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BUILDING MATERIALS I
EARTH AS BUILDING MATERIAL

EARTH
FACTS TO KNOW:
1/3RD OF THE WORLD POPULATION LIVES IN EARTHERN HOUSES
IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: MORE THAN 50% LIVE IN EARTHERN HOUSES
AS INDUSTRIAL BM & CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES CANT SATISFY THE DEMAND
LACK OF PRODUCTIVE CAPACITY OR FINANCIAL RESOURCES WHILE EARTH IS
AVAILABLE IN MOST REGIONS OF THE WORLD, USUALLY FREE OF COST
EARTH CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES HAVE BEEN KNOWN AND USED FOR OVER 9000
YEARS.
Eg: Russian Turkestan Adobe houses dating 8000 to 6000 BC have been discovered
Egypt Earth vaults in Temple of Rameses II built 3200 years ago
Iran Citadel of Bam ca. 2500 years ago
China Great Wall built of rammed earth 4000 years ago
Mexico Sun pyramid built btw 300 and 900 AD
Germany Wattle and daub was used in the bronze age. Oldest inhabited house using
rammed earth dating 1795
Central America and South America Adobe houses
Africa most ancient churches

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AREAS AROUND THE WORLD WHERE EARTH IS BEING USED AS A BUILDING MATERIAL

EARTH
ADVANTAGES of using earth/ soil/ mud/ loam as BM
1. BALANCED INDOOR CLIMATE:
BALANCES AIR HUMIDITY- by absorbing humidity faster & to a greater extent
- maintains constant RH
STORES HEAT Absorbs and stores heat thereby balancing the temperature in
climatic zones of high diurnal temperature differences
2. SAVES ENERGY
The preparation, transport and handling loam on site requires only about 1% of
that required by baked bricks and RCC
3. REDUCES ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Virtually zero environmental pollution
4. REUSABLE
Unbaked loam can be recycled an indefinite no. of times and over an extremely
long period. Never turns to a waste material that harms the environment.

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EARTH
ADVANTAGES of using earth/ soil/ mud/ loam as BM
5. SAVES MATERIAL AND TRANSPORTATION COSTS
Use of excavated soil means greatly reduced costs. Even if obtained from other
construction sites, it is still cheaper than industrial materials
6. IDEAL FOR DO- IT- YOURSELF
Needs only simple, inexpensive tools and can be executed by non- professionals
7. PRESERVES TIMBER AND OTHER ORGANIC MATERIALS
Conserves timber elements like wooden frames, trusses etc by absorbing excess
humidity, and making it less susceptible to damage by fungi and insects
8. ABSORBS POLLUTANTS:
Can absorb pollutants dissolved in water. Also believed to clean polluted indoor air.

EARTH
DISADVANTAGES of using earth/ soil/ mud/ loam as BM
1. NOT A STANDARDISED BUILDING MATERIAL:

The composition of loam will differ from site to site, therefore its
characteristics will vary.
2.

SHRINKAGE ON DRYING:
Shrinkage of water used in the preparation of the mixture causes
shrinkage cracks. Linear shrinkage ration in wet mixture (mortar & mud
bricks) 3-12%, Drier mixture (comp.d bricks & rammed earth) 0.4 2%

3.

NOT WATER- RESISTANT:

Must be sheltered against rain/ frost, especially in wet state roof
overhangs, plinth protection etc. needed

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EARTH
PROPERTIES OF EARTH AS A BUILDING MATERIAL
LOAM: A product of erosions of rock in the earths crust, under the influence of a
range of physical, chemical and biological processes such as mechanical grinding of
rock via the movement of water, wind, glaciers, thermal expansion and contraction
of rock, acidic reaction of plant material and other chemical reactions.
Therefore the composition and properties of loam depend and vary with location.
GENERAL COMPOSITION OF LOAM:
CLAY + SILT+ SAND + LARGER AGGREGATES LIKE GRAVEL AND STONE
CLAY Binder material for the larger particles (like cement in concrete)
SILT + SAND + AGGREGATES Filler materials
Types of Loam specified based on dominant components:
CLAYEY LOAM or SILTY LOAM or SANDY LOAM
OTHER CONSTITUENTS: Organic material (greater when dug up within 40cms depth)
and Water

