DEFINITIONS OF SOIL

This definition is from the Soil Science Society of America.

soil - (i) The unconsolidated mineral or organic material on the immediate surface of the earth
that serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants. (ii) The unconsolidated mineral
or organic matter on the surface of the earth that has been subjected to and shows effects of
genetic and environmental factors of: climate (including water and temperature effects), and
macro- and microorganisms, conditioned by relief, acting on parent material over a period of
time. A product-soil differs from the material from which it is derived in many physical,
chemical, biological, and morphological properties and characteristics.
This definition is from Soil Taxonomy, second edition.
soil - Soil is a natural body comprised of solids (minerals and organic matter), liquid, and
gases that occurs on the land surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one or both of
the following: horizons, or layers, that are distinguishable from the initial material as a result
of additions, losses, transfers, and transformations of energy and matter or the ability to
support rooted plants in a natural environment.
The upper limit of soil is the boundary between soil and air, shallow water, live plants, or
plant materials that have not begun to decompose. Areas are not considered to have soil if the
surface is permanently covered by water too deep (typically more than 2.5 meters) for the
growth of rooted plants.
The lower boundary that separates soil from the nonsoil material is most difficult to define.
Soil consists of horizons near the earth's surface that, in contrast to the underlying parent
material, have been altered by the interactions of climate, relief, and living organisms over
time. Commonly, soil grades at its lower boundary to hard rock or to earthy materials virtually
devoid of animals, roots, or other marks of biological activity. For purposes of classification,
the lower boundary of soil is arbitrarily set at 200 cm.

SOIL FORMING FACTORS

Although many of us don't think about the ground beneath us or the soil that we walk on each
day, the truth is soil is a very important resource. Processes take place over thousands of years
to create a small amount of soil material. Unfortunately the most valuable soil is often used
for building purposes or is unprotected and erodes away. To protect this vital natural resource
and to sustain the world's growing housing and food requirements it is important to learn
about soil, how soil forms, and natural reactions that occur in soil to sustain healthy plant
growth and purify water. Soil is important to the livelihood of plants, animals, and humans.
However, soil quality and quantity can be and is adversely affected by human activity and
misuse of soil.
Certain soils are best used for growing crops that humans and animals consume, and for
building airports, cities, and roads. Other types of soil have limitations that prevent them from
being built upon and must be left alone. Often these soils provide habitats for living creatures
both in the soil and atop the soil. One example of soils that have use limitations are those that
hold lakes, rivers, streams, and wetlands. Humans don't normally establish their homes in
these places, but fish and waterfowl find homes here, as do the wildlife that live around these
bodies of water.
Natural processes that occur on the surface of Earth as well as alterations made to earth
material over long periods of time form thousands of different soil types. In the United States
alone there are over 50,000 different soils! Specific factors are involved in forming soil and
these factors vary worldwide, creating varied soil combinations and soil properties
worldwide:
The Five Soil Forming Factors
1. Parent material: The primary material from which the soil is formed. Soil parent material
could be bedrock or organic material., or a deposit from water, wind, volcanoes, or material
moving down a slope.
2. Climate: Weathering forces such as heat, rain, ice, snow, wind, sunshine, and other
environmental forces, break down parent material and affect how fast or slow soil formation
processes go.
3. Organisms: All plants and animals living in or on the soil (including micro-organisms and
humans!). The amount of water and nutrients, plants need affects the way soil forms. The way
humans use soils affects soil formation. Also, animals living in the soil affect decomposition
of waste materials and how soil materials will be moved around in the soil profile. On the soil
surface remains of dead plants and animals are worked by microorganisms and eventually
become organic matter that is incorporated into the soil and enriches the soil.
4. Topography: The location of a soil on a landscape can affect how the climatic processes
impact it. Soils at the bottom of a hill will get more water than soils on the slopes, and soils on
the slopes that directly face the sun will be drier than soils on slopes that do not. Also, mineral
accumulations, plant nutrients, type of vegetation, vegetation growth, erosion, and water
drainage are dependent on topographic relief.

5. Time: All of the above factors assert themselves over time, often hundreds or thousands of
years. Soil profiles continually change from weakly developed to well developed over time.
Differences in soil forming factors from one location to another influence the
process of soil formation

Parent Materials
Soil forms from different parent materials; one such parent material is bedrock. As rocks
become exposed at Earth's surface they erode and become chemically altered. The type of soil
that forms depends on the type of rocks available, the minerals in rocks, and how minerals
react to temperature, pressure, and erosive forces. Temperatures inside the Earth are very hot
and melt rock (lithosphere) that moves by tectonic forces below Earth's surface. Melted rock
flows away from the source of heat and eventually cools and hardens. During the cooling
process, minerals crystallize and new rock types are formed. These types of rocks are called
igneous rocks, the original parent material rocks formed on Earth.
Igneous rocks, under the right environmental conditions, can change into sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks. Volcanoes produce igneous rocks such as granite, pumice, and obsidian.
Sedimentary rocks are formed when older rocks are broken apart by plant roots, ice wedges,
and earth movements and become transported by glaciers, waves, currents, and wind. The
transported particles then become bound together (cemented) as secondary minerals grow in
the spaces between the loose particles and create a new, solid, sedimentary rock. Sandstone,
limestone, and shale are types of sedimentary rocks that contain quartz sand, lime, and clay,
respectively.
Metamorphic/Crystalline rocks form when pressure and temperature, below Earth's surface,
are great enough to change the chemical composition of sedimentary and igneous rocks.
Metamorphic rocks, such as quartzite, marble, and slate form under intense temperature and
pressure but were originally quartz sandstone, limestone, and shale.

