Chapter 19WIN - Coisas

1
CHAPTER
19
Communication Systems
his chapter introduces the foundations of electrical communication systems,
emphasizing basic analog communications ideas. An overview of digital
communications concepts is provided in the last section.
The subject of electrical communications is one that touches everyones life:
telephones, TV and radio have been a part of our lives for many decades; today,
new means of communications are becoming as pervasive as the traditional ones.
Computer networks, satellite weather systems, personal communication systems (pagers,
cellular phones, etc.) are becoming essential parts of our everyday lives. The aim of this
chapter is to present the basic mathematics of spectrum analysis, which are the
foundations of all communication systems, and the basic operation of amplitude- and
frequency-modulation systems. The explanation of these concepts is supplemented by
the use of computer-aided tools. In addition, the chapter also includes an overview of
different types of commonly used communication systems.
Upon completing the chapter, you should:
a. Be familiar with the most common types of communication systems in block
diagram form.
b. Be capable of performing spectral analysis of simple signals using analytical and
computer-aided tools.
c. Understand the principles of AM modulation and demodulation, and perform basic
calculations and numerical computations on AM signals.
d. Understand the principles of FM modulation and demodulation, and perform basic
calculations and numerical computations on FM signals.
19.1
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
The modern era of communications began with the telegraph and the Morse
code (http://www.soton.ac.uk/~scp93ch/refer/alphabet.html#punctuation), and rapidly
moved towards radio and television. Table 19.1 summarizes some of the major dates in
the history of communication systems.
Table 19.1 A Brief History of Communications
Date
Event
Samuel F. B. Morse demonstrates telegraph
1838
Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone
1876
Marconi patents a complete wireless telegraph system
1897
Lee DeForest invents the triode amplifier
1906
Bell System completes a transcontinental telephone line
1915
B.H. Armstrong perfects the superheterodyne receiver
1918
Alec Reeves conceives pulse code modulation
1937
Television broadcasting begins
1938
Radar and microwave systems are developed
WW II
The transistor is invented; Claude Shannon publishes
1948
Mathematical Theory of Communications
First transoceanic telephone cable
1956
First communications satellite, Telstar I, is launched
1960
High speed digital communications
1962-66
Mariner IV transmits pictures from Mars to Earth
1965
Color TV
1970
Commercial relay satellite telecommunications
1970
Intercontinental computer communication networks
1975
Information, modulation and carriers
The purpose of communication systems is to communicate information; the four
most common sources of information are: speech (or sound), video and data. Regardless
of the source, the information that is transmitted and received in a communication system
consists of a signal, encoding the information in some appropriate fashion. Figure 19.1
depicts the general layout of a communication system: an input transducer (e.g., a
microphone) converts the input message into a message signal (e.g., a time varying
voltage) that is transmitted over a channel, and converted by a receiver into an output
signal. An output transducer (e.g., a loudspeaker) converts the received signal into an
output message (e.g.: sound). The transmitter performs a very important function on
communication signals by encoding the signals in some fashion making use of a carrier
signal. The information is contained in a so-called modulating signal that modulates a
carrier signal. For example, in FM radio the modulating signal consists of speech and
music, and the carrier is a sinusoidal wave of pre-determined frequency, much higher
than the modulating signal frequency. Table 19.2 summarized the frequency band
allocation and typical applications in each frequency band. More detailed information
can be found at http://www.ntia.doc.gov/osmhome/allochrt.pdf.
There are two principal reasons for the use of a very broad spectrum of carrier
frequencies. The first is that allowing for a broad spectrum permits many simultaneous
users to broadcast information at different frequencies without interference among
different transmissions; the second is that depending on the frequency of the carrier, the
electromagnetic waves that are transmitted have different propagation characteristics.
Thus, different carrier frequencies are better suited for propagating over long distances
than others. Table 19.2 summarizes the frequency spectrum allocations used today.
Input message
Message signal
Input
transducer
Transmitted signal
Transmitter
Received signal
Output signal
Channel
Receiver
Output message
Output
Transducer
Carrier
Figure 19.1 Block diagram of a communication system
Frequency
Band
3-30 kHz
Table 19.2 Frequency bands

Name
medium
Applications
Wire pairs
Long-range navigation, sonar.
30-300 kHz
300-3000
kHz
Very Low Frequency

(VLF)
Low Frequency (LF)
Medium Frequency
(MF)
Wire pairs
Coaxial
Cable
3-30 MHz
High Frequency (HF)
Coaxial
Cable
30-300
MHz
Very High Frequency

(VHF)
Coaxial
Cable
0.3-3 GHz
Ultra High Frequency

(UHF)
3-30 GHz
Super High
Frequency (SHF)
Coaxial
Cable
Waveguide
Waveguide
30-300 GHz
Extremely High
Frequency (EHF)
Optical frequencies
Navigational aids, radio beacons.

Maritime radio, direction
finding, Coast Guard,
commercial AM radio.
Search and rescue, aircraft
communications with ships,
telegraph, telephone and
facsimile.
VHF television channels, FM
radio, private aircraft, air traffic
control, taxi cabs, police.
UHF television channels,
surveillance radar, satellite
communications.
Satellite communications,
airborne radar, approach radar,
weather radar, land mobile.
Railroad service, radar landing
systems, experimental.
Wideband data, experimental.
> 300 GHz
Waveguide
Optical
fiber
Classification of communication systems

Communication systems can be classified into two basic families, based on the
nature of the message signal: analog communication systems and digital
communication systems.
In this chapter we shall primarily focus on analog
communications, although it should be remarked that digital communications are taking
an increasingly prominent role even in the most common applications1. Another
classification may be made based on the type of transmission: light wave vs. radio
frequency, or RF transmission, as is explained in the next section. A third classification
is that of carrier vs. direct baseband transmission system. This latter classification is
based on whether the signal of interest is directly transmitted (e.g., as in the case of the
telegraph), or whether the signal modulates a carrier wave, as in the case of AM and FM
radio transmission.
An example of this phenomenon is the changeover from analog to digital systems in

