, decreasing the fuel final cost, improving energetic balance in ethanol lifecycle [10].
This research aim evaluates the wet ethanols utilization from 5% to 40% of water in volumetric content in a single cylinder
engine running in Otto cycle trough simulation and experimentally.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

The study was carried on an originally Diesel fuelled engine, modified to run with Otto cycle. Made for agriculture
applications, Agrale M90 engine has a swirl chamber diesel injection system, which was modified receive a spark plug
instead of the diesel injector. The modified engine characteristics are showed in the Table 1.The main modifications were
made in the cylinder head. Apart from the insertion of the spark plug, compression ratio was decreased using a spacer
between the cylinder head and the engine block. An electronic management system was installed to control injection and
spark timing. A Fueltech F400 control unit (ECU) was therefore employed.
Table 1 engine characteristics

Cylinders
Valves per Cylinder
Stroke
Piston Bore
Injection Type
Connecting Rod Length
Displacement
Compression ratio
Intake Pipe Inner Valve Seat Diameter
Exhaust Pipe Inner Valve Seat Diameter

1
2
105 mm
90 mm
PFI
160 mm
0.668 L
12:1
41 mm
35 mm

The injector was installed on the intake runner after the throttle body. The exhaust manifold was kept the same and a
wideband lambda sensor was installed in order to check the air/fuel ratio. A pressure sensor was installed inside the
combustion chamber making possible to evaluate the cycle pressure. The AVL GH14D pressure sensor together with an
AVL FLEXFEM signal conditioner was used for cylinder pressure and combustion analysis. Free escale Semiconductors
MPX4250AP were used to measure the pressure from the intake and exhaust manifold, coupled with to Manifold Absolute
pressure (MAP) and the temperatures were measured using K type thermo couples, which were installed on the intake
and exhaust runners, alongside the intake and exhaust ports. The location of the installed sensors and the new parts
required to run in Otto cycle are showed in figure 2.

Figure 2 Location of sensors and throttle body

To acquire crank-angle resolved pressure data, a variable reluctance sensor was used with a toothed wheel with 360
teeth. Both where linked to a data National Instruments NI-6259 data acquisition board which was also used for acquiring
intake and exhaust pressures as well as their respective temperatures. The data was then post-processed with a Matlab
routine. Fuel consumption was measured in a burette with a resolution of 0.2 milliliters. The engine operated with water-inethanol volume ranging from 5% to 40% with a maximum permissible deviation of 0.5%. Five tests were performed: 5%,
10%, 20%, 30% and 40% water content. An Aston hydrometer 4500M Paar DMA was used to characterize the ethanol-inwater mixture. The fuel was named ExxWxx where E stands for ethanol, W for water and the xx for the volumetric
percentages of ethanol and water. For instance, a fuel blend E90W10 contains 90% ethanol and 10% of water in it.
Experimental tests were carried at constant BMEP for various water-in-ethanol blends using an eddy current
dynamometer and a commercial load cell for torque measurement. Each test followed the sequence:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Engine warm-up using E95W05 (Brazilian gas station commercial ethanol);

Target BMEP was achieved at 1800 rpm;
Spark timing was advanced until MBT,(maximum brake torque) or knock limit;
Data acquisition was performed;
Fuel lines were drained to test a new fuel mixture.

HEAT RELEASE ANALYSIS

The AVL-BOOST software was used for heat release analysis, with its built-in Burn template. Using the in cylinder
pressure traces, the rate of heat release can be obtained. The algorithm is mainly based on the first law of
thermodynamics. Heat transfer to combustion chamber walls, the cylinder head, piston and cylinder liner is calculated by
equation 1. This calculation is only during the high pressure phase, i.e., when the two valves are closed, from IVC (inlet
valve closing) to EVO (exhaust valve opening) [11].

Qwi =A i w (T c T wi )

Where,

(1)

Qwi = Wall heat flow (cylinder head, piston, liner)

A i = Surface area (cylinder, piston, liner)
w = Heat transfer coefficient
T c = Gas temperature in the cylinder
T wi = Wall temperature (cylinder head, piston, liner)
The heat transfer model used to this analysis was the Woschni 1978 model, showed in equation 2 [12]
0.2

w =130D

0.8

pc T

C V T
C1Cm + 2 D c ,1 ( pc pc , 0 )
p c, 1V c ,1

0.53
c

0.8

(2)

Where,

C1 =2.28+0.308Cu / C m
C2 =0.0034 , for IDI engines

D= cylinder bore
Cm = mean piston speed

Cu = circumferential velocity
VD = displacement per cylinder

pc ,0 = cylinder pressure of the motored engine (bar)

T c, 1 = temperature in the cylinder at the intake valve closing (IVC)
pc ,1 = pressure in the cylinder at IVC (bar)

1-d model

The input parameters for the computational model were taken from the engine and experimental results. To calculate heat
release for each test point, the following parameters are required (table 2). All values were obtained experimentally for
each fuel mixture.
Table 2 operation point required parameters

Parameters
Engine speed
BMEP
Start of high pressure
End of high pressure
Air mass flow
Trapping efficiency air
Residual gas contents
Piston wall temperature
Head wall temperature
Liner temperature (Piston at TDC)
Liner temperature (Piston at BDC)
The logical representation of the AVL Boost model used to perform the simulation and heat release analysis is shown in
figure 3, where it can be seen the inlet and exhaust boundaries, intake and exhaust runners and manifolds, injectors and
the cylinder.