SOIL FORMING FACTORS

ABOUT MINERALS
A mineral is defined as being a naturally occuring element or compound that is formed by
inorganic processes and contains a crystalline structure. Pedologists are primarily concerned
with minerals in soil because minerals form the basic framework of soil. Minerals originally
form when once-heated Earth material magma (molten rock) cools and forms solid igneous
rock. During the cooling process of magma, ions (an atom, a group of atoms or compound
that is electrically charged when the loss or gain of electrons occurs) become bonded together,
due to electrical attraction. The attracted, bonded ions remain fixed in position and produce
solid crystalline minerals within igneous rock.The Earth's crust formed and continues to form
in this manner.
Earth's crust contains a combination of naturally occurring elements, of which eight elements
are predominant: oxygen (O), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), Sodium
(Na), potassium (K), and magnesium (Mg). As you can imagine, combinations of these
elements along with the other naturally occuring elements that form Earth's crust produce a
wide variety of minerals.
Igneous rocks contain original minerals that form as magma cools but sedimentary rocks are
formed by secondary minerals that grow and join sediment particles together and become
cemented. Metamorphic rocks were once igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks that become
chemically altered to form different minerals. Minerals that combine to create inorganic
parent material can be released from their attractive bond, during chemical weathering, and
become deposited as soil. Deposits that come from parent material are either residual or
transported. Residual deposits result when a rock is weathered in situ (in place). In contrast,
transported deposits get moved by transport agents, often long distances
Original Minerals
NAME

CHEMICAL FORMULA

Quartz

SiO2

Microcline

KAlSi3O8

Orthoclase

KAlSi3O8

Na-Plagioclase

NaAlSi3O8

Ca-Plagioclase

CaAlSi3O8

Muscovite

KAlSi3O10

Biotite

KAl(Mg-Fe)3Si3O10 (OH)2

Horneblende

Ca2Al2Mg2Fe3, Si6O (OH)2

Augite

Ca2(Al-Fe)4(Mg-Fe)4Si6O 24

Secondary Minerals

NAME

CHEMICAL FORMULA

Calcite

CaCo3

Dolomite

CaMg(CO3)2

Gypsum

CaSO4-2H20

Apatite

Ca5(PO4)3 - (Cl, F)

Limonite

Fe2-O3-3H20

Hematite

Fe2O3

Gibbsite

Al2-O3-3H2O

Clay Minerals

Al silicates

SOIL FORMING FACTORS

ABOUT WEATHERING
Chemical weathering processes
Chemical weathering occurs as minerals in rocks are chemically altered, and
subsequently decompose and decay. Increasing precipitation (rain) speeds up the
chemical weathering of minerals in rocks, as seen on tombstones and monuments
made of limestone and marble. In fact, water is an essential factor of chemical
weathering. Increasing temperature also accelerates the chemical reaction that causes
minerals to degrade. This is why humid, tropical climates have highly weathered
landforms, soils, and buildings.

Carbonation and Solution: this weathering process occurs when precipitation

(H20) combines with carbon dioxide (CO2) to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). When
carbonic acid comes in contact with rocks that contain lime, soda, and potash, the
minerals calcium, magenesium and potassium in these rocks chemically change into
carbonates and dissolve in rain water.

Hydrolysis: this chemical weathering process occurs when water (H20), usually
in the form of precipitation, disrupts the chemical composition and size of a mineral
and creates less stable minerals, thus less stable rocks, that weather more readily.

Hydration: water (H20) combines with compounds in rocks, causing a chemical

change in a mineral's structure, but more likely will physically alter a mineral's grain
surface and edges. A good example of this is the mineral Anhydrite (CaSO4).
Anhydrite chemically changes to Gypsum (CaSO4-2H20) when water is added.
Gypsum is used in the construction industry, to build buildings and houses.

Oxidation: this process occurs when oxygen combines with compound elements
in rocks to form oxides. When an object is chemically altered in this manner it is
weakened and appears as "oxidized" . A good example of this is a "rusting" sign post .
The iron in the metal post is oxidizing. Increased temperatures and the presence of
precipitation will accelerate the oxidation process.

Physical Weathering Processes

Rocks that are broken and degrade by processes other than chemical alteration are
physically or mechanically weathered. A rock broken in to smaller pieces exposes
more surface area of the original rock. Increasing the exposed surface area of a rock
will increase its weathering potential.

Animals and Plants: Animals burrow into Earth's substrate and move rock
fragments and sediment on Earth's surface, thereby aiding in the disintegration of
rocks and rock fragments. Fungi and Lichens are acid-producing microorganisms that
live on rocks and dissolve nutrients (phosphorus, calcium) within rocks. These
microorganisms assist in the breakdown and weathering of rocks.