USABILITY OF DIFFERENT SOILS

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FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES
Soils are composed of solid components, water and air. Soils are characterized by 4 fundamental
properties:
Granularity or texture
It corresponds to the grain size distribution of a soil. It is a percentage by weight of the different grain
sizes.
The grain size classification adopted by a large number of laboratories is based on the ASTM-AFNOR
standards:
Pebbles
Gravel
Sand
Silt
Clay
200 to 20 mm
20 to 2 mm
2 to 0.06 mm
0.06 to 0.002 mm
0.002 to 0 mm
(For building with earth, pebbles should normally be removed.)
Compressibility
It is the ability of a soil to be compressed to the maximum. It is related to the energy of compaction.
The Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) defines the compressibility.
The OMC is a percentage by weight of water to achieve the highest compression of a soil.
Plasticity
This property of a soil refers to its possibility to be submitted to deformation without elastic failure. It
defines its ability to be moulded.
Cohesion
It defines the capacity of soil grains to remain together. This property is strongly linked with the
plasticity.
STRUCTURE OF A SOIL
It is how the grains are assembled:
- Granular structure, Fragmented structure, Continuous structure
= A lot of voids (i.e. gravel)
= Discontinuous (i.e. gravel and clay only)
= The best = proportion of the best soil

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EARTH
TESTS
USED TO ANALYSE LOAM COMPOSITION AND THEREFORE THE SUITABILITY OF LOAM
FOR A SPECIFIC APPLICATION
SIEVING AND SEDIMENTATION ANALYSIS
Proportion of coarse aggregates (sand, gravel and stones) may be distinguished by
sieving. Proportion of fine aggregates can be ascertained by sedimentation.
WATER CONTENT
Weighing the sample and then heating it in an over to 105deg. C. If the weights
stays constant mixture is dry, or difference in wt. gives the weight of water that is
not chemically bond. Water content is given as a percentage of weight of dry
mixture.

EARTH
TESTS
SIMPLE FIELD TESTS
Can be performed on site relatively quickly, and usually exact enough to ascertain if
the mixture is acceptable for a specific application.
SMELL TEST
Pure loam is odourless. Will acquire a musty smell if it deteriorating humus or
organic matter.
NIBBLE TEST
A pinch of soil is lightly nibbled.
Sandy soil - a disagreeable sensation
Silty soil - less objectionable sensation
Clayey soil - a sticky, smooth or floury sensation

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EARTH
TESTS
SIMPLE FIELD TESTS
WASH TEST
When humid soil is rubbed between hands,
If grains can be distinctly felt sandy or gravelly soil
If sticky, but hands can be rubbed clean when dry silty soil
If sticky, but water is needed to clean hands clayey soil
CUTTING TEST
Humid sample of earth is formed into a ball and cut with a knife.
If cut surface is shiny high clay content
If dull high silt content

EARTH
TESTS
SIMPLE FIELD TESTS
SEDIMENTATION TEST
The mixture is stirred with a lot of water in a glass jar.
The largest particles settle down, with the finest on top.
The proportion of constituents may be estimated.
BALL DROPPING TEST
The mixture has to be just wet enough to for a 4cm dia ball.
The ball is dropped from a ht of 1.5m onto a flat surface
If the ball only flattens slightly and shows few or no cracks high clay content
which means the mixture must be thinned by adding sand
If it completely disintegrates, then insufficient binding - very low clay content
which means it is unfit as building material
If it disintegrates partially, its composition is fit for mud bricks and rammed earth.

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EARTH
TESTS
SIMPLE FIELD TESTS
SEDIMENTATION TEST
The mixture is stirred with a lot of water in a glass jar.
The largest particles settle down, with the finest on top.
The proportion of constituents may be estimated.
BALL DROPPING TEST
The mixture has to be just wet enough to for a 4cm dia ball.
The ball is dropped from a ht of 1.5m onto a flat surface
If the ball only flattens slightly and shows few or no cracks high clay content
which means the mixture must be thinned by adding sand
If it completely disintegrates, then insufficient binding - very low clay content
which means it is unfit as building material
If it disintegrates partially, its composition is fit for mud bricks and rammed earth.