cellular telephony. Both systems coexist at the present time, but it is reasonable to
forecast that in a few years all personal communication systems will be digital.
Communication channels
The modulated transmitted signal can reach the receiver in a number of ways.
In some cases, communication systems are hard wired. Examples of this configuration
are local area computer networks, local telephone systems and local cable TV networks.
Depending on the frequency range, the transmitted signal can be carried by twisted wire
pair, coaxial cable, waveguides, or optical fiber. However, in most communications
systems, after the signal had been carried over a wire or cable, it is eventually broadcast
over air by an antenna, to be received by a similar antenna elsewhere. Figure 19.2 depicts
some typical communication system components.
Figure 19.2 Communication system components; clockwise from top left: coaxial
cables; RF connectors; detail of coaxial cable; RF cabling components; monopole
antenna; optical fiber bundle.
The range of transmission can be significant consider that signals can be
received from the far reaches of the solar system via radio astronomy. The most
common means of transmission of communication signals is via the broadcast of radio
frequency waves over the air. To understand the different types of wave propagation,
we need to briefly explain the geometry of the earths atmosphere. With reference to
Figure 19.3, the atmosphere is composed of layers, of which the troposphere and the
ionosphere are the most important for radio wave transmission. The troposphere (up to
about 20 km above sea level) is where the earths air is contained; air density,
temperature and humidity decrease with increasing altitude. The propagation of radio
waves in air depends on various properties of the medium. The speed of propagation of
electromagnetic waves and the refractive index of the medium (causing the deflection of
the wave) increase with altitude; as a consequence, radio waves tend to bend back
towards the earth as they propagate through the troposphere.
The ionosphere is so called because of the ionization of the small amounts of air
present at these altitudes (50 to 600 km); electromagnetic waves reaching the ionosphere
may propagate through it with some losses (attenuation), or may be reflected down to
earth, depending on the frequency of the transmissions. In general, frequencies above 30
MHz will propagate through the ionosphere, and are therefore suitable for space
communications (see Web reference to radio astronomy above).
To achieve long range communications over the earth, use is made of so-called
sky waves. These are waves that are reflected by the ionosphere, and permit reaching
points beyond the horizon. The frequencies used for these waves are below 30 MHz to
permit reflection from the ionosphere. Short-wave radio makes use of the sky wave.
Troposheric waves can also propagate beyond the horizon, but instead of being
reflected, as in the case of sky waves, they bend around the earth because of diffusion
(scattering). Direct waves are used in line-of-sight transmission , where the transmitter
and receiver are in the line of sight of one another. The earths curvature is the primary
limitation to the distance of such transmissions; however, due to reflections from the
ground, and to ground and surface waves, this transmission can achieve greater distances
than one would calculate simply based on the earths curvature and the height of the
antennas.
Coaxial cables are very commonly used for the transmission of radio-frequency
waves over short to medium distances, typically in the frequency range between a
fraction of a MHz to hundreds of MHz. Coaxial cable consists of a copper core,
surrounded by an insulating layer, in turn surrounded by a conductive (ground) layer and
by an external protective sheath. Today the most common example of the use of coaxial
cables is the distribution of cable television signals from the receiving station to
individual homes.
An increasingly common type of communication systems is based on light wave
transmission. Light is also electromagnetic radiation, but at much higher frequencies
than radio waves. The main drawback in the use of light as a carrier is that it needs to be
enclosed in a guide to travel over significant distances; optical fibers are used to achieve
such transmission. An optical fiber consists of a hair-thin strand of glass, the core,
surrounded by a protective layer, the cladding. Snells law of optics ensures that, if light
enters the fiber at a sufficiently low angle of incidence, the transmission benefits from
total internal reflection, confining the light signal to the core with minimal losses. Highspeed computer communications networks are increasingly making use of optical fibers.
Ionosphere
Direct wave transmission with repeater
Sky wave
Earth
Figure 19.3 Propagation of radio frequency waves
19.2
SPECTRAL ANALYSIS
Signal spectra.
You know from Chapters 4 and 6 that signals can be represented both in timedomain and in frequency-domain form. The phasor notation introduced in Chapter 4 is
the starting point of the frequency domain representation, or spectral representation of
signals: a phasor describes a sinusoidal signals amplitude and phase as a function of
frequency. The spectrum of a signal consists of the frequency domain representation of
the voltage signal. For example, the signal x (t ) = A1 cos( 1 t + 1 ) only contains a single
sinusoidal frequency, 1, and its spectrum therefore consists of a pair spectral lines at
the frequency 1. Figures 19.4(a) and (b)-(c) depict the representation of a sinusoidal
signal in the time domain and in the frequency domain. Note that to completely represent
the frequency domain signal one needs to consider both magnitude and phase, as was
discussed in Chapter 4. Note also that the spectrum of the signal exists at both positive
and negative frequencies2; this is a mathematical consequence of the definition of the
Fourier transform, as will be shown soon.
Although negative frequencies have no physical significance, the mathematical form of the
Fourier Series and Transform requires that we consider the spectrum of the signal at both positive
and negative frequencies.
(a)
0.8
0.6
0.4
x(t), V
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-0.02
-0.015
-0.01
-0.005
0
time, s
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
3
0.55
0.5
2
0.45
0.4
Angle(X(f)), Rad
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
-1
0.15
0.1
-2
0.05
-3
-200
-150
-100
-50
50
100
150
200
-200
-150
-100
-50
50
100
150
200
Figure 19.4 Time-domain (a) and frequency-domain ((b) magnitude, (c) phase)
representation of a sinusoidal voltage (amplitude: 1 V-peak; phase: 0 rad)
Example 19.1 Sinusoidal signal spectrum
Problem:
Generate the spectrum of a signal consisting of the addition of two unity-amplitude sine
waves for different frequencies and phases. Plot the time-domain sum and the spectrum
of the sum.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Sine wave amplitude, frequency and phase.
Find:
Plot the time domain sum of the signals and the frequency domain spectrum.
Schematics, diagrams, circuits and given data.
1 = 300 rad/s; 2 = 500 rad/s; 1 = 0 rad; 2 = /4 rad/s;
Assumptions:
None.
Analysis:
The time-domain signals x1(t) and x2(t) and their sum are shown in Figure 19.5(a). Figure
19.5(b) depicts the frequency spectrum of the sum signal.
Time-domain sum of sinusoidal signals
1.5
x(t), V
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-0.02
-0.015
-0.01
-0.005
0
time, s
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
(a)
3
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
Angle(X(f)), Rad
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
-1
0.15
0.1
-2
0.05
-3
-400
-300
-200
-100
100
200
300
400
-400
-300
-200
-100
100
200
300
400
(b)
Figure 19.5 Time-domain (a) and frequency-domain (b) representation of the sum of two
sinusoidal voltages
Comments:
Note that the signal amplitude in the time domain is divided between two spectral lines at
each signal component frequency, and at the corresponding negative frequency; thus,
signal power is preserved. The phase angle (at the positive frequencies) is shown to be
/2 for the signal x1(t) because the signal is a sine wave (in Chapter 4 we defined the
cosine as the reference function, with zero phase angle); thus, x2(t) has phase angle /2
+ /4 = /4.
Focus on Computer-Aided Tools
A Matlab file used to generate the figures shown in this example may be found on the
book website, http://www.mhhe.com/engcs/electrical/rizzoni. You may wish to explore
further by changing the signal phases and frequencies, or by adding a third sinusoid.
Periodic signals: Fourier series

