EnStorage Scaps

Energy Storage by Means of Supercapacitors:
Components, Power Electronics Interfaces

and Applications
Dr. P. Barrade
Laboratoire dElectronique Industrielle
EPFL - STI ISE - LEI
ELD 136, Station 11
Ch-1015 Lausanne / Switzerland
Phone : +41 (0)21 693 2651
Fax : +41 (0)21 693 2600
Philippe.Barrade@epfl.ch
Seminar on Supercapacitors
Dr. P. Barrade
Summary
Generalities on Supercapacitors
Principle, technology and construction
Electric-based model
Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Energy requirements, Power availability
Thermal considerations
Limitations
Power electronics converters
Applications for supercapacitors
Voltage equalization, Power electronics interfaces
energy storage/energy buffer

elevators
hybrid vehicle
tramways/trolley-buses
UPS applications
Aeronautic application
Conclusion
Dr. P. Barrade
Energy storage devices
Capacitors
Dielectric (Film-Foil, Metallized film)
Oxide electrolytic (Al, ta)
Electrostatic
Electrostatic
Electrochemical capacitor
Pseudocapacitor
Double layer capacitor (ECDL)
Faradaic
Electrostatic
Battery
Pb
NiCa
NiMH
Li+
Faradaic
Fuel cell
H2, Methanol (reforming)
Flywheel
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
Energy conversion
Mechanical
Magnetic
Dr. P. Barrade
Ragone diagram : Energy Density versus Power Density
Courtesy from Montena Component SA
Dr. P. Barrade
Energy density
Dr. P. Barrade
Principle, Technology and Construction
Conventional capacitor
ELCD capacitor
Electrolyte
Dielectric
C = r A/d
W = 1/2 CU2
Electrodes
Current Collectors
A:
D:
er:
U:
R:
up to 3000 m2 (porous film)

fix, ~10
fix, ~10
1 - 3 V, electrolyte decomposition voltage
low, electrolyte
1-3V
+ + + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + -
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Separator
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + + + -
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
discharged
charged
2 - 10
Dr. P. Barrade
Materials :
Electrolyte :
Acqueous : high ionic conductance, high power density (1V, 1.2S*cm) KOH, H2SO4
Organic : high voltage, high energy density (2.5-3V, 50mS*cm) (Ex : 40mS*cm)
Electrode
Carbon: activated carbon
Separator
Organic: polymer (ex : 25m microporous polyolefin), paper
Inorganic: glas fibers, ceramics
Current collector
Metal foil (Al, Ti, Fe)
Dr. P. Barrade
Construction
Dr. P. Barrade
Main properties
Life time : ageing mechanisms
Type of aging
Electrical solicitations
Environmental (temperature, corrosive atmosphere)
Mechanical (vibrations, shocks)
Electrical aging mechanisms

Ionic saturation of electrode surface
Increased contact resistance in the electrodes
Water diffusion
Impurities redox reaction
Electrolyte decomposition
Life time : long life time thanks to

Reversible physical electrostatic charging cycles
No chemical redox reactions unlike batteries
Low voltage solicitation
Dr. P. Barrade
Main properties
Cell behaviour under crushing conditions:
Strong resistance for axial crushing
Weak resistance for transverse crushing
Temperature / fire
Opening of cells in 6 min (600C without fire)
Opening of cells in 4 min in case of direct fire exposure
Flammable gaz emission in case of opening celle if T>500C
gaz emission in case of opening (HCn)

90 cells 3000F / for a 2m3 closed volume: risk of death
Dr. P. Barrade
Supercapacitors today:
Maximum voltage : 2.7V
1 Million charge/discharge cycles
~0.01Euro/F
From few farads to few thousand farads
From the single component to the modules
Courtesy from Maxwell Technologies SA
Dr. P. Barrade
Modelling supercapacitors :
The main parameters of a supercapacitor (from the power electronicians point
of view) :
The energy that can be stored :
Capacitance : from 1F to 3000F (and more !)
Maximum voltage : typically 2.5V -> 2.7V (and more ?)
The energy efficiency :

Series resistor : limitation of the charging/discharging current
The self discharge