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STABILISERS - CEMENT
Modern, contemporary stabilizer
Effective
Expensive
High energy of production
Availability matters
Effective
3-12% of cement may be added to very sandy or very clayey soils, average 5%

STABILISERS LIME
Traditional material
Effective
Can be produced anywhere
Cheap
2-6% may be added to to very sandy or very clayey soils, average 3%
Slaked lime is easy on hands and feet, but unslaked lime is equally effective
IF NOT FOR STRENGTH & STABILITY, LIME/ CEMENT MAY BE ADDED TO PREVENT
DAMP ABSORPTION
2% LIME + 1% CEMENT MAY ALSO BE ADDED TO IMPROVE SETTING TIME

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12 MAIN
TECHNIQUES OF
USING EARTH FOR
CONSTRUCTION
RELAED TO ITS 4
HYDROUS STATES

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HOW TO REDUCE SHRINKAGE???

Different materials are used as stabilisers, depending on what the purpose of the loam
is going to be. For eg. Addition of certain stabilisers will reduce the shrinkage
cracks but decrease the compressive strength of the loam.
THINNING MEDIUM SAND & AGGREGATE
Coarse sand and aggregate reduce the relative clay content of the loam and bring
down shrinkage ratio
FIBRES
Fibre from coconut, bamboo, pine needles, cut straw etc. may be used to reduce
shrinkage ratio, by (a) reducing clay content, (b) absorbing certain amount of
moisture within the pores, (c) by improving the binding force of the mixture
STRUCTURAL MEASURES
To slow the drying process by (a) turning the bricks upright while drying (b) protecting
them from direct sunlight and wind
To design shrinkage joints within close intervals to prevent uncontrolled shrinkage

STABILISERS
STABILISATION AGAINST WATER EROSION
When an earth wall is sheltered (a) against driving rain by overhangs or shingles (b)
against rising humidity by a horizontal damp- proof course, no stabilisers need be
added. Else, for unprotected mud walls, stabilisers have to be added.
CEMENT
Acts as a good stabiliser when clay content is less. The amount of cement needed
increases with increasing clay content. However, cement interferes with binding
force of clay, and thereby reduces the compressive strength of the cementstabilized soil. Moreover, cement- stabilized blocks have to be cured for a min. of 7
days, under moist conditions, and takes 28 days to achieve max water resistance.
LIME
Under sufficient humidity, exchange of ions take place btw the calcium ions of lime
and the metallic ions of clay resulting in stronger agglomeration of fine particles,
that hinder water penetration. Further lime reacts with CO2 in air to form
limestone.

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PREPARATION OF LOAM
Preparation will depend on the kind of clay at hand, and the expected application
For eg: Moist rumbled earth with less clay and more sand content may be used to
build a rammed earth wall right away.
Clods of earth with high clay content must be crushed or dissolved in water,
then thinned with sand
SOAKING, CRUSHING & MIXING
Loam- clods are placed in large flat containers 15 25cm high and soaked in water for
2-4 days till it softens. It is then mixed with hands/ feet/ machines together with
aggregates like sand and gravel or stabilizers like chaff, straw etc.
SIEVING
Removing large particles using a sieve

PREPARATION OF LOAM
MECHANICAL SLURRYING
Enriching sandy clay with a slurry of clayey soil by soaking in water for days and then
using a rake.
WATER CURING
Allowing the loam mixture to stand for 12 to 48 hours to enhance the binding force by
electrochemical attraction btw clay minerals
THINNING
Addition of sand and coarse aggregate to loam to improve the compressive strength.
The aggregate must be wet before adding to rich loam. Thinning may also be done
by adding cowdung, straw, husk and sawdust.

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RAMMED EARTHWORKS: The technique of pouring moist earth into a

formwork in layers of up to 15cm thick, and then compacted by ramming. The
formwork consists of two parallel walls separated by interconnected spacers.
In comparison to wet earth techniques, shrinkage ratio is much lower
In comparison to masonry techniques, like adobe, this is stronger since it is monolithic
SOIL: The most appropriate soil for rammed earth construction contains: 50 to 75 %
fine gravel and sand; 15 to 30 % silt (pulverized sand) and 10 to 20 % clay (cohesive
particles)
FORMWORM Length 150 - 300 cm, height 50 - 100 cm. Wall thickness: 30 45cm
-