Periodic signals (see Chapter 4 for an introduction to signal waveforms) can be
represented by the infinite summation of sinusoidal signals, as was explained in the Box
Fourier Series in Chapter 6. This section explores the idea of the Fourier series
representation of a periodic signal more formally.
Let the signal x(t) be periodic with period T, that is,
x (t ) = x (t + T ) = x (t + nT ) n = 0,1,2, 3...
(19.1)
An example of a periodic signal is shown in Figure 19.6.
x(t)
2T
3T
Figure 19.6 A periodic signal

The signal x(t) can be expressed by means of an infinite summation of sinusoidal
components according to one of the following three (equivalent) representations:
n2
T
x (t ) = a 0 + a n cos
n =1
n2
T
t + bn sin
n=1
Sine-cosine (quadrature) representation (19.3)

(19.2)
n 2 t +
n
T
x (t ) = c 0 + c n sin
n=1
or
Magnitude and phase representation
(19.4)
n 2 t
n
x (t ) = c 0 + c n cos
n=1
x (t ) =
n e
jn
2
T
Complex representation
n =
In each of these expressions, the period, T, is related to the fundamental frequency of the
signal, 0, by:
2
(19.6)
0 = 2 f0 =
rad/s
T
It is straight forward to show that (19.4) is equivalent to (19.3), by expanding (19.4):

2
2
2
t n = c n cos ( n ) sin n
t + c sin (n )cos n
t
T
T n
T
c n sin n
where a n = c n sin ( n ) and b n = cn cos ( n ) ; one can verify that the equality holds if
2
a n + bn = cn and
bn
an
= tan ( n ) .
(19.7)
(19.5)
Similarly, one can show that (19.4) is equivalent to (19.3) if

2
a n + bn = cn and
bn
an
= tan ( n )
(19.8)
Figure 19.7 is a graphical representation of the equivalence of the {an, bn} and {cn, n}
forms of the Fourier series. Equations (19.7-8) permit easy conversion between the two
forms of the Fourier series.
b n= c n sin ( n )
cn
an = c n cos (n)
Figure 19.7 Quadrature and magnitude-phase representation of sinusoidal signals
In each of the above representations, 0 = 2 f0 =
2
T
is called the
fundamental frequency (in units of radians per second), and the frequencies 2o, 3o,
4o, etc. are called its harmonics.
The computation of the {an,bn} or {cn, n} coefficients for the periodic
function x(t) is based on the following formulas:
a0 =
an =
bn =
x (t )dt
(19.9)
2
t dt n = 1, 2,3,...
x (t ) cos n
T
0
(19.10)
2
t dt n = 1, 2,3, ...
x (t ) sin n
T
0
(19.11)
Note that in the above equations it does not matter where the integration starts, provided
that it is carried out over one entire period. The cn and n coefficients can be derived
from the an and bn coefficients as shown earlier. The coefficients of the complex
representation are computed using the following expression:
n =
x (t ) e
jn
2
T
dt
n = 0, 1, 2, ...
(19.12)
10
Odd and Even functions

When using the quadrature form of the Fourier series equations, it is useful to recognize
that all periodic functions can be represented as the sum of odd and even functions.
Even functions have mirror symmetry with respect to the y axis, while odd functions
have skew symmetry with respect to the vertical axis. Formally:
x(t) is even if x (t ) = x ( t )
x(t) is odd if x (t ) = x ( t ) .
Figures 19.8(a) and (b) depict the appearance of an even and an odd function,
respectively. You may have already noted that the basis functions, cosine and sine, used
in the quadrature representation of the Fourier series are themselves even and odd
functions, since cos(t) = cos(t) and sin(t) = sin(t). This property may actually result
in significant savigns in computation if we recognize that a given function is odd or even,
since odd functions will contain only odd basis functions (sines) and even functions will
contain only even basis functions (cosines). Example 19.2 illustrates this principle.
x(t)
x(t)
-T
-T
(a) Even function
(b) Odd function
Figure 19.8 Examples of even and odd functions
Example 19.2 Fourier series of a sawtooth waveform

Problem:
Compute the complete Fourier spectrum of the sawtooth function shown in Figure 19.9.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Amplitude, period and functional form of the signal.
Find:
bn and cn coefficients as a function of n
11
A
0
T/2
-A
Figure 19.9 Sawtooth signal
Assumptions:
The function repeats periodically.
Analysis:
The function of Figure 19.9 is an odd function, since x (t ) = x ( t ) . Thus we
only need compute the bn (sine) coefficients. First, we determine an expression for x(t):
x (t ) = A 1
2t
then we evaluate the integral of equation 19.11:

T
2
2
bn =
t dt
x (t ) sin n
T 0
T
=
2t 2
A 1 sin n
T
T 0
T
2
t dt =
2 + 2 T 2 t 2
t dt
sin n
A sin n
A
T
T
T 0
T 0 T
2
t dt
T
T
2
1
4A
4A
2 t
2
= 0 2 t sin n
t dt = 2
t
cos n
t
2 sin n
T
2
T
T
T 0
T 2 2
n
n T
T
0
=
4A
2 2
T n 4
2
sin (2 n )
n2
2A
cos (2 n ) =
, n = 1, 2, 3, ...
Comments:
Note that the final expression for the Fourier series of the sawtooth waveform is actually
quite simple, indicating that the amplitude of the spectral components of the decreases in
proportion to the harmonic number, n.
12
Example 19.3
Fourier series of pulse train
Problem:
Compute the complete Fourier series of the periodic pulse train shown in Figure 19.10.
Solution:
Known quantities: Amplitude, period and functional form of the signal.
Find: bn and cn coefficients as a function of n
Schematics, diagrams, circuits and given data.: =
= 0. 2
x(t)
A
/2 0 /2
/2 T
Figure 19.10 Periodic pulse train

Assumptions:
The function repeats periodically.
Analysis:
The function of Figure 19.10 is neither even nor odd. Since there is nothing to
be gained by using the quadrature (odd-even) representation, we shall use the complex
form. The expression for x(t) is very simple in this case:
x (t ) = A for < t
2
x (t ) = 0 for
<t T
To determine the complex coefficient of the Fourier series, we evaluate the integral of
equation 19.11:
T
n =
1
T
x (t )e
jn
2
T
dt =
n =
1
T
1
T
n =
1
T
T
2
Ae
dt
jn
x (t ) e
2
T
T2
T2
[cos
T2
1
n
jn
dt
( )t j sin ( )t ]dt
2 n
T
sin (n )
2 n
T
n = 0, 1, 2, L
We may simplify the notation by using the sinc function defined as:
sinc (x ) =
Thus we may rewrite the coefficients as:
sin (x )
x
13
n = n 1 sin (n ) = 1 sinc (n )
Figure 19.11(a) depicts the pulse train corresponding to the numerical values given
above, and Figure 19.11(b) its Fourier series coefficients up to n = 1000. The envelope of
the discrete-frequency coefficients is the sinc function defined above.
Figure 19.11 Time-domain representation and Fourier Series spectrum of periodic pulse
train with = 0.2.
Comments:
Note that in the complex form of the Fourier series, the coefficients range from negative
infinity to positive infinity.
book website, http://www.mhhe.com/engcs/electrical/rizzoni.
14
Non-periodic signals, Fourier transform