Crystallization: As water evaporates moisture from rocks located in arid climates

mineral salts develop from mineral crystals. The crystals grow, spreading apart
mineral grains in the process, and eventually break apart rocks.

Temperature Variation: minerals in rocks expand and contract in climates where

temperature ranges are extreme, like in glacial regions of the world, or when exposed
to extreme heat, like during a forest fire. Crystal structures of minerals become
stressed during contraction and expansion and the mineral crystals separate. For
instance, repeated cycles of freezing and thawing (known as Freeze-Thaw) of water in
rock cracks further widens cracks and splits rocks apart. Frost-wedging forces portions
of rock to split apart.
Rocks that are formed under intense temperature and pressure, but cool more slowly and later
in the volcanic magma cooling process, are more stable when exposed to the low temperatures
and pressures at Earth's surface. Bonds holding atoms together determine mineral hardness.
Rocks that have cooled more slowly have time to build stronger bonds, so they are more
resistant to the forces of weathering.

Friedrich Mohs, an Austrian mineralogist, devised a scale of mineral hardness in 1812. He

used ten minerals, listed below, as standards by which to determine the hardness of minerals
and other objects. These ten minerals were arranged on a scale of increasing hardness. For
instance, gypsum can scratch talc, and apatite can scratch fluorite, calcite, gypsum, and
talc.Your fingernail has a general hardness of 2.5, so you can scratch gypsum and talc!
Diamonds are the hardest mineral in existence and are used as cutting instruments.
Moh's Scale Of Mineral Hardness
Talc Gypsum Calcite Flourite Apatite Orthoclase Quartz Topaz Corundum Diamond
1

10

Since some minerals weather more rapidly than others and weathering processes vary in
intensity and combination, weathering products contain different mineral combinations.
Pedologists, or soil scientists, classify these weathered mineral products as soil separates. Soil
separates range in size and are known as sand, silt, and clay.

SOIL FORMATION AND CLASSIFICATION

There are more than 200 soil types found in Malaysia. Most soils are given a name, which
generally comes from the locale where the soil was first mapped. Named soils are referred to
as soil series.

Soil survey reports include the soil survey maps and the names and descriptions of the soils in
a report area.
Soils are named and classified on the basis of physical and chemical properties in their
horizons (layers). "Soil Taxonomy" uses color, texture, structure, and other properties of the
surface two meters deep to key the soil into a classification system to help people use soil
information. This system also provides a common language for scientists.
Soils and their horizons differ from one another, depending on how and when they formed.
Soil scientists use five soil factors to explain how soils form and to help them predict where
different soils may occur. The scientists also allow for additions and removal of soil material
and for activities and changes within the soil that continue each day.
The soil forming factors are parent material, climate, topography, biological factors, and time.

Soil Formation
In the book by Jenny (1941) 'Factors of Soil Formation' it was presented an hypothesis that
drew together many of the current ideas on soil formation, the inspiration for which was
owned much to the earlier studies of Dokuchaev and the Russian school. The hypothesis was
that soil is formed as a result of the interaction of many factors, the most important of which
are:
Climate (cl)
Organisms (o)
Relief (r)
Parent Material (p)
Time (t)
Jenny's approach was to consider these soil forming factors as control variables, independent
of the soil as it evolved, and also independent, but not necessarily so of each other. He then
attempted to define the relationship between any soil property 's' and the most important soil
forming factors by a function of the form:

s = f (cl, o, r, p, t, ......)

(1)

The dots indicate that factors of lesser importance such as mineral accession from the
atmosphere, or fire, might need to be taken into account. Equation 1 assumes that there is a
causal relationship between s and the soil forming factors. Jenny (1980) redefined the soil
forming factors as 'state' variables and included ecosystem properties, vegetation and animal
properties, as well as soil properties. Parent material and relief define the initial state for soil
development, climate and organisms determine the rate at which chemical and biological
reactions occur in the soil (the pedogenic processes), and time measures the extent to which a
reaction will have proceeded. There is a logical progression: of environment (i.e. the soil
forming factors) -> processes -> soil properties underlying the soil formation.

Figure 1. Relationship between soil forming factors, processes, and soil properties.

To simplify the application of equation 1, it has been practice to solve it for changes in a soil
property s when only one of the control variable (e.g. climate) varies, the others being
constant or nearly so. The relationship is then called a climo-function (climate = control
variable):

s = f (cl) o, r, p, t, ...