Since the use of fuel compounds and blends is difficult to implement directly within the AVL Boosts Burn tool, pure ethanol
was used and its LHV was corrected according to the amount of water and its latent heat of vaporization, which, in other
words, reduces the actual LHV of the fuel blend.

.
Figure 3 Avl boost model

results
This section shows the results obtained for MBT and knock-limited spark timing. The values are averaged over 40
cycles. The spark timing advance was limited by knock occurrence when running with 5% of water, being at MBT in all
other percentages. Table 2 shows the experimental test points, with their respective engine speed, and ignition timing
advance. BMEP (brake mean effective pressure) is shown in Figure 2.

Table 1: engines operations point

MBT

Fuel

Mean
Velocity
(RPM)

mean

Ignitio
n
advanc
e
(CA
BTDC)

E95W5
E90W1
0
E80W2
0
E70W3
0
E60W4
0

1776

1,08

6,5

1806

1,11

1801

1,08

11

1822

1,08

16,25

1824

1,11

20,25

The BMEP (brake mean effective pressure) calculated from the torque values is shown in figure 1. The deviations around
the target BMEP, due to the manual dynamometer control, are sufficiently still enable a good evaluation.

Figure 4 BMEP versus water percentage

Figure 3 shows the water influence in the mass fraction burned. For higher water volumetric content, combustion takes
longer and is degraded mainly in its initial phase. This delay happens due to the chemical characteristics of the flow field
around the spark plug in the moment of the spark. With higher charge dilution the reactivity of the mixture is compromised
due to fuel-air dilution with water. The distinctive MFB curves, which depart from the common S shaped behavior, are
due to the swirl chamber in the cylinder head, which cause very high combustion rates in the main part of combustion,
when the flame front is still inside the swirl-chamber. When leaving the pre-chamber, the flame front finds a great volume
of fresh charge requiring higher energy supply to support the combustion reactions. Combustion is then slowed down to a
lower burn rate.

Mass fraction burned

Mass Burned Fraction (-)

0.8

E95W5 (-)
E60W40 (-)
E70W30 (-)
E80W20 (-)
E90W10 (-)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
-20

2.5

25

47.5

70

CRANKANGLE (deg)

Figure 5 Mass fraction burned

Also, as some fuel mixture enters the cylinder in the liquid state, liquid charge fraction uses part of the energy released by
the combustion to evaporate. Higher water content in the fuel mixture increases its specific heat causing lower in-cylinder
temperatures and leaving less chance for knocking combustion. Hence, the use of higher compression ratios and higher
spark timing advance are possible. As corroborated by the literature [6,14], water enhances the anti-knock characteristic
of the mixture, working as a naturally occurring and effective anti-knock additive.

Burned zone temperature

2800

Temperature Burned (K)

2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600

E95W5 (K)
E90W10 (K)
E80W20 (K)
E70W30 (K)
E60W40 (K)

1400
1200
1000
800
-40

-15

10

35

60

CRANKANGLE (deg)
Figure 6: In-cylinder temperature

The increased water percentage also has an effect in reducing exhaust temperatures, as shown in figure 7. This is due to
the higher heat capacity of the fuel blend with increased water content. This fact could be a potential durability advantage
should an engine with variable geometry turbocharger be considered. On the other hand, it might be more difficult to
match a turbine for such low exhaust gas temperatures.

Layer_1

820

Exhaust temperature (-)

Temperature (K)

815

810

805

800

795

790
5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

H20 (%)
Figure 7 Exhaust temperature

The spark advance has high influence in the in-cylinder pressure and the rate of pressure rise. Increasing the spark
advance from TDC to a point near MBT forces combustion to take place in a reduced volume and more energy is released
around TDC, leading to increased maximum cylinder pressure and rate of pressure rise.

In cylinder pressure

55

Exp.E95W5 (bar)
E95W5 (bar)
E60W40 (bar)
Exp. E60W40 (bar)

50
45

Pressure (bar)

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
-35

-10

15

40

65

CRANKANGLE (deg)

Figure 8: In-cylinder pressure

Figure 6 shows the experimental and simulated brake efficiency. As already mentioned, the increased water content slows
down combustion by decreasing the laminar burning velocity of the blend, a fact that does not contribute directly to a
higher efficiency. However, this enables optimum spark timing to be used. Hence, from 30% of water onwards,
combustion degradation becomes too significant and the engine starts to loose efficiency.