Practical communication signals have both periodic and non-periodic
components. Typically, the carrier waveform is periodic (usually a sine wave), while the
modulating signal, consisting of speech, music, video or data, is non-periodic. The
analysis of non-periodic signals uses a mathematical tool different from (but related to)
the Fourier Series: the Fourier transform. The Fourier transform, also named after the
French mathematician Fourier (see box Fourier Series in Chapter 6), is an integral
transform, so called because it is mathematically represented by an integral, and because
it performs a transformation between two domains: the time domain and the frequency
or spectral domain.
The Fourier transform of a function x (t ) is the function X ( ) defined by the
integral
X ( ) = x ( t )e
j t
dt
Fourier transform
(19.13)
Conversely, if the function X ( ) is known, the inverse Fourier transform is

defined by:
x (t ) =
X ( )e
j t
Inverse Fourier transform (19.14)
The pair x (t ) and X ( ) represent a Fourier transform pair, a relationship

usually denoted by x (t ) X ( ) . Table 19.3 provides a useful summary of common
Fourier transform pairs.
Before proceeding with the Fourier transform, it will be useful to define a
function called the unit impulse or delta function. This function plays a very important
role in Fourier analysis. The unit impulse function, (t), can be defined as the derivative
of the unit step function introduced in Chapter 6 (equation 6.52):
(t ) =
du (t )
dt
t0
Figure 19.12
Delta
function as the limit of a
sequence of rectangular
pulses of unit area
Delta or unit impulse function (19.15)
The unit impulse function has three important properties: 1) it has area equal to
one; 2) it has infinite amplitude; and 3) it has zero duration, that is, its occurrence is
concentrated at one instant in time. Clearly, such a signal is a mathematical abstraction,
since it is impossible to physically generate a signal that has zero duration and infinite
amplitude. Figure 19.12 shows how one can think of the delta function as the limit of a
sequence of rectangular pulses that are increasingly narrow and tall, such that the product
of height (1/) and width () is always equal to 1: the delta function can be thought of as
the limit of this sequence as approaches zero.
The delta function has one further property that is of interest in signal analysis:
(t-t 0)
or u (t ) = ( t' ) dt'
x (t ) (t t 0 )dt = x (t 0 )
(19.16)
that is, the delta function samples the function x(t) at the time of the occurrence of the
impulse.
A number of properties of the Fourier transform can assist in the computation of
Fourier transforms. The most important properties are summarized in Table 19.3. Some
Fourier transform pairs are listed in Table 19.4.
15
Table 19.3 Properties of Fourier transforms

Signal
Fourier transform
j t0
x (t t 0 )
X ( )
e
t
j
X
(
0 )
0
Frequency shift
e
x (t )
x * (t )
X * ( )
Complex conjugate
Time reflection
x ( t )
X ( )
1
Scaling
x (at )
X
a a
x (t ) y (t )
X ( ) Y ( )
Convolution
x (t ) y (t )
1
Multiplication
X ( ) Y ( )
2
d
jX ( )
Differentiation
Property
Time shift
dt
x( t )
Integration
x (t )dt
Table 19.4 Fourier transform pairs

x(t)
X(
)
(t )
1
1
2 ( )
1
2
3
u ( t)
(unit step)
tu (t )
(unit ramp)
5
6
7
8
9
X ( ) + X ( 0) ( )
te
u (t )
>0
u(t)
e
>0
j 0 t
cos ( 0 t )
sin ( 0 t )
10
cos ( 0 t )u ( t )
11
sin ( 0 t )u ( t )
2 ( ) +
2
d ( )
d
1
1
j
1
+ j
1
( + j )2
2 ( 0 )
[ ( 0 ) + ( + 0 ) ]
j [ ( 0 ) ( + 0 )]
[ ( 0 ) + ( + 0 )]+ 2 j 2
2
0
j [ ( 0 ) ( + 0 )]+ 2 0 2
2
0
The importance of the Fourier transform is that it allows us to view signals in

the frequency or spectral domain. As you shall see shortly, the spectral representation of
signals is much more convenient and effective in representing communications signals,
among other reasons because it permits defining important concepts such as bandwidth
and spectrum allocation. You already know that sinusoidal signals are represented by
single frequencies in the spectrum, from the Fourier series discussion in the preceding
subsection. In the following three examples, we compute the Fourier transform of a wellknow signal, a sinusoid; of a signal we have not yet analyzed: a single rectangular pulse;
and of a signal that occurs very frequently in communication systems: a sine wave burst,
or RF pulse. These examples will help you develop a feel for the spectral content of
different types of signals.
16
Example 19.4 Fourier Transform of sine wave

Problem:
Compute the Fourier transform of an arbitrary sinusoidal signal.
Solution:
Known quantities: Functional form of the signal, x(t).
Find: X()
Schematics, diagrams, circuits and given data. Figure 19.13.
Assumptions:
Figure 19.13 Sinusoidal
signal of frequency 0.
None
Analysis:
The signal shown in Figure 19.13, is defined as
x (t ) = sin( 0t )
The Fourier transform for the signal is calculated using the complex representation
n =
1
T
1
T
=
n =
T
2
x (t ) e
jn
2
T t
dt
T
2
T
2
jn
sin( 0 t ) e
2
T
dt
T
2
1
T2 j
1 1
2j T
T
2
j
e
T2
T
2
2
T t
j
e
T
2
e j
2
T (1
n) t
2
T
e j
jn 2T t
2
T (
dt
n 1) t
dt
Using the relation from Table 19.3, for the defined Fourier transform pairs, the above
integral can be evaluated as:
[2 ( ) 2 ( + )]
= [ ( ) ( + )]
n =
1
2j
Thus, the Fourier transform of an arbitrary sinusoid consists of a pair of delta functions in
the frequency domain, as shown In Figure 19.4.
Figure 19.14 Fourier

transform of sinusoid
Comments:
We can extend the result of this example to an arbitrary periodic signal , since we know
that any periodic signal can be represented by the sum of an infinite number of sinusoidal
functions. the Fourier transform, X() of a periodic signal, x(t) is a train of impulses
occurring at the harmonically related frequencies and for which the area of the impulse at
17
the nth harmonic frequency, n0 is 2 times the nth Fourier series coefficient an. The
Fourier series coefficients for this sinusoid signal are
a1 =
1
2j
a1 =
1
2j
a k = 0,
| k | 1
Hence, the Fourier transform coefficients are given by,

a 1 = j ,
a 1 = j ,
ak = 0
|k |1
Example 19.5 Fourier Transform of rectangular pulse signal