(2)

and the range of soils formed is called a climosequence. Biosequences, toposequences,

lithosequences, and chronosequences of soils have been recognized in various parts of the
world. The term topo-sequence is synonymous with Milne's catena concept (Milne, 1935).
Indeed, the main virtue of Jenny's attempt to quantify the relationship between soil properties
and soil forming factors lies not in the prediction of exact values of s at a particular site, but
rather in identifying trends in properties and soil groups that are associated with readily
observable changes in climate, parent material, etc.
References:
Jenny H., 1941. Factors of Soil Formation. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Jenny H., 1980. The Soil Resource, Origin and Behaviour, Springer-Verlag, New York.
back to: [Home Page] [Natural Resources]

Climate
Climate involves both local (microclimatic) and global (macroclimatic) considerations. The
key components of climate in soil formation are moisture and temperature. Soil moisture
depends on several factors:
The form and intensity of precipitation (water, snow, sleet)
Its seasonal variability
The transpiration and evaporation rate
Slope

Aspect
Depth of soil profile
Soil texture / permeability of the parent material
A method of defining the soil moisture regime of the soil is using water balance calculations.
Such a calculation is based on the measurement of rainfall distribution, a calculation of the
potential evapotranspiration, and an assessment of surface runoff and infiltration :
Water balance equation:
Inflow = Outflow +/- storage within the system

(3)

P = ET + SR + I +/- S
where:
P: Precipitation (mm)
ET: Evapotranspiration (mm)
SR: Surface runoff (mm) (may include interflow)
I: Infiltration (mm)
S: Soil moisture storage (mm)

In the U.S. precipitation amounts (daily, hourly) and intensities (15-minute data) are collected
at about 7000 weather stations. The potential evapotranspiration can be calculated by
empirical equations (e.g. Thornthwaite) or by physically-based equations (e.g. Penman
Monteith) (Maidment, 1992). The empirical Thornthwaite equation calculates the
evapotranspiration in dependence of air temperature, whereas the Penman-Monteith equation
is the currently most advanced resistance-based model of evapotranspiration. This equation
allows the calculation of evapotranspiration form meteorological variables and resistances,
which are related to the stomatal and aerodynamic characteristics of the crop. Infiltration and
surface runoff can be calculated by empirical equations such as the Curve Number Method
(Soil Conservation Service - USDA, 1985). This is a simple method, which calculates
infiltration and surface runoff using land use and hydrologic soil groups to derive Curve
Numbers, precipitation amount, initial abstraction values, and potential maximum retention of
a soil. There are many other complex simulation models such as SWAT (Soil and Water
Assessment Tool) (Arnold et al., 1993), WEPP (Water Erosion Prediction Project) (USDAARS, 1995), or OPUS (Smith, 1992), which calculate infiltration, surface runoff, and soil
moisture.
The primary topographic attributes slope and aspect have a major impact on soil moisture.
This was first expressed by Beven et al. (1979) in form of the compound topographic index
(CTI) (or wetness index). It describes the effect of topography (slope and aspect) on the
location and size of areas of water accumulation in soils. The wetness index is calculated by:

wT = ln (A / tan b)
where:

(4)

wT:
A:
unit
b:

Wetness index
Specific catchment area (upslope area draining through a point(per
contour length)
Slope angle at the point

Hydrologically, the specific catchment area (A) is a measure of surface or shallow subsurface
runoff at a given point on the landscape, and it integrates the effects of upslope contributing
area and catchment convergence and divergence on runoff. The wetness index reflects the
tendency of water to accumulate at any point in the catchment (in terms of A) and the
tendency for gravitational forces to move that water downslope (expressed in terms of tan b as
an appropriate hydraulic gradient). A GIS (geographic information system) can be used to
calculate the wetness index based on DEM (digital elevation model) data to derive
information about soil moisture. Furthermore, the wetness index can be used to derive the
zones of saturation or variable source areas in a study area (catchment) and using a threshold
wetness index saturation overland flow is derived . In the simulation model TOPMODEL, the
CTI concept is combined with a storage model (storage for interception, infiltration, and the
saturated zone) (Beven et al., 1984) . Care must be taken in applying a static wetness index to
predict the distribution of a dynamic process like soil water content. A dynamic wetness index
was developed by Barling et al. (1994) considering the change of soil moisture (i.e. wetness
index) across time.
The depth of soil profiles also influences the soil moisture content. Thick soil profiles are able
to store large amounts of water. The shallower a soil profile the less water can be stored . Such
soils are prone to low soil moisture contents.
Soil texture influences the soil moisture content, where assumed the same climatic conditions,
sandy soils have the tendency for low soil moisture content, silty soils for average soil
moisture contents, and clayey soils for high soil moisture contents . This is due to the different
pore space distribution in coarse and fine textured soils. Sandy soils have a high amount of
macropores (pore diameter > 10 micrometer ), silty soils a high amount of medium-sized
pores (pore diameter 0.2 - 10 micrometer), and clayey soils a high amount of fine pores (pore
diameter < 0.2 micrometer) .
The term soil moisture refers to the presence or absence either of ground water or of water
held at a tension of less than 1500 kPa, in the soil or in a specific horizon, by periods of the
year. Water held at a tension of 1500 kPa or more is not available to keep most plants alive. In
Table 1. the soil moisture classes as defined in Soil Taxonomy are listed.

Table 1. A classification of soil moisture regimes.