Leakage resistor : self discharging of the component
The classical model for a capacitor contains

an ideal capacitor
a series resistor
a leakage resistor
Dr. P. Barrade
The main parameters of a supercapacitor :
an ideal capacitor
Defined by the surface of electrodes, width on ions
a series resistor
Defined by the quality of carbon deposition on the aluminium current collectors
Defined by the electrical conductivity of the carbon
Defined by the ionic mobility of the electrolyte
a leakage resistor
Overcharge beyond the decomposition limit of the electrolyte
Impurities redox reaction
Redox reaction of functional groups on the edge of carbon particles
Electronic conductance through the separator
Dr. P. Barrade
Capacitance and series resistance (ESR)
Example of the BCAP0010 (Montena Component SA)
Dr. P. Barrade
Additional parameters (specificity of supercapacitors)
Non-constant capacitance and relaxation phenomena
Voltage dependant capacitance
Relaxation phenomena are not leakage
Dr. P. Barrade
Voltage dependant capacitance (due to the width of the double layer)
C = Co + Ku
!
Cu
How to consider?
Current capacitance
Q = Cu i c =
Ci
Energetic capacitance
dQ
du
i c = Co + 2Ku
dt
!#"#$ dt
P = i c u = Co + Ku u
du
1"
4 %
W c = $ Co + Ku ' u 2
dt
2#
3
!#"#$&
Cw
Dr. P. Barrade
Voltage dependant capacitance. Example of the BCAP0008 (Montena
Component SA) : C=1800F, Co=1800F and K=150F/V, U=2.5V
C
1800F
5625J
Co+K*u
2175F
6796J
+20.8%
Ci
2550F
7968J
+41.6%
Cv
2300F
7187J
+27.7%
Really difficult to identify clearly the energy stored in a cell, depending on

definitions
Only real possibility: measures!
Dr. P. Barrade
Relaxation phenomena
Due to porosity of electrodes (misopores, mesopores, macropores)
During a fast charge (discharge), ions will first enter (leave) into macropores,
then in mesopores
Diffusion of ions in misopores is characterized by long constant times
During ageing process, relaxation phenomena is re-inforced by impurities
affecting the dimension of the pores
After a fast charge (discharge), non homogeneous repartition of loads on the
electrodes
Diffusion of the loads to reach a homogenous distribution (depends on size of
the pores and size of the ions)
Voltage decrease (after charge)
Voltage increase (after discharge)
Dr. P. Barrade
Voltage dependent capacitance Cu (width variation of the double layers)

rc sub-circuits (relaxation phenomena, poreousity of electrodes)
Dr. P. Barrade
The energy stored in one single component is generally not sufficient
For a given application, it must be found :

the number of needed supercapacitors
for that number, it must be defined the arrangement for the supercapacitors :
how many supercapacitors will be series connected in an elementary branch
the number of elementary branches
The two last parameters define the maximum voltage and current that a
supercapacitors tank can provide
10
Dr. P. Barrade

To identify the number of supercapacitors, energy requirements have to be known.
In various applications, energy requirements are not defined.
Power requirements are often described : this is the instantaneous power that the
supercapacitors bank has to store/provide.
Energy requirements have to be identified thanks to the instantaneous
power requirements
The needed energy can be obtained thanks to the link equation between the
energy Wc and the power Pc :
Wc =
Pc dt
Dr. P. Barrade

Identifying the needed energy :
example
For a given power profile,

it is easy to identify by
numerical calculation the
associated energy profile.
The value of energy that

must be retained is not the
value at the end of a
complete cycle, but the
maximum value reached
during the cycle (220kJ in
the example).
11
Dr. P. Barrade
External behaviour and environment

Sizing of a supercapacitors bank
From the needed energy to the number of supercapacitors :
the total amount of energy in a supercapacitor is defined by the equation :
Wc =
1
CUc 2
2
To use to total stored energy :

the voltage across the component should be decreased from its maximum allowed
value UM to 0V. But that is not possible :
Because of the maximum current a supercapacitor can provide
During a discharge with a constant current, the power follows the voltage profile
It is not possible to use the total amount of energy stored into a supercapacitor : a
residual voltage has to be taken into account to consider that the component is
discharged
Dr. P. Barrade