Problem:
Compute the Fourier transform of a square pulse signal.
Solution:
Find: X()
Schematics, diagrams, circuits and given data. Figure 19.15.
Figure 19.15
Rectangular pulse.
Assumptions: None.
Analysis:
Consider the rectangular pulse, x(t) of duration T and unity amplitude shown in Figure
19.15. We define this pulse mathematically as follows:
1 for | t | T2
x (t ) =
0 for | t |> T2
The Fourier transform of x(t) is
[ ]
T
2
T
2
X ( ) = e j t dt = e j
= 2 e
T
T
2
2
X ( ) = T sinc (
j t
T
)
2
X ( f ) = T sinc( fT )
j T
2
j T2
2j
where , sinc ( x ) =
sin( x )
x
T
2
sin( 2 )
Figure 19.16 Fourier

Transform of square
pulse (magnitude only)
18
A plot of the spectrum is shown in Figure 19.16. The figure illustrates the characteristics
of the sinc function, with zero crossings at integer multiples of /T rad/s, and peak
amplitude of 2T.
Comments:
Single and repetitive square bursts occur commonly in communication systems. The
analysis completed in this example will be useful in the following sections.
book website, http://www.mhhe.com/engcs/electrical/rizzoni.
Example 19.6 Fourier Transform of sine burst (RF pulse)
Problem:
Compute the Fourier transform of the sine wave burst shown in Figure 19.17.
Solution:
Find: X()
Schematics, diagrams, circuits and given data: Figure 19.17.
Figure
19.17
Radio-frequency
(RF) burst.
Assumptions: None.
Analysis:
The pulse signal x(t) shown in Figure 19.17 (a) consists of a sinusoidal wave of unit
amplitude and frequency fc, for a duration t = -T/2 to t = T/2.The signal x(t) can be
defined mathematically as follows:
T
A cos( 2 fc t ) for | t | 2
x (t ) =
T
for | t | > 2
0
The Fourier transform of x(t) is
T
2
X ( ) = x ( t ) e
A
2
j t
T
2
T
2
dt =
j ( c )t
j ( c )
T
2
A
2
(e
j ( + c ) t
j ( + c )
19.18
spectrum
+ e j c t e jt dt
T
2
T2
T
j ( + c ) 2
j ( c ) T2
= A 2e j ( ) 2e j( + ) +
c
c
Figure
Magnitude
of RF burst
j c t
j ( c ) T
2
e
2 j ( c )
j ( + c ) T
2
+ 2ej( + )
c
sin ( f + fc )T
sin (f fc )T
= A
+
2 ( f fc )
2 ( f + fc )
AT
X ( ) = 2 sinc ( f + f c )T + sinc ( f f c )T
Note that we could have used the frequency shifting property of the Fourier transform to
obtain the above result without carrying out the integration explicitly. The magnitude
spectrum of the RF pulse is shown in Figure 19.18. It clearly illustrates the frequencyshifting property of the Fourier transform.
19
Comments:
This signal is specifically referred to as a RF pulse when the frequency, fc of the sinusoid
wave falls in the radio frequency range.
book website, http://www.mhhe.com/engcs/electrical/rizzoni
Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a signal is the range of frequencies comprising the spectrum
of the signal. Bandwidth is a very important concept in communication systems, as the
allocation of radio frequency spectrum for different communication systems permits the
transmission of signal within a certain specified bandwidth. For example, standard FM
radio allows a bandwidth of 200 kHz for each radio station. The most common definition
of bandwidth is that of 3-dB bandwidth, also called half-power bandwidth. The 3-dB
bandwidth of a signal is defined as the frequency range between points where the signal
level is 3 dB below its maximum pass-band value. This informal definition is illustrated
in Figure 19.19, where an arbitrary voltage signal is shown to have a spectrum V(f), with
center frequency f0 and 3-dB bandwidth 2B.
You will recall from the definitions given in Chapter 6 that the 3-dB point in a
frequency plot is the frequency where the amplitude has dropped to a value equal to
1 / 2 , or 0.707, times the maximum value. Since signal power is proportional to the
square of the voltage, the 3-dB bandwidth is also called the half-power bandwidth. Thus,
half of the signal power is contained in the frequency band f 0 B to f 0 + B ; we call 2B
the bandwidth of the signal. Please observe that this informal definition assumes that the
signal spectrum as a band-pass shape. This is usually the case for most, if not all,
communication signals.
How much bandwidth does a signal require? This depends on two
facts: i) the bandwidth of the signal itself; and ii) the type of modulation. We shall
revisit the concept of bandwidth when we explore amplitude- and frequency-modulation
systems.
V(f)
V max
0.707V
max
f B
0
f0 +B
Figure 19.19 Definition of 3-dB (half-power) bandwidth
20
Example 19.7 Bandwidth of commercial AM (or TV, or FM) signals

Problem:
Analyze the bandwidth of the signal from a commercial AM station and determine how
many stations can be assigned frequencies over the frequency band assigned to
commercial AM.
Solution:
Schematics, diagrams, circuits and given data:
see http://www.ntia.doc.gov/osmhome/allochrt.pdf
Analysis:
As can be seen in the diagram displayed in the above website, the AM band frequency
allocation goes from 535 to 1,605 kHz. Each channel is allocated a bandwidth of
approximately 10 kHz (we shall see in the next section what this calculation includes).
Thus, the total number of stations that can operate in the same region is approximately
equal to:
1605 535
= 107
N =
10
Each AM station can operate with a total bandwidth of 10 kHz. As we shall see in the
next section, this actually corresponds to a signal bandwidth of only 5 kHz.
Comments:
You are probably aware of the fact that the FCC licenses many more than 107 AM
stations in the USA. This is possible because AM broadcast has a limited range, and two
stations can be assigned the same frequency if there are located sufficiently far apart.
You may also have noticed that at night it is possible to receive AM radio signals from
much greater distances (for example, in Ohio one can tune in stations from as far as New
York City and New Orleans late at night). This is a consequence of the change in
ionization density on the ionosphere during the night, permitting reflection of radio
waves over a longer range. The FCC regulates not only the frequency allocation, but also
the power allocated to a given station; a station may be required to switch to a lowerpower transmitter during certain times of the day.
Check Your Understanding

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Repeat the analysis of Example 19.2 using the complex representation of the Fourier
series (equation 19.5)
Repeat the analysis of Example 19.3 using the quadrature representation of the
Fourier series (equation 19.3).
Compute all the coefficients of the Fourier series expansion for the signal x(t) = 1.5
cos(100t).
Sketch the Fourier transform of a square pulse with unity amplitude and with a
duration of 10 s.
The spectrum of a signal can be described by the function X ( ) = 2