Soil moisture
Characteristics
regime
Dry

Soil moisture content less than the amount retained at 15 atmospheres of tension
(1500 kPa - permanent wilting point). 'In most years' - 6 out of 10 years

Xeric

Soils of temperate areas that experience moist winters and dry summers (i.e.

mediterranean climates)
Aridic/Torric Soils are dry more than half the time (in arid climatic zone)
Perudic

In most years precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration every month of the year

Udic

In most years soils are not dry more than 90 consecutive days

Ustic

In most years soils are dry for 90 consecutive days and moist in some part for
half the days the soil temperature is above 5C (i.e., during potential growing
season)

Aquic

Soils that are sufficiently saturated, reducing conditions occur. They usually
have low chroma mottles or have gleyed subsoils

When soil moisture is high, as in wet or humid climates, there is a net downward movement
of water in the soil for most of the year, which usually results in greater leaching of soluble
materials, sometimes out of the soil entirely, and the translocation of clay particles from upper
to lower horizons. In arid climates there is net upward movement of water in the soil, due to
high evapotranspiration rates, which results in upward movement of soluble materials (e.g.
salts). These accumulated materials can become cemented (-> pans), which are impenetrable
to roots and lower infiltration tremendously.
Temperature
Temperature varies with latitude and altitude, and the extent of absorption and reflection of
solar radiation by the atmosphere. Solar radiation (direct radiation and diffuse radiation)
increases with elevation, differs seasonally, and is influenced by cloud cover or other
atmospheric disturbance (e.g. air pollution). The absorption of the solar radiation at the soil
surface is affected by many variables such as soil color, vegetation cover, and aspect. In
general, the darker the soil color, the more radiation is absorbed and the lower the albedo. The
effect of vegetative cover on absorption varies with density, height, and color of the
vegetation. Hence the absorption differs in areas with decidious trees (soil surface is shaded
by trees most of the year) and arable land (soil surface is not shaded throughout the year).
Light, or whitish-colored, soil surfaces tend to reflect more radiation. When incoming solar
radiation is reflected, there is less net radiation to be absorbed and heat the soil. Snow is
especially effective in reflecting the incoming solar radiation. Soil moisture controls also the
heating up or cooling down of soils. Water has a high specific heat capacity (1 cal g C),
whereas dry soils have a specific heat capacity of about 0.2 cal g C. This means that sandy
soils cools and heats more rapidly than soils high in silt or clay. Once a wet soil is warmed, it
takes longer to cool than a dry soil. In the Northern Hemisphere, south-facing slopes tend to
be warmer and thus more droughty than north-facing slopes.
Temperature affects the rate of mineral weathering and synthesis, and the biological processes
of growth and decomposition. Weathering is intensified by high temperatures, hence
weathering is stronger in the tropics than in humid regions. Temperature also influences the
degree of thawing and freezing (physical weathering) in cold regions. Biological processes are
intensified by rising temperatures. Reaction rates are roughly doubled for each 10C rise in
temperature, although enzyme-catalyzed reactions are sensitive to high temperatures and
usually attain a maximum between 30 and 35 C.
-1

-1

From Dokuchaev on (about 1870), many pedologist in Europe and North America regarded
climate as predominant in soil formation. The relationship between climatic zones and broad
belts of similar soils that stretched roughly east-west across Russia inspired the zonal concept
of soils. Zonal soils are those in which the climatic factor, acting on the soil for a sufficient

length of time, is so strong as to override the influence of any other factor. Intrazonal soils are
those in which some local anomaly of relief, parent material or vegetation is sufficiently
strong to modify the influence of the regional climate. Azonal or immature soils have poorly
differentiated profiles, either because of their youth or because some factor of the parent
material or environment has arrested their development. In the U.S. the zonal concept was
used in soil classification as published in the USDA Yearbook of Agriculture (Baldwin et al.,
1938).
Table 2. Soil classification in 1938 USDA Yearbook of Agriculture (highest two categories
only)
Category 6 Category 5 - Suborder
Order
Soils of the cold zone:
1. Light-colored soils or arid regions
Pedocals (soils with
2. Dark-colored soils of the semiarid, arid, subhumid,
calcium carbonate
and humid grasslands
accumulation)
Zonal soils

3. Soils of forest-grassland transitions

Pedalfers (soils with
4. Light -colored podzolized soils of the timbered
iron and aluminum
regions
accumulation)
5. Lateritic soils of forested warm-temperate and
tropical regions

Intrazonal soils

1. Halomorphic (saline and alkali) soils of imperfectly

drained arid regions and littoral deposits
2. Hydromorphic soils of marshes, swamps, see areas,
and flats
3. Calomorphic

Azonal

No suborders

The concept of soil zonality is not very helpful when applied to soils of the subtropics and
tropics. There, were land surfaces are generally much older than in Europe, and have
consequently undergone many cycles of erosion and deposition associated with climatic
change, the age of the soil and its topographical relation to other soils in the landscape are
factors of major importance. The zonal concept is also of little use in regions such as
Scandinavia or the Northern U.S., where much of the parent material of present-day soils is
young (Pleistocene deposits) and relief plays a powerful role in soil formation.

Table 3. Definitions and features of soil temperature regimes.