Energy requirements
Energy stored in a supercapacitor
WM =
1
CUM 2
2
Voltage discharge ratio: the minimum voltage during the discharge has to be
limited for efficiency reasons
d = 100
Um
UM
The usable energy is then only part of

the maximum stored energy
Wu = WM
d2
1002
Number of supercapacitors for a given

usable energy
Ns =
2W
u 2
d
CUM 2 1
1002
12
Dr. P. Barrade
Energy requirements
Using a 2600F/2.7V/0.4m supercapacitor
Example: 220kJ to store
Ns =
2W
u 2
d
CUM 2 1
1002
2600F, 2.5V
d=50%
d=60%
d=70%
Total stored
energy
N=31
W=293.8kJ
N=37
W=350.6kJ
N=46
W=438kJ
Dr. P. Barrade

Power availability
Due to the series resistor of supercapacitors, energy efficiency of
supercapacitors has to be taken into account during the sizing of the
supercapacitive tank
Energy efficiency has an influence on the power availability
Must be identified
13
Dr. P. Barrade

Procedure for the Exponential Charge
('
#
!
%
"
&
'
Initial charge : uci=UM.di /100

Charging voltage: Ue=UM.
Charge is finished when: ucf=UM.df /100
Main equations:
2
uc = U M 4 1
Tch =
Rs C ln
di
100
100
100
df
di
t 3
R
sC 5
e
Dr. P. Barrade

Power in the series resistors
Pr =
1
UM
Rs
uc
=)
Pr =
1
UM 2 1
Rs
di
100
Energy lost in the series resistors

Wr =
Pr dt =)
0
1
Wr = CUM 2 1
2
di
100
Taking into account Tch

Wr =
1
1
CUM 2
df (200
2
100
df )
2t
e Rs C
1
2t
C
e Rs C A
B
@1
di (200
di )
Energy stored in the supercapacitor

Wc =
1
Cucf 2
2
1
Cuci 2 =)
2
Wc =
1
CUM 2
2
"
df
100
di
100
2 #
14
Dr. P. Barrade

Efficiency
=
Wc
Wc + Wr
=)
1
(df + di )
200
For a high efficiency

df and di must be as high as possible
Not compatible with a large range of voltage variation
It is mandatory to strictly control the charging/discharging current
Dr. P. Barrade

Efficiency for the charge/discharge with controlled current
Discharge
Icd<0 and df<di
Charge
Icc>0 and df>di
Main equation
di
1
+ Icc t
100 C
uc = U M
U M df di
Icc 100
Tch = C
uc = U M
Charge/discharge time
Tch = C
di
1
+ Icd t
100 C
U M df di
Icd 100
Energy lost
Wr = Rs CIcc UM
df di
100
Energy stored/provided
Wc =
1
CUM 2
2
Wr = Rs CIcd UM
"
df
100
di
100
df di
100
2 #
15
Dr. P. Barrade

Efficiency for the charge/discharge with controlled current
Charge
Icc>0 and df>di
Discharge
Icd<0 and df<di
Efficiency
=
Wc
Wc + Wr
=
1 + 2Rs
1
Icc 100
U M df + di
Wc + Wr
Wc
= 1 + 2Rs
Icd 100
U M df + di
Tch
Tch + 2Rs C
df di
df + di
= 1 + 2Rs C
1 df di
Tch df + di
Dr. P. Barrade

Energy efficiency and power availability : Example of a 2600F/2.5V/0.7m Scap
Charge
Discharge
Time for loading energy has to be kept up to 10s for a 90% energy efficiency (Ic<320A or
P<700W)
Time for unloading energy has to be kept up to 10s for a 90% energy efficiency
(Ic<320A or P<400W)
Taking into account the necessity of 90% of energy efficiency, the current or the power
for charging/discharging have to be limited: the power density is only 806W/kg (instead
of 4300W/kg)
16
Dr. P. Barrade
Energy efficiency and power availability

Using a 2600F/2.7V/0.4m
Example: 220kJ to store, +/- 40kW, with a 90% energy efficiency
For this special application, the power availability is the main sizing criterion
Dr. P. Barrade