Boards must be stiff, and not bend during ramming (stronger than for concreting)
19mm thk commonly used, with vertical stiffening at 75cm intervals, 30- 45mm thkness requires
stiffening at 100-150mm intervals

Parts must be light enough to be carried by 2 workers

Must be easy to adjust in both horizontal and vertical directions
Variations in thickness of wall must be controllable within specified tolerance
It is preferable that no special formwork be needed for corners so formwork
should allow varying lengths of wall to be cast
The surface of the formwork should neither be too rough nor too smooth

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RAMMED EARTHWORKS
TOOLS
MANUAL RAMS: Metal or wooden roads, with metal or wooden striking head. Heavier
rams are more effective but tiresome as well.
1. CONICAL OR WEDGE- SHAPED RAMS The different layers are better mixed, and a
better bond is obtained in the presence of sufficient moisture
2. FLAT BASED RAMS The wall shows less lateral shear resistance, and can take vertical
loading better
PNEUMATIC RAMS:
Are used primarily in larger building projects bcos of its high costs, infrastructure and
energy requirements.
An electric vibrating plate/ ram is now available that has a specially shaped base that allows
the apparatus to move within the formwork by itself while compacting earth.
Points to remember:
Base should not be too sharp so it doesnt damage the formwork
Base should be of area between 60sqm to 200 sqm
Weight of ram 5 to 9kg
Preferable to use a double headed ram with a round head (for general work) one side and
square one (for the corners) on the other.

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RAMMED EARTHWORKS
OPENINGS IN RAMMED EARTH
Formwork may be removed soon after ramming is complete. The wall though can be
easily scraped, cut or scooped at the time. Normally insets are left in the formwork
to create openings. But even otherwise, openings can be cut effortlessly.
Openings may be well planned so that their sides correspond to the ends of formwork
sections, their height is in line with the top of the last layer, and the ring beam
substitutes the lintel.
It is also possible to insert the window and door frames within the formwork and attach
anchors, so that the frames are rigidly fixed to the wall. Small openings can also be
easily cut into the finished wall by means of a pise saw (a length of barbed wire with
handles at each end) used by two men.
FOUNDATION
Built of stone/ burnt brick/ concrete with a base course (at least 30 cm above ground
level and exactly as wide as the earth wall) are required to start with. The top
surface must be horizontal (requiring steps on sloping sites) and should never
project beyond the external face of the Earth wall. A damp proof course between
the footing and wall is recommended in moist environments to prevent moisture
from rising through capillary action.

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RAMMED EARTHWORKS
CONSTRUCTION
The formwork must overlap the wall below by a min of 10cm.
Soil must b filled in the formwork in layers of 10cm
Work should always begin at the corner
Care must be taken to stagger the joints between each row (just as in masonry work)
and wall junctions should be made to interlock connecting walls. Wall anchors and
reinforcements (eg at corners) made of metal scrips or rods, strong twigs, split
bamboo or rope, can be placed in these junctions and building corners during
compaction.
LOST FORMWORK
To reduce the cost of formwork, sometimes a thin masonry wall or a an insulation
material like a wooden board may be used as lost formwork.

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COB: Suitable method for curved walls

METHOD:
A stiff lump of earth is roughly moulded into an elongated egg of size 12-18inches X
6inches and laid out in rows, layer upon layer.

When three or four courses have been laid, one above the other, the sides are
smoothed over so that the holes and cracks disappear.

A sharp knife- like instrument or trowel may be used for obtaining a smooth surface.

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COB: Suitable method for curved walls

After every 2-3 layers the wall is allowed to set and harden.
OPENINGS:
Temporary vertical planks or shuttering, or even kerosene tines may be used in place
of shuttering.

ADOBE OR SUN- DRIED BRICKS

Blocks of earth produced manually by throwing
wet earth into a formwork are called adobes
or mud bricks or sun- dried earth blocks.
Adobes are made either by filling moulds with a
pasty loam mixture or by throwing moist
lumps of earth into them.
Sandy loam is mixed with water, and cut straw is
usually added and the whole formed into a
paste that is thrown into wooden moulds.
One person can produce 300- 500 blocks per day
(including preparation of mix, transportation
and stacking.)