Mean annual
Temperature temperature in
Characteristics and some locations
regime
root zone [degree
C]
Pergelic

<0

Permafrost (i.e. the depth of freezing in winter exceed the

depth of thawing in summer, as a consequence, a layer of

permanently frozen soil of grounds develop) and ice

edges common. Tundra of northern Alaska and Canada
and high elevations of the Rocky Mountains.
0 -8

Cool to cold soils of the Northern Great Plains of the

U.S., forested regions of eastern Canada.

Frigid

<8

A soil with a frigid regime is warmer in summer than a

soil with cryic regime. The difference between mean
summer and mean winter soil temperatures is more that 5
C.

Mesic

8 - 15

Midwestern and Great Plains regions where corn and

winter wheat are common crops.

Thermic

15 - 22

Coastal Plain of southeastern U.S. where temperatures are

warm enough for cotton.

Hypothermic

> 22

Citrus areas of Florida peninsula, southern California.

Tropical climates and crops.

Cryic

If the name of a soil temperature regime has the prefix iso, the mean summer and mean winter
soil temperatures for June, July, and August and for December, January, and February differ
less than 5 C at a depth of 50 cm.
o

Temperature regime Mean annual soil temperature [degree C]

Isofrigid

<8

Isomesic

>= 8 - 15

Isothermic

>= 15 - 22

Isohyperthermic

>= 22

References:
Arnold J.G., Allen P.M., Bernhardt G. 1993. A Comprehensive Surface-Groundwater Flow
Model. Journal of Hydrology, 142: 47-69.
Baldwin M., Kellogg C.E., and Thorp J., 1938. Soil Classification. Yearbook of Agriculture,
U.S. Dept. Agric.,U..S.Govt. Printing Office, Washington, DC: 979-1001.
Barling R.D., Moore I.D., and Grayson R.B., 1994. A Quasi-dynamic Wetness Index for
Characterizing the Spatial Distribution of Zones of Surface Saturation and Soil Water
Content. Water Resources Research, 30 (4): 1029-1044.
Beven K.J., Kirkby M.J., 1979. A Physically Based, Variable Contributing Area Model of
Basin Hydrology. Hydrological Sciences Bulletin, 24 (1): 43-69.
Beven K.J., Kirkby M.J., Schofield N., Tagg A.F., 1984. Testing a Physically-Based Flood
Forecasting Model (TOPMODEL) for Three U.K. Catchments. Journal of Hydrology, 69:
119-143.
Maidment D.R., 1993. Handbook of Hydrology, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York.

Smith R.E., 1992. OPUS: An Integrated Simulation Model for Transport of Nonpoint-Source
pollutants at the Field Scale. Vol I. Documentation, USDA-ARS-98.
Soil Conservation Service - U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1985. National Engineering
Handbook, sec. 4, Hydrology, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C.
USDA-ARS. 1995. Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP). NSERL Report No. 11.
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Organisms
The soil and the organisms living on and in it comprise an ecosystem. The active components
of the soil ecosystem are the vegetation, fauna, including microorganisms, and man.
Vegetation: The primary succession of plants that colonize a weathering rock culminates in
the development of a climax community, the species composition of which depends on the
climate and parent material, but which, in turn, has a profound influence on the soil that is
formed. For example in the Mid-West of the U.S. deciduous forest seems to accelerate soil
formation compared to grassland on the same parent material under similar climatic
conditions. Differences in the chemical composition of leaf leachates can partly account for a
divergent pattern of soil formation. For example acid litter of pines or heather favors the
development of acid soils with poor soil structure, whereas litter of decidious trees favors the
development of well structured soils.
Meso-/Macrofauna: Earthworms are the most important of the soil forming fauna in
temperate regions, being supported to a variable extent by the small arthropods and the larger
burrowing animals (rabbits, moles). Earthworms are also important in tropical soils, but in
general the activities of termites, ants, and beetles are of greater significance, particularly in
the subhumid to semiarid savanna of Africa and Asia. Earthworms build up a stone-free layer
at the soil surface, as well as intimately mixing the litter with fine mineral particles they have
ingested. The surface area of the organic matter that is accessible to microbial attack is then
much greater. Types of the mesofauna comprise arthropods (e.g. mites, collembola) and
annelids (e.g earthworms, enchytraeids).
Table 4. Earthworm biomass in soils under different land use (White, 1987)
Earthworm biomass

[kg/ha]

Hardwood and mixed woodland: 370 - 680

Coniferous forest:

50 - 170

Pasture:

500 - 1500

Arable land:

16 - 760

Microorganisms: The organic matter of the soil is colonized by a variety of soil organisms,
most importantly the microorganisms, which derive energy for growth from the oxidative
decomposition of complex organic molecules. During decomposition, essential elements are
converted form organic combination to simple inorganic forms (mineralization). Most of the
microorganisms are concentrated in the top 15 - 25 cm of the soil because C substrates are
more plentiful there. Estimates of microbial biomass C range from 500 to 2,000 kg /ha to 15cm depth (White, 1987). Types of microorganisms comprise bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi,
algae, protozoa, and soil enzymes.
Man: Man influences soil formation through his impact to the natural vegetation, i.e., his
agricultural practices, urban and industrial development. Heavy machinery compacts soils
and decreases the rate of water infiltration into the soil, thereby increasing surface runoff
and erosion. Land use and site specific management (e.g. application of fertilizer, lime) also
act on soil development.
Reference
White R.E., 1987. Introduction to the Principles and Practices of Soil Science. Blackwell
Scientific Publ. , Palo Alto, CA.
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Relief
Major topographical features are easily recognized in the field (e.g. mountains, valleys,
ridges, crests, sinks, plateau, floodplains). For detailed description of topography Digital
Elevation Models (DEMs) are used. In a DEM each pixel of a landscape is described by a data
triplet consisting of Easting, Northing, and the elevation.
DEMs are available in different quality. Examples for DEMs are given in the following:
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) topographic 7.5 x 7.5-min blocks DEM (equivalent to a scale
1:24,000): Horizontal resolution = 30 m, root mean square error is generally =/- 7 m.
U.S. Geological Survey DEM: 1o x 1o blocks representing one-half of the standard 1:250,000
scale 1o x 2o quadrangle maps: Horizontal resolution = 90 m in the north-south direction and
about 60 m in the east-west direction, accuracy for flat terrain +/- 15 m and for steep terrain
60 m.
High quality DEMs (e.g. horizontal resolutions of 5 - 10 m). An example for a high quality
DEM is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. DEM for an experimental site at Arlington Agricultural Research Station in

Southern Wisconsin.

Topographic attributes such as slope, aspect, specific catchment area, plan and profile
curvature can be derived from DEMs using surface fitting functions of a GIS (geographic
information system) or topographic programs such as TAPES-G (Gallant et al., 1996).
Table 5. Selected primary topographic attributes important in pedology.
Topographic
attribute

Definition

Hydrologic significance

altitude

elevation

climate, vegetation type, potential

energy

slope

gradient

overland and subsurface flow,

velocity and runoff rate

aspect

slope azimuth

solar radiation

catchment area area draining to catchment outlet

runoff volume

specific
upslope area per unit width of contour
catchment area

runoff volume

flow path length

maximum distance of water flow to a

point in the catchment

describes the shape of a slope in a

profile curvature downward direction and indicates the
rate of change in gradient

plan curvature

erosion rates, sediment yield

water flow, flow velocity, sediment
transport processes (erosion,
deposition)

describes the shape of the slope in a

converging/diverging flow, soil
direction perpendicular to the slope and
water content
indicates the rate of change in gradient

Figure 3. Landform elements of a hillslope.

Figure 4. Different shapes of a hillslope.

Based on topographic attributes landform elements can be delineated. Examples are given by
Huggett (1975), Pennock et al. (1987), and Irvin (1996). They related landform elements to
soil properties and hydrologic characteristics, which also influence soil genesis. Huggett
combined vertical and horizontal slope curvatures (slope shapes) to predict soil drainage
classes. He states that in general hydraulic conductivity decreases with depth. Thus, material
and soil solution throughflow vary with both profile (downslope) and plan (across-slope)
curvature. The water flux contains dissolved and suspended materials, which it moves from
the upper reaches of the valley basin to lower parts. This movement may result in eluviation
in the upper zone of the basin and illuviation along the lower reaches. Pennock et al. (1987)
used combinations of gradient, plan and profile curvature to define distinct landform
elements, which were related to soil moisture. The result of their study indicate that moisture
content relates to elements in the sequence shoulder < backslopes < footslopes and divergent
elements < convergent elements. Irvin (1996) related landform elements to soil properties
(e.g. silt depth) in the Driftless Area of Southern Wisconsin.
Generally, an increase in slope is associated with a reduction in:
Leaching
Organic matter content
Clay translocation
Mineral weathering
Horizon differentiation
Solum thickness
Topographic attributes and vegetation cover affect soil moisture by governing the proportions
of surface runoff to infiltration. Soil with impermeable sub-soils and those developing on
slopes, may show appreciable lateral subsurface flow. Thus, at the top of the slope, the soils
tend to be freely drained with the water table at considerable depth, whereas the soils at the
backslopes and footslopes are poorly drained, with the water table near or at the soil surface.
The succession of soils forming under different drainage conditions on relatively uniform
parent material comprises a hydrological sequence, an example of which is shown in Figure 5.
As the drainability deteriorates, the oxidized soil profile, with its orange-red colors due to
ferric oxides, is transformed into the mottled and gleyed profile of a reduced soil (soil color:
gray, green).
The importance of relief was highlighted by Milne (1935) , who recognized a recurring
sequence of soil forming on slopes in a generally undulating landscape. He introduced the

term catena (Lat. 'chain') to describe a sequence of contiguous soils extending from hill to top
of a hillslope.