Example
Energy requirements : 220kJ (61Wh)
Power needs: +/- 40kW, with a 90% energy efficiency
Number of needed supercapacitors (theoretical) :
31 Scaps 2600F/2.7V
Energy available : 220kJ (61Wh) if the voltage is kept over 50% of the maximum
Total stored energy : 293.8kJ (81.6Wh)
For practical reasons (energy efficiency, power availability) :

36 Scaps 2600F/2.7V are chosen
to obtain a 90% energy efficiency
to assume the power demand
Available energy :220kJ (61Wh) if the voltage is kept over 60.36% of the maximum
Total stored energy : 341kJ (95Wh)
Final choice : 1x36 series connected Scaps (2600F/2.7V) (16.9kg, 12.9l)
17
Dr. P. Barrade

Thermal aspects
A supercapacitive tank is sized as an answer to
Energy requirements
Power requirements
Available power is limited by the series resistor of the cells
Available power is linked to the charge/discharge efficiency
Efficiency means internal losses into the cells

Internal losses act mainly as a joule effect
Increase of temperature of the component
Temperature of a supercapacitive tank must be taken into account for a complete

sizing:
Natural cooling
Forced cooling
If no forced cooling possible, then increase the number of cells to maximise power
availabilty (efficiency) and minimize losses
Dr. P. Barrade

Thermal aspects
Temperature of a supercapacitive tank must be taken into account for a complete
sizing
Main parameters to study thermal behavior of a supercapacitor
Density
Easy to identify
Thermal conductivity
Generaly given by manufacturer, but deduced from experimental protocol that gives quite
vague datas
Thermal capacitance
Generaly not given by manufacturer
A way to obtain this data is to consider that supercapacitors are made of 60% of
aluminium, 25% of carbon, and 15% of water (from a thermal point of view)
Status at LEI: a complete evaluation will be made next summer
18
Dr. P. Barrade

Thermal aspects
Example:
3 cells (D-cells), mounted on a board, inside carbon fiber box.
2D finite element simulation software
Coupling of heat transfer / fluid mechanics solvers
Dr. P. Barrade
Thermal aspects
Example: Stand-by mode, 15mn warming under sunning conditions (1000w/m2)
19
Dr. P. Barrade
Thermal aspects
Example: stand-by mode, inrush air speed is 0.5m/s
Dr. P. Barrade
Thermal aspects
Example: power provided per cell is 110W, losses per cell are 11.3W (90.6%), during
2400s (40mn), inrush air speed is 0.5m/s
20
Dr. P. Barrade
Thermal aspects
Horizontal gradiant temperature
For this application, forced cooling is needed, even if temperature is not stabilised
Dr. P. Barrade
Thermal aspects
Horizontal gradiant temperature
For this application, forced cooling is needed, even if temperature is not stabilised
21
Dr. P. Barrade
Limitation:
Example of a hybrid elevator
Supercapacitive tank plugged on the DC bus
L
Grid
u1, u2, u3 AC
i1, i2, i3
Ud
Il
It
DC
Uc
DC
Ls
Is DC
Ia
Us
DC
Supercapacitive
accumulator
um1, um2, um3
Shaft
AC im1, im2, im3

Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Motor
Ib
mw1
S
mw2
Braking resistors
me
mp
mc
Dr. P. Barrade
Limitation:
Shaft length: 18m, 5 floors
Cabin mass: 800kg
Up to 8 passengers
Accumulator capacity: 20Wh
22
Dr. P. Barrade
Limitation:
Tests on strategies for energy management
Rule Based vs. Dynamic Programming
Scaps Energy Profile

Energy [kJ]
75
50
25
Rules
0
0
20
40
60
80
Energy [kJ]
75
50
25
DP
0
0
20
40
Mission
60
80
Dr. P. Barrade

Limitation:
Example of a hybrid vehicle:
Power requirements are easy to clearly identify
Energy requirements are not so easy to identify
Need a deep knowledge on the system
Strongly affected by strategies for storing/supplying
23
Dr. P. Barrade
Power Electronics Converters