. Let
+2
= 103, and calculate the 3-dB bandwidth of the signal. What is the center frequency
of the signal?
21
19.3
AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
The concept of amplitude modulation (AM) was introduced in Chapter 4

(Focus on measurements: capacitive displacement transducer), where it was shown that
the signal produced by a capacitive microphone (displacement transducer) inserted in a
Wheatstone bridge circuit, modulated the amplitude of a sinusoidal excitation signal. In
that example, the pressure changes sensed by the microphone constituted the modulation,
while the sinusoidal excitation provided a carrier.
In Chapter 8 (Focus on
measurements: peak detector for capacitive displacement transducer), it was shown that
a diode circuit was capable of demodulating the AM signal, and of recovering the desired
information (pressure changes corresponding to acoustic waves, that is, sound). In this
section, the same basic principles introduced in the above mentioned examples will be
discussed more formally, as they apply to AM communication systems.
The most common manifestation of amplitude modulation in communication
systems is commercial AM radio, or standard AM. The Federal Communications
Commission (FCC), a body that regulates the usage and allocation of the radio frequency
spectrum in the U.S.A., has assigned the frequency band between 540 and 1600 kHz to
commercial AM radio transmission. Each station can occupy a bandwidth of 10 kHz
centered around its carrier. As we shall see, this corresponds to an effective signal
bandwidth of 5 kHz sufficient for good reproduction of speech, and acceptable
reproduction of music.
Basic principle of AM
AM signals are generated by modulating the amplitude of a carrier signal. Let
the carrier signal be a sinusoid at frequency c :
c (t ) = A c cos (c t )
Carrier signal
(19.17)
and for illustration purposes - let the modulation also be a single tone (sinusoid), at a
frequency m << c :
m (t ) = A m cos ( m t )
Modulating signal
(19.18)
With these definitions, we can define the basic AM signal as follows:
s ( t ) = [ Ac + m (t )]cos ( c t )
(19.19)
or
Am
s ( t ) = Ac 1 +
cos ( m t ) cos ( c t )
AM signal
(19.20)
A
The modulation index, , is defined to be the ratio of the modulation to carrier signal
amplitudes:
=
Am
Modulation index
Ac
(19.21)
and for proper amplitude modulation should be less than 1. If Equation 19.20 is
expanded, we see that an AM signal is composed of two terms: a sinusoidal carrier wave,
plus a wave that is the product of two sinusoidal terms. Using trigonometric identities,
we can write the following expression:
s ( t ) = Ac cos ( c t ) + A c cos ( c t )cos ( m t )
(19.22)
A
A
= Ac cos ( c t ) + c cos (c m )t + c cos ( c + m )t
2
Equation 19.22 shows that the AM signal is really composed of three sinusoidal
waveforms: a carrier wave; a lower sideband signal, at frequency ( c m ) ,containing
the modulating signal; and an upper sideband signal, at frequency ( c + m ) , also
containing information (the modulation). Example 19.8 illustrates some important
properties of an AM signal with pure sinusoidal modulation.
22
Example 19.8 Single-tone amplitude modulation

Problem:
Analyze the spectrum of a single-tone modulation signal based on the WOSU AM 820
radio station. Use both analytical and computational tools.
Solution:
Known quantities: Carrier frequency; modulation index.
Find: Derive expressions for and plot time-and frequency domain waveforms of the AM
signal.
fc = 0.82 MHz; = 0.5.
Message signal
Carrier signal
0.5
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.6
1.5
1
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.1
c(t), V)
m(t), V)
0.2
-0.1
-0.2
-0.5
-0.2
-0.4
-1
-0.3
-0.6
-0.4
-1.5
-0.8
-0.5
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Time, s
1
x 10
-4
-2
-1
-1
0
2
Time, s
(a)
x 10
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
-5
1
x 10
-4
(c)
(b)
0.6
0.35
1
0.3
0.5
0.25
0.8
0.4
0.2
0.15
0.6
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.05
0.1
0
0.2
-f
-0.05
0
-f
-0.1
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2
x 10
-0.1
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
x 10
(d)
7.2
7.4
7.6
7.8
8.2
8.4
8.6
(e)
(f)
Figure 19.20 Time- and frequency-domain waveforms of single-tone AM signal
Assumptions: Assume unity amplitude for the carrier, Ac = 1, and a modulating

frequency fm = 10 kHz
Analysis:
Define the modulating signal m(t) and the carrier signal c(t) as
m (t ) = A m cos( 2 f m t )
c (t ) = A c cos( 2 f c t )
8.8
9.2
x 10
23
These waveforms are plotted in Figures 19.20(a) and (b), respectively. The spectra of
these signals are plotted in figures 19.20(d and (e).
The AM wave s(t) is given by
s ( t ) = Ac [1 + cos( 2 f m t )]cos( 2 f c t )
and is plotted in Figure 19.20(c). Using the Fourier transform pairs given in Table 19.3
(Pair 8), the Fourier transform of s(t) can be expressed as the sum of three delta functions,
centered at the carrier and at the sum (upper sideband) and difference (lower sideband)
frequencies. Note also that the spectrum is repeated for negative frequencies, as
explained earlier.
S(f) =
Ac
2
[ ( f
Ac
4
f c ) + ( f + f c )] +
[ ( f
Ac
4
[ ( f
f c f m ) + ( f + f c + f m )]
fc + f m ) + ( f + f c f m )
Thus, the spectrum of an AM wave for the special case of sinusoidal modulation, consists
of delta function at fc, fc fm, and fc fm, as shown in Fig. 19.20(f).
Comments:
If you like, you may experiment with the value of the modulation index and see its effect
on the AM wave. It is recommended that the modulation index, , be nearly equal to 1,
but not greater. If the modulation index is greater than 1 for any t, the carrier wave
becomes over-modulated, resulting in carrier phase reversals whenever the function
(1 + m( t )) crosses zero.
book website, http://www.mhhe.com/engcs/electrical/rizzoni. You may use this file to
experiment with changes in the modulation index.
The single-tone modulation example is very valuable to understand the basic properties
of an AM signal. In the next two examples we progress to the double-tone modulation,
and then to a general, non-periodic modulating signal to explore the waveforms and
spectrum of more realistic AM signals.
24
Example 19.9 Double-Tone modulation