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COMPRESSED BRICKS
Moist earth compacted in a manual or
powered press are called compressed
bricks or pressed earth blocks.
These Machine Compressed blocks are very
strong and those using a small amount of
stabilizer are usually as strong as the local
country made burnt bricks.
The same precautions of slow drying, and
protection from moisture apply to
compressed blocks also.
They have a very smooth neat surface.
It is a first class wall building material and can
be used for load bearing walls, three
storeys high.

CURING MUD BLOCKS

All forms of mud work are less prone to cracking if
dried slowly, in the shade and not in strong sun.
After mud blocks are made they should be stacked so
that air circulates around the blocks and so that they
will not be disturbed or damaged preferably close to
where the building will be constructed.
First cover them with wet sacks or leaves or straw.
After one or two weeks remove these wet coverings
and let the blocks dry out in the shade of a tree or
some temporary shelter. Here they should remain for
another two or three weeks. After a total of 5 or 6
weeks the shade can be removed for the sun to
complete the drying out process.
Some mud workers do not wait for more than a week
before building their walls with the block. There is no
harm in doing this, but the blocks are likely to break
from handling and carrying if they are still wet.

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WATTLE AND DAUB

Mud as a plaster to cover thin panels of
cane, split bamboo or other stalks
that are woven together and held
in place by wooden or bamboo
posts and beams.
Popularly used in all tropical, subtropical and moderate climates of
the world for a thousand years. In
India, it is very common in areas
like Assam and the North Eastern
States, parts of West Bengal, the
Andaman Islands, that is, where
bamboo and cane grow freely and
plentifully.

WATTLE AND DAUB

Usually the frame structure supports the roof. Sometimes when rainfall excessive of
cyclonic winds dash driving rain against the walls, however, wide the roof
overhang is, ordinary solid mud structures collapse and the mud from Wattle and
Daub structures gets washed off. However, the structure itself and the mesh of
cane or split bamboo remains intact and after the heavy rain is over the mud is
plastered on again.
Suitable for seismic zones - The same sort of rectifiable damage also occurs when
there are earth tremors. Even the framework of wooden posts sometimes is
thrown out of vertical but does not collapse and can usually be pushed and pulled
back into proper shape.

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MORTARS
Use the same soil that was used for the blocks.
Avoid too much clay as this produces shrinkage cracks.
Sieve the soil when dry so that gravel and pebbles are all removed for a smooth mortar.
If stabilisers such as lime or cement were used in the making of the blocks, it is also
required in the mortar. In fact twice as much stabilizer must be used in the mortar. So,
for example, if you have used a 5% cement stabilizer for the blocks use 10% cement for
the mortar (i.e. 1:10 mix).

PLASTER
The finish of adobe, and cob walls is often a bit rough and
the need for plaster is felt.
The mortar between the blocks should be left rough to act as
a key to hold the plaster, which may be of mud, or mud and
any stabilizer such as cow dung, lime or cement etc.
Pressed earth blocks are usually very smooth and it is
difficult to apply plaster to them. It is better to apply two or
three coats of whitewash, or thin slurry of sieved earth with
lime or cement mixed in it.
Colouring matter may of course be added if required.
Where there is driving rain against the bottom of mud walls
causing erosion and if plaster will not stick to the smooth
pressed blocks, a strip of chicken wire may be nailed or
stapled to the bottom of the wall and then the plaster will be
held by the wire and not crack or peel off. This need only be
done on the walls facing the driving rain, not all the way
round the building.

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TERMITES
Mud seems to be the natural home of termites so in areas
where they are common the same precautions have to be
taken as in all buildings to prevent their moving up into
the walls and eating wooden frames etc.
1. A one-inch thick layer of mortar (one part of cement to
3-parts of sand) can be laid all over the top of the
basement wall before building the mud walls above it. This
is helpful in keeping out both termites and damp.
2. Even better is to construct an apron of burnt brick or
stone (or it can be rammed earth) all round the building
(to prevent damage to the walls by splashing, of rain
water) and this too can be plastered over with a rich
cement mortar.
3. Any thin sheet metal may be laid over the basement
wall with a 3-inch downward projection before starting to
build the superstructure mud wall above. This is expensive
but very effective.
4. There are various chemicals on the market, which can
be used.

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