Series connection of supercapacitors :
Power losses in the associated power converter are related to the
charging/discharging current of the supercapacitors.
The operating voltage (Scaps voltage) must be much more higher than
the forward voltage caused by conduction in the needed converter
To increase the efficiency for a given power
Decrease the charging/discharging current in the supercaps
Increasing the total voltage of the supercaps
A series connection of supercapacitors is required
Dr. P. Barrade

Unbalanced voltages: consequences
There are differences between the Scaps values
Voltages across C1 and C2
will not be the same at the end of a
charging process
C1
Uc1
C2
Uc2
3 cases have to be considered :

Ideal case : C1=C2
Real case : C1C2, but the supercaps
maximum voltage may not be reached
Ideal Real case : C1C2, but a device
ensures the voltages sharing
24
Dr. P. Barrade

Unbalanced voltages: consequences
The charging process is stopped as soon as one Scap reaches its maximum
voltage
C1=C2
C2=80% of C1
No sharing
C2=80% of C1
Sharing
Uf (V)
4.5
Uc1f (V)
2.5
2.5
Uc2f (V)
2.5
2.5
2.5
E (J)
6250
4500
5625
Dr. P. Barrade

Unbalanced voltages in the series connection of supercapacitors
Because of differences between the various capacitances
Consequences after various charge/discharge cycles
Risks of over-voltages on several cells (those of lowest capacitance)
As the charge must be stopped as soon as one cell reaches its maximum
voltage (that one of lowest capacitance)
The cell of high capacitance are far away from the full state of charge
The totat amount of stored energy can not be obtained
Needs in circuits for the voltage equalization
25
Dr. P. Barrade

Voltage equalization
Voltage sharing solution, using power electronics solutions to offer a high
efficiency.
i1
forward dc-dc converter

with distributed primary
T1
C1
i'2
i1
C1
Np1
i2
C2
Np2
T'3
T2
i3
C3
D'3
L1
il1
T2
C2
L2
i2
D2
i3
C3
Nf
Df
D2
Centralized flyback dc-dc

converter with distributed
secondary
D'2
il2
T1
D1
T'2
D1
Np3
association of buck-boost
dc-dc converters
T3
D3
Dr. P. Barrade
Voltage Equalization
Voltage sharing solution, using dissipative
elements offer also a high efficiency.
High performances obtained thanks to an
efficient control and management of voltage
equalization processes
Supercapacitor manufacturers are able to
propose ready-to-use solutions, directly
integrated into a modular supercapacitive
tank
Cell balancing
Module to module balancing
Integration of protection against short-circuits
Voltage monitoring for external control
Up to 1kV!!!!!
26
Dr. P. Barrade

Power electronics interfaces :
During charging and discharging, the voltage across a supercapacitors bank is
varying :
Wc =
1
CUc 2
2
Ic = C
dUc
dt
A power interface between the Scaps bank and its load has to be defined :
Example : interface between a Scaps bank and a DC bus
DC bus
Which topology ?
Scaps
bank
Power
Converter
Dr. P. Barrade

Two solutions : using a buck or a boost topology
Boost converter
Buck converter
DC bus
DC bus
Scaps
bank
Scaps
bank
Buck
Converter
Boost
Converter
The current provided by the Scaps is

strongly discontinuous
A maximum number of series
connected Scaps is needed
The current provided by the Scaps is

continuous
The number of series connected Scaps
can be minimised
27
Dr. P. Barrade

Two solutions : using a buck or a boost topology
Huge number
of series connected
Scaps :
Large number of
active components
Safety problems
High cost
Reduced number
of series connected
Scaps :
reduced number of
active components
Low cost
easier symetrizing
process
High efficiency
Low efficiency
The boost topology offers more advantages
Dr. P. Barrade

using a boost topology : association of a Boost and a buck converter
DC bus
DC bus
Scaps
Scaps
bank
bank
When the DC voltage is nearly

constant and can not be lower
than that one of the Scaps
When the DC voltage varies

strongly and can become much
lower than that one of the Scaps
28
Dr. P. Barrade

Adapting the voltage-level with transformers
Voltage adaptation with an intermediary AC-link with MF-transformer
topology with resonant mode
Dr. P. Barrade