Problem:
Plot the frequency spectrum of a carrier signal with unity amplitude and frequency fc = 1
MHz which is amplitude modulated with a modulating signal m(t) consisting of two
sinusoidal frequencies.
Solution:
Known quantities: Carrier frequency, and amplitude; modulating signal
Find: Modulation index and frequency spectrum of the AM wave with the defined carrier
and modulating signal.
Schematics, diagrams, circuits and given data:
fc = 1 MHz; Ac = 1 V; m(t) = 0.5cos(210000t) + 0.4cos(280000t).
Message signal
Carrier signal
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
1.5
c(t), V)
m(t), V)
0.5
0
0
-0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.6
-0.6
-0.8
-0.8
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-1
-1
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
Time, s
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
x 10
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
x 10
-1
-18
-16
-14
-12
-4
-10
-8
-6
-4
(a)
-4
-2
Time, s
x 10
-6
(c)
(b)
0.6
0.2
0.5
0.15
0.8
0.4
0.1
0.6
0.3
0.05
-0.05
0.4
0.2
-f
m1
m1
0.1
-0.1
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1.5
0.2
2
x 10
0
0
(d)
-f
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
-0.1
-1
-0.5
0.5
x 10
(f)
(e)
Figure 19.21 Time- and frequency-domain waveforms of double-tone AM signal
Assumptions: None.
Analysis:
The modulation index for the signal is defined as
A
max( m (t )) min( m (t ))
0.9 + 0.8626
= Am =
=
= 0.8813
2V
2
c
1.05
1.1
1.15
1.2
x 10
25
The spectrum of the AM wave in this case consists of delta functions at fc, fc fm1, fc
fm2, -fc fm1, and -fc fm2, where fm1, fm2, are the frequencies contained in the modulating
signal. This is seen in Figure 19.21, where all time- and frequency domain waveforms are
plotted..
Comments:
The frequency spectrum of the AM wave is just a shifted version of the original
modulating signal with the shift in frequency equal to the carrier frequency. The portion
of the spectrum of an AM wave lying above the carrier frequency fc is the upper sideband, whereas the symmetric portion below fc is called the lower side-band.
experiment with changes in the modulation index or in the signal frequencies.
Example 19.10 Non-periodic amplitude modulation
Problem:
Plot the frequency spectrum of a carrier signal with unity amplitude and frequency fc =
0.1 MHz which is amplitude modulated with a non-periodic modulating signal m(t)
having a defined shape.
Solution:
Known quantities: Carrier frequency, and amplitude; Modulating wave m(t) defined for
a certain interval of time.
Find: Frequency spectrum of the AM wave.
sin( 2 f1 t ) + sin( 2 f 2 t ) + sin( 2 f3 t ) + sin( 2 f 4 t ) + u ( t ) for
m (t ) =
0 otherwise
u (t ) = 1 for t T
c (t ) = A c cos( 2 f c t )
fc = 0.1 MHz; Ac = 1; f1 = 1kHz, f2 = 2kHz, f3 = 3kHz, f4 = 4kHz.
t T
26
Amlitude modulated signal, s(t)

6
4.5
4
4
3.5
2
s(t), V
2.5
-2
1.5
1
-4
0.5
-1
-6
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Time, s
1
x 10
1
x 10
-3
-3
(b)
(a)
Normalized spectrum of modulating signal, m(t)
Normalized spectrum of modulated signal, s(t)
0.8
0.8
0.6
|M(f)|, V
|S(f)|, V
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
0
f
0.8
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
Frequency, Hz
0.5
1.5
x 10
0.85
0.9
0.95
1.05
1.1
1.15
Hz
1.2
x 10
(d)
(c)
Figure 19.22 Time- and frequency-domain waveforms of non-periodic AM signal
Assumptions: None.
Analysis:
The signal waveform and the frequency spectrum of the modulating signal and of the AM
wave are shown in Figures 19.22(a-d). The spectrum of the AM wave is a shifted version
of the modulating signal spectrum around the carrier frequency.
Comments:
If Bmax is the bandwidth of the modulating signal, (the highest frequency in the
modulating signal), the bandwidth of the AM wave is defined as, twice the highest
frequency in the modulating signal, i.e., B = 2Bmax.
book website, http://www.mhhe.com/engcs/electrical/rizzoni. You will find this fle
useful in exploring more general AM signals.
27
AM demodulation; integrated circuit receivers

Demodulation is the process of recovering the modulating signal from a
received modulated signal. With reference to Figure 19.1, one can think of the
transmitter in an AM signal as the device that imposes the modulation on a carrier, while
the receiver extracts the modulating signal from a received AM signal. To understand the
basic principle of modulation and demodulation, we observe that amplitude modulation
consists in effect of multiplying the carrier signal times the modulating signal. This
process is often called mixing, and a mixer is the device that implements this function,
that is, multiplication.
Consider the AM signal of Equation (19.20), and multiply it by a second signal
at the same frequency as the carrier signal:

A
s ( t ) c( t ) = A c 1 + m cos ( m t ) cos ( c t ) cos ( c t )
(19.23)
Ac
The resulting squared term, cos 2 ( ct ) can be expanded to yield:

Am
Ac
Am
2
s ( t ) c( t ) = A c 1 +
cos ( m t ) cos ( ct ) =
cos ( m t )(1 + cos (2 c t ))
1 +
2
Ac
Ac
(19.24)
Ac
Ac
=
+ m (t ) + + m ( t ) cos (2 c t )
2
2
You see that the result of this mixing operation consists of two terms: a constant
plus the modulation signal what we desire to recover and an amplitude modulated
term at a frequency equal to twice the carrier frequency. Note that the modulation signal
is back to baseband, that is low frequencies (for example, 0-5 kHz for speech and music),
and that it is therefore easy to recover the modulating signal by low-pass filtering the
output of the mixer. Figure 19.23 depicts a block diagram of a conceptual AM
demodulator as well as the spectra of the AM signal before and after mixing.
The process of demodulating AM signals is carried out today by means of
integrated circuit receivers. Additional information may be found at the following
internet sites:
http://www.national.com/pf/LM/LM1863.html
19.6
19.7
Use the Matlab files that accompany Examples 19.8 and 19.9 to plot only the
positive spectrum of the single- and double-tone AM signals. Determine the
bandwidth of the AM signal in each case.
Determine the bandwidth of the modulating signal in Figure 19.22(c); what is
the bandwidth of the AM signal? Is this consistent with commercial FM
practice? Would the FCC allow a commercial station to broadcast such a
signal?
28
19.4
FREQUENCY MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
You are certainly familiar with the term frequency modulation because of the
great diffusion of FM radio. As its name implies, frequency modulation consists of
encoding the information contained in a modulating signal in the frequency of a carrier
signal.
Figure 19.24 depicts a sinusoidally-modulated FM waveform and its
corresponding magnitude spectrum. FM transmission permits significant improvements
over AM, but at the cost of an increased requirement for bandwidth. In the next subsections you will be introduced to the basic signal models for FM; two different cases are
discussed: narrowband FM and wideband FM. The plots of Figure 19.24 correspond
to a wideband FM signal. Note the significant spread of signal frequencies relative to the
carrier frequency!
0.25
1.5
0.2
1
0.5
Amplitude
0.15
0.1
-0.5
-1
0.05
-1.5
-2
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.2
0
-2500
-2000
-1500
-1000
-500
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
time (s)
(a)
(b)
Figure 19.24 (a) FM signal time waveform; (b) FM signal magnitude spectrum
Basic principle of FM
The basic principle underlying FM is that the instantaneous frequency of the
carrier is modulated by the information-carrying signal. If we assume a sinusoidal
carrier, as is usually the case, say c (t ) = cos( 2 fc t ) , the modulation will cause the
frequency fc to be a function of time. In the signal of Figure 19.24, the carrier frequency
varies sinusoidally as well. Before proceeding with the analysis of FM signals, it will be
useful to examine the relationship between the instantaneous phase and frequency of a
sinusoidal signal. We first define the relationship between the instantaneous phase and
frequency of a sine wave as follows:
t
d (t )
i = 2 f i (t )dt ; f i (t ) = i
(19.23)
dt
To illustrate this definition, consider the case of a simple sinusoidal signal,
v (t ) = A cos (t ) ; in this signal we recognize that the phase angle (the argument of the
cosine function) is i (t ) = t , and therefore the instantaneous signal frequency is given