Layer_1

0.35

BEFFexp (-)
BEFFsim (-)

Brake efficiency (-)

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15
5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

H2O (%)
Figure 9: Brake efficiency

Water addition increases combustion duration from 0% to 100% fuel mass fraction burned, as shown in figure 9.

Layer_1

Combustion Duration (deg)

80

78

76

74

Combustion Duration

72

70

68
0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

H2O (%)

Figure 10: Total combustion duration

Furthermore, higher fuel dilution by water increases the combustion delay during its initial phase. Thus, for higher water
percentages, the time needed to burn from 0% to 10% also increases, as it can be seen in table 3.
Table 3 combustion duration

0-10% duration(deg)
10-90% duration (deg)

Conclusion

E95W5
2.2
27.41

E90W10
2.97
34.33

E80W20
3.13
39.77

E70W30
3.5
47.1

E60W40
7.1
54.4

This paper reports a preliminary assessment of the influence of water in combustion performance of hydrous ethanol with
high water percentages. It was investigated the combustion of several water-in-ethanol fuel blends on a swilr-chamber
spark-ignited engine Testes where performed in a dynamometer and combustion was post-processed and analyzed with
the 1-D simulation software AVL Boost. The following conclusions could be drawn:
Stable engine operation was possible until 40% of water-in-ethanol volumetric content;
Increased anti-knock characteristic allowed optimum spark timing;
Combustion duration increases for blends with higher water percentages due the reduction in laminar burning
velocities;
Reduced exhaust temperature may improve the use of VGT turbochargers.
Reduction in charge temperature due to higher water content enables the possibility of some aggressive downsizing
techniques such as higher compression ratios and higher turbo-boost pressures as well as some exhaust heat
recovery technologies (i.e. Rankine cycle, etc).

It can be stated that wet ethanol is an effective alternative to current fossil fuels and can help to save GHG (greenhouse
gases) emissions. By saving energy in the distillation process the energetic balance is improved and the final cost of the
fuel is reduced.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Federal University of Santa Maria, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, and CAPES
(Coordenao de Aperfeioamento de Pessoal de Nvel Superior) for financial support and AVL for providing the software
used in this research.

References
1. Portal Brasil accessed in May 20, 2013 http://www.brasil.gov.br/linhadotempo/epocas/1975/pro-alcool
2. Martinelli,L. A., Filoso S.,"Expansion Of Sugarcane Ethanol Production In Brazil: Environmental and Social
Challanges". Ecological Applications. Vol 18, No4. 2008
3. El-Emam, S. H., and A. A. Desoky. "A study on the combustion of alternative fuels in spark-ignition engines."
International journal of hydrogen energy 10.7 (1985): 497-504.
4. MacLean, H. L.; Lave, L. B. Evaluating automobile fuel/propulsion system technologies. Progress in Energy and
Combustion Science. v. 29, pp. 1-69, 2003.
5. Tsao, K. C.; Wang, C. L. Performance of Gasoline-Water in a modified SI Engine. SAE Paper 841399, 1984.
6. Christensen, M.; Johansson, B. Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition with Water Injection. SAE Paper
1999-01-0182, 1999.
7. Beyerlein, S.; McIlroy, D.;Blackkketter, D.; Steciak, J.; Clarke, E.; Morton, A. Homogeneous Charge Combustion
of Aqueous Ethanol.Peport N01-09, U.S. Department of Transportation, 2001
8. Brewster, S.; Railton, D.; Maisey, M.;Frew, R. The effect of E100 water content on high load performance of a
spray guide direct injection boosted engine.SAE Paper 2007-01-2648, 2007.
9. Mack., J.H., Aceves, M.S. and Dibble, R.W., 2009. Demonstrating direct use of wet ethanol in a homogeneous
charge compression ignition (HCCI) engine. Energy, vol 43, pp. 782,787
10. Saxena, S.; Schneider, S. Aceves, S. Dibble, R. Wet ethanol in HCCI engines with exhaust heat recovery to
improve the energy balance of ethanol fuels. Applied Energy, v. 98, pp. 448-457, 2012.
11. AVL Boost Theory, edition 07,2011
12. Woschni, G., A Universally Applicable Equation for the Instantaneous Heat Transfer Coefficient in Internal
Combustion Engines, SAE 6700931
13. Heywood J.B. Internal combustion engine fundamentals. 1st ed. McGraw-Hill, Nova York, 1988.
14. Harrington, J. A. Water Addition to Gasoline - Effect on Combustion, Emissions, Performance, and Knock. SAE
Paper 820314.

CONTACT
Mario Martins, PhD - Senior Lecturer
Federal University of Santa Maria
Mechanical Engineering Department
E-mail: mario@mecanica.ufsm.br
Tel. + 55 55 9622 2373 / + 55 55 3220 8251 Ext. 21
Avenida Roraima, n1000 - Cidade Universitria - Camobi
CEP: 97105-900
Santa Maria RS - Brazil