Increasing efficiency with ZVT/ZCS Technology
Topology : MF-AC-link with ZVT/ZCS converters
29
Dr. P. Barrade
Energy Storage / Energy Buffer

Are supercapacitors able to store enough energy for a powering a bus ?
9
90
80
70
60
Energie (J)
Vitesse (km/h)
100
50
40
4
3
30
20
10
0
x 10
100
200
300
400
500
t (s)
600
700
800
900
1000
-1
100
200
300
400
500
t (s)
600
700
800
900
1000
The needed energy is 84MJ (23.3kWh)

From Bellerive to St Franois
5km / 120m
19900 Scaps (1800F) / 7.46m3 / 7.96T
Dr. P. Barrade

Supercapacitors are not able to
store enough energy for a
complete run
DEPART
STATION 1
STATION 2
Some intermediary re-loading

stages have to be defined
STATION n
Bus
Supercondensateurs
ARRIVEE
30
Dr. P. Barrade

7 loading stations
4160 supercapacitors
1800F/2.5V
26x160 series connected
total energy : 23.4MJ
(6.5kWh)
operational energy :
17MJ (4.75kWh)
Time for loading : 20s
Current for loading :
2.6kA
1.6m3 / 1.7T
Dr. P. Barrade
The power absorbed by

the bus is the mirror of the
power provided by the
supercapacitors
The loading of the
supercapacitors needs to
absorb high magnitude
power on the network :
1MW x 7 times x 20s
31
Dr. P. Barrade
Energy Storage / Energy

Buffer
when loading the main
supercapacitors, the
energy is taken on fix
supercapacitors
to prepare the coming of
the next bus, the fix
supercapacitors have to
be re-loaded :
10mn instead of 20s
the power absorbed on
the network is low
DEPART
STATION 1
s1
s2
STATION 2
Supercondensateurs
intermdiaires
STATION n
s1
s2
Bus
Supercondensateurs
Supercondensateurs
intermdiaires
ARRIVEE
Dr. P. Barrade

The power provided by
the network is the sum of
the low power absorbed
by each loading station
the network is the real
mean power needed by the
bus
the network is less than
100kW
32
Dr. P. Barrade

The energy density of supercapacitors is too low for most of the applications
It is often impossible to use supercapacitors are single energy storage devices to give
the complete autonomy of a system
Thanks to their power availability, supercapacitors are mainly used as energy buffers
To minimize power constraints on a main energy source
To allow an efficient energy management
To allow the recovery of energy when possible
Supercapacitors are mainly used:

- as energy buffers (hybrid systems)
- as main energy sources for applications with reduced energy needs
Dr. P. Barrade
Applications for supercapacitors: elevators

Variable frequency drives for elevators
Elevators are intrinsically reversible systems
Conventional feeding
Non-Reversible
a)
Efficiency increase
Reversible front-end
b)
Efficiency increase
Local accumulator
c)
33
Dr. P. Barrade

Solutions for allowing an efficiency increase
Recovering of energy
Reversible front-end
Solve the problem of energy recovering
Does not solve the problem of power fluctuations on the grid
It is reinforced
Local accumulator
Solve the problem of energy recovering
Depends on the size of the accumulator
Depends on the control
Can solve the problem of power fluctuations on the grid
Depends on the size of the accumulator
Dr. P. Barrade

Structure and objectives
Structure
L
Grid
u1, u2, u3 AC
i1, i2, i3
Ud
Il
It
DC
Uc
Ls
Is DC
Ia
Us
DC
Supercapacitive
accumulator
um1, um2, um3
Shaft
AC im1, im2, im3

Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Motor
DC
Ib
mw1
S
mw2
Braking resistors
me
mp
mc
Objectives
Increase of the global efficiency
Limitation of power fluctuations on the grid
34
Dr. P. Barrade

Tests on an elevator
Considered elevator
Shaft length: 18m, 5 floors
Cabin mass: 800kg
Up to 8 passengers
Accumulator capacity: 20Wh
Dr. P. Barrade