Figure 5. Hydrological sequence of soils formed under major influence of relief: Soil profile
#1 is well drained (summit), #2 moderately well drained (backslope), #3 poorly drained
(footslope), and #4 very poorly drained (toeslope).
Each hillslope with a slope gradient is subdued to transport of soil particles. Erosion tends to
be higher on convex sites with steep slopes compared to concave sites with low gradient. The
soils at shoulders tend to be more shallow due to erosion, whereas the soils on footslope and
toeslope areas tend to be thicker due to deposition. As erosion reduces the thickness of the A
horizon, the upper part of the B horizon becomes incorporated into the lower part of the A
horizon and the upper part of the C horizon becomes incorporated into the lower part of the B
horizon. The sediment transport is different for each soil particle size. The transport of coarsesized particles (sand) is lowest, whereas the transport of fine soil particles (clay) and mediumsized particles (silt) is higher. Clay particles form aggregates with organic material and iron
and aluminum oxides, hence those aggregates are very stable and are less susceptible to
sediment detachment. Coarse-sized particles are heavy and therefore also difficult to detach.
Medium-sized particles (silt) are prone to erosion. If erosion occurs on a hillslope the silt
content often is higher in the bottom soils compared to soils on the hillslope shoulder.
Increasing the slope length allows water, which ran off the upper part of the slope to infiltrate
in the lower part of the slope and to deposit eroded material carried in suspension.
Relief has also an important influence on the local climate and the vegetation. Changes in
elevation affect the temperature (a decrease of approximately 0.5 degree C per 100 m increase
in height), the amount and form of the precipitation and the intensity of storm events., thus
affecting soil moisture relations. These factors interact to influence the type of vegetation.
References
Gallant J.C., and J.P. Wilson. 1996. TAPES-G: A Grid-based Terrain Analysis Program for the
Environemental Sciences. Computers & Geosciences, 22 (7): 713-722.
Huggett R.J., 1975. Soil Landscape Systems: A Model of Soil Genesis. Geoderma 13: 1-22.
Irvin B.J. 1996: Spatial Information Tools for Delineating Landform Elements to Support
Soil/Landscape Analysis. PhD Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Milne G. , 1935. Some Suggested Units of Classification and Mapping, Particularly for East
African Soils. Soil Research, 4: 183-198.
Pennock D.J., B.J. Zebarth, and E. de Jong. 1987. Landform Classification and Soil
Distribution in Hummocky Terrain, Saskatchewan, Canada. Geoderma, 40: 297-315.

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Parent Material
The nature of the parent material has a decisive effect on the properties of soils. Properties of
the parent material that exert a profound influence on soil development include texture,
mineralogical composition, and degree of stratification. Soil may form directly by the
weathering of consolidated rock in situ (a residual soil), saprolite (weathered rock), or it may
develop on superficial deposits, which may have been transported by ice, water, wind or
gravity. These deposits originated ultimately from the denudation and geologic erosion of
consolidated rock. Consolidated material is not strictly parent material, but serves as a source
of parent material after some physical and /or chemical weathering has taken place. Soils may
form also on organic sediments (peat, muck) or salts (evaporites). The chemical and
mineralogical compositions of parent material determine the effectiveness of the weathering
forces. During the early stages of soil formation, rock disintegration may limit the rate and
depth of soil development. The downward movement of water is controlled largely by the
texture of the parent material. Furthermore, parent material has a marked influence on the
type of clay minerals in the soil profile.

Figure 6. Bedrock geology of Wisconsin.

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Time
Time acts on soil formation in two ways:
The value of a soil forming factor may change with time (e.g. climatic change, new parent
material).
The extent of a pedogenetic reaction depends on the time for which it has operated.
Monogenetic soils are those that have formed under one set of factor values for a certain
period of time. Soil that have formed under more than one set of factor values are called
polygenetic.
Very old soils are formed on weathered consolidated rocks (e.g. granite, basalt), where the
rocks were formed more than 500 million years ago (Paleozoikum). In Africa or Australia
such old soils may be found.
The climate has changed over geological time, the most recent, large changes were associated
with alternating glacial and interglacial periods of the Pleistocene. Europe and North America
sustained four distinct ice invasions, whereas each glacial period was separated by long
interglacial ice-free intervals. Those were times of warm or semitropical climate. The total
length of the Pleistocene ice age is estimated 1 - 1.5 million years. The glaciers disappeared

from Northern America approximately 12,000 years ago. As the glacial ice was pushed
forward soil was swept away, hills were rounded, valleys filled and the underlying rocks were
severely ground and gouged. Finally, when the ice melted a mantle of glacial drift remained, a
new regolith and fresh parent material for soil formation. The influence of parent material is
much more apparent in the soils of glaciated regions, where insufficient time has elapsed sine
the ice retreated to permit the full development of soils.
One of our youngest soils are formed on alluvial or lacustrine materials generally have not
had as much time to develop as the surrounding upland soils. Young in age are also colluvial
soils, where sediment transport occurred recently.
In Figure 7 a hypothetical soil development across time is shown. The parent material might
be relatively unweathered bedrock. After weathering of bedrock and the accumulation of
organic matter at the soil surface there occurs the development of an A horizon, due to
processes such as decomposition and mineralization. After an A horizon is formed slowly a B
Horizon is developed, due to the formation of clay minerals (denoted by a lower case 't'). In a
humid environment such as the central United States material from the upper part of the soil
profile is leached downwards (e.g. clays, organic material) and an eluvial horizon (E horizon)
is formed. The accumulated material is precipitated in a horizon below the E , the so-called
illuvial horizon, in this case the Bt horizon.

Figure 7. Stages of development of soils across time for a soil in the central United States
under forest.