Tests on an elevator
Experimental results
Braking Resistor Energy Profile
Power [kW]
Elevator
Rules
DP
2
0
0
20
40
60
80
6
Rules
4
2
0
0
Power [kW]
300
Elevator
Energy [kJ]
Power [kW]
Grid Power Profile

6
20
40
60
80
200
100
6
DP
4
2
0
0
20
40
Mission
60
80
0
0
20
40
Mission
60
80
35
Dr. P. Barrade

Test on strategies
Experimental results
Scaps Energy Profile
Energy [kJ]
75
50
25
Rules
0
0
20
40
60
20
40
Mission
60
80
Energy [kJ]
75
50
25
DP
0
0
80
Dr. P. Barrade
Applications for supercapacitors: hybrid vehicle

Diesel-electric trains
Well-established technology on railways systems
Lines of low traffic potential
Reduced costs compared to the infrastructure costs of a line-powered trains
Principle:
36
Dr. P. Barrade

Main disadvantage
Diesel engine has to assume all power and energy needs
Strong speed/torque fluctuations
Efficiency, Emissions
Losses into the energy transfer chain

Efficiency of asynchronous generator, power converters, asynchronous motors
Use of resistors during braking modes
Dr. P. Barrade

How to increase efficiency
Use of an energy storage tank
To minimize power constraints on diesel engine (decoupling of energy and power needs)
To allow the control of the diesel engine at its maximum efficiency, or switch it off
To enable energy recovering during braking phases
technology of
supercapacitors
They are power
compatible
Life time / number of
cycles compatibles
It has to be checked if
they are energy
compatible!
37
Dr. P. Barrade

Case of study
GTW train (Stadler Rail AG, CH)
Total weight (w/o load): 67t

Total weigth: 84t
Diesel engine power: 2x380kW
Max. power at the wheels: 620kW
Max. speed: 140km/h
Dr. P. Barrade

Case of study
Track: Merano-Malles (north of Italia)
Altitude variation
Altitude variation for a typical itinerary
1800
1700
Altitude (m)
1600
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
Time (s)
Power profile
Instantaneous
Mean
Wheel power for typical itinerary

1000
Power (kW)
500
0
-500
-1000
-1500
-2000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
Time (s)
38
Dr. P. Barrade

On-board stored energy versus diesel-engines power constraints
Main results
Reduction of required diesel generator power as a function of stored energy
Downsizing the maximal power of the diesel motor
700
Diesel motor power needed (kW)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Stocked energy in the supercapcitive tank (MJ)
Dr. P. Barrade

In hybrid vehicle, supercapacitors enable
To lower the sizing of thermal engines/batteries
To increase efficiency
Control of the thermal engine on its maximum efficiency map
Energy saving during braking
For catenary- fed vehicles

Increased efficiency
Limitation of power constraints on the grid
More vehicles on a line without modifying the infrastructures
39
Dr. P. Barrade

Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS applications)
Compared with application with batteries, supercapacitors cannot propose an
equivalent autonomy
Thanks to their power density, Supercapacitors can offer:
A reduced charging time (to reconfigure faster the UPS)
A larger lifetime
A maintenance free UPS
Switch
IN
Rectifier
AC
DC
Scaps
Tank
Inverter
DC
AC
OUT
DC
DC
dc/dc interface
Dr. P. Barrade

Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS applications)
Experimental results on a 500W UPS
Batteries have been replaced by supercapacitors and their power converter
5 Scaps 1800F, series connected
Autonomy: 60sec for a 300W load
400
200
200
Uout (V)
Uin (V)
400
-200
-400
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
-200
20
-400
0.05
Icap (A)
15
0.1
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.2
0.25
Icap (A)
Uout (V)
0.25
10
0.5
400
-10
200
-20
-30
-200
-400
0.2
0.2
20
0
0.2
0.15
t (s)
10
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
t (s)
Network failure
0.45
0.5
-40
0.05
0.1
0.15
t (s)
Reconfiguration
40
Dr. P. Barrade

Wind turbines
Wind Turbine Pitch Control Systems
Voltage Regulation and VARS Support
Short term energy storage
Dr. P. Barrade
Application for airplanes

New airbus A380
16 doors per Aircraft (Basic

version)
Electrically operated
2 main doors in permanent use for
boarding
14 rescue doors for emergency use
local door controller integrated
within each passenger door
41
Dr. P. Barrade

New airbus A380
Requirements on AC level
Operational requirements
Doors Operation independent from AC electrical system
Emergency opening even after transversal break of the fuselage
Local energy storage
High reliability
Extremely high availability
A/C System Requirements
Minimum burden to the A/C Electrical System (max. 130VA, no peak loads)
Minimum radiated and conducted distortion
Maximum radiated and conducted susceptibility
Robustness for primary power interrupts and transients
Dr. P. Barrade

Environmental and operating conditions
Normal (severe) operating temperature -40 +60oC (+70oC)

Average operating temperature +45 +55oC
Ground survival temperature -55 +85oC
Temperature gradients up to 5K per min.
Operational shock (crash) up to 20g
Operational vibrations (random sinus) with up to 4,1g
Vibration frequency 2kHz down to 10Hz
Application to water, fluids, sand and dust, fungus, fire, lightning etc.
Environmental requirements, equipment in aircraft doors:
Power supply with nominal 115VAC, variation range 96 130VAC

Wild frequency network nominal 400Hz, variation range 360 800Hz
Therefore
HW and SW designed with assurance level A

Failure rate of critical blocks 10-7 10-8 per flight hour
Only achievable with overall double resp. triple redundancy
Useful life 25 years resp. 140.000 flight hours
No scheduled maintenance is allowed for the equipment
42
Dr. P. Barrade

New airbus A380
Energy storage device used for the doors: supercapacitors
Normal operation mode
Emergency operation mode
Consists of 56 UltraCaps PC100G (C = 100F each)

Arranged in 14 lines and 4 columns, connected by current rails
Ctotal = 28,5 F
Umatrixmax = 34 V
Ucelltyp = 2,2 V, Ucellmax = 2,5 V
13.500 Ws (typ), 16.500 Ws (max)
ESR < 50mOhm
Total weight of Capacitors 2.200g
Mechanical fixture with fixing grid
Dr. P. Barrade
Conclusion
For most of applications, supercapacitors are used to smooth power fluctuations on a
main energy source
Reduced energy density
High power density
Long lifetime
Supercapacitive tank can be sized in a 2 steps process:
Energy requirements: this defines mainly the number of components
Power requirements: in order to match the required power availability
Supercapacitors technology seems to be now mature enough for large scale
applications
Price
Performances
However: needs in strong developments in power electronics, competition with
other technologies (flywheel)
43

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Energy Storage by Means of Supercapacitors:

Components, Power Electronics Interfaces

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Power electronics converters

Applications for supercapacitors

Voltage equalization, Power electronics interfaces

energy storage/energy buffer

Courtesy from Montena Component SA

up to 3000 m2 (porous film)

Courtesy from Montena Component SA

Courtesy from Montena Component SA

Electrical aging mechanisms

Life time : long life time thanks to

gaz emission in case of opening (HCn)

Courtesy from Montena Component SA

Courtesy from Maxwell Technologies SA

The energy efficiency :

The self discharge

The classical model for a capacitor contains

Courtesy from Montena Component SA

Relaxation phenomena are not leakage

Really difficult to identify clearly the energy stored in a cell, depending on

Voltage dependent capacitance Cu (width variation of the double layers)

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

The energy stored in one single component is generally not sufficient

For a given application, it must be found :

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

For a given power profile,

The value of energy that

External behaviour and environment

To use to total stored energy :

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

The usable energy is then only part of

Number of supercapacitors for a given

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Initial charge : uci=UM.di /100

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Energy lost in the series resistors

Taking into account Tch

Energy stored in the supercapacitor

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

For a high efficiency

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Energy efficiency and power availability

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

For practical reasons (energy efficiency, power availability) :

Final choice : 1x36 series connected Scaps (2600F/2.7V) (16.9kg, 12.9l)

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Efficiency means internal losses into the cells

Temperature of a supercapacitive tank must be taken into account for a complete

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank

Sizing of a supercapacitive tank