d (t )
= . This result should not surprise you: all sinusoidal signals must
by f i (t ) = i
dt
have a phase angle that increases linearly with time, so that their instantaneous frequency
is constant. In the case of an FM signal, we might have a phase angle that varies
sinusoidally with time, thus causing the instantaneous frequency to also vary in a
sinusoidal fashion; this is the simplest case of an FM signal, and is treated next.
Single tone modulation
Consider the case of single tone modulation, where the modulating signal is:
m (t ) = A m cos m t = A m cos 2 f m t
(19.24)
29
The instantaneous frequency of the FM signal varies linearly with the modulation, that is,
the carrier frequency increases and decreases with the modulating signal, as shown in
equation 19.25:
f ( t ) = f c + k f Am cos 2 f m t = fc + f cos 2 f m t
(19.25)
In the above expression we have implicitly defined the frequency deviation, f:

f = k f Am
frequency deviation
(19.26)
The frequency deviation is a very important characteristic of an FM signal; f represents

the maximum instantaneous deviation of the FM signal frequency from the carrier
frequency. f is dependent on the amplitude of the modulating signal, and is independent
of the modulating signal frequency. The constant kf depends on the technique used for
generating the modulated signal.
The instantaneous phase of the FM signal is calculated using equation 19.23:
t
fm
i = 2 f i (t )dt = 2 f c t +
sin (2 f m t )
(19.27)
Note that equation 19.27 introduces another important constant: the ratio of the frequency
deviation to the modulating frequency is called the modulation index, :
=
(19.28)
fm
The parameter represents the maximum instantaneous deviation of the phase angle of
the FM signal from the angle of the carrier. Now we can write the instantaneous angle of
the FM signal as follows.
i = 2 fc t + sin (2 f m t )
(19.29)
Finally, the sinusoidally modulated FM signal is defined in equation 19.30:
s FM (t ) = Ac cos 2 f c t + sin 2 f m t
)]
(19.30)
It is now possible to make a formal distinction between the two cases mentioned earlier,
narrowband FM and wideband FM, on the basis of the modulation index.
Narrowband FM
Narrowband FM corresponds to FM signals with a small modulation index (i.e.,
<< 1). We can use a trigonometric identity to expand equation 19.30:
)]
s FM (t ) = Ac cos 2 fc t cos sin 2 f m t A c sin 2 f c t sin sin 2 f m t
)]
(19.31)
and if <<1 we can use the small-angle approximations cos sin (2 f m t ) 1 and
sin sin (2 f m t ) sin (2 f m t ) to write
) (
s FM (t ) Ac cos 2 f c t Ac sin 2 f c t sin 2 f m t
{ [
A c cos (2 fc t ) Ac cos 2 ( f c + f m )t cos 2 ( f c f m )t

1
2
]}
(19.34)
Note the similarity between the expression for narrowband FM and that we derived
earlier for the AM signal, repeated below for convenience:
30
( )
s AM (t ) = A c cos ct +
Ac
cos ( c m )t +
Ac
cos (c + m )t
(19.22)
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
Amplitude
Amplitude
A reasonable rule of thumb is that the approximation given in equation 19.34 holds for
< 0.3. Figure 19.25 (a)-(d) depicts the spectra of FM signals with various values of .
Note how the bandwidth increases with the value of the modulation index. Only in (a)
and (b) is the signal narrowband FM.
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0
-1
-0.5
0.5
1
x 10
-1
-0.5
0.5
1
x 10
(a)
(b)
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
Amplitude
Amplitude
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0
-1
-0.5
0.5
-1
1
x 10
-0.5
0.5
x 10
(d)
(c)
Figure 19.25 Bandwidth increases with modulation index in FM signals:
(a) = 0.1; (b) = 0.3; (c) = 0.6; (d) = 1.
Example 19.11 Narrowband FM
Problem:
Compare the spectrum of a narrowband FM waveform with that of an AM waveform
with the same modulating and carrier frequencies.
Solution:
Known quantities: Carrier frequency; modulation frequency; modulation index.
Find: Plot the frequency domain waveforms of the narrowband FM and AM signals.
fc = 1,000 Hz; fm = 100 Hz; Ac = 1 V; Am = 0.2 V; = 0.2; = 0.2.
31
Assumptions: Assume sinusoidal modulation and unity amplitude for the carrier, Ac = 1.
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
Amplitude
Amplitude
Analysis:
The files Freqmod.m and Ampmod.m are used to generate two signals; the first signal is
an FM waveform with = 0.2, the second is an AM signal with = 0.2. The resulting
spectra are plotted in figures 19.26a and b, respectively.
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
Figure 19.26 Comparison of narrowband FM and AM signal spectra (a) FM, = 0.2; (b)
AM, = 0.2.
Comments: Note how the two amplitude spectra are virtually identical. Equations
19.34 and 19.22 predict this result. The only difference between the two spectra is in the
phase angle of the signals.
observe the difference in phase between the signals.
Wideband FM
The mathematical representation of wideband FM signals is far more complex
than the approximation of equation 19.34. The nonlinearity of the wideband FM signal is
described using Bessel functions; this analysis is beyond the scope of this chapter, and
the interested reader is referred to any one of a number of excellent textbooks in electrical
communications.
Transmission bandwidth of FM signals
The transmission bandwidth of a frequency-modulated signal is theoretically
infinite; however, practical approximations are possible. In the case of narrowband FM
we have already seen that we have the same transmissions bandwidth as in an AM signal:
B = 2 f m . For large values of the modulation index, , the bandwidth of the FM signal
can be experimentally observed to be close to the total frequency excursion, f, or
2f. These observations lead to the well-known Carsons rule, relating the approximate
transmission bandwidth to the frequency deviation and to the modulation index:
B = 2 f + 2 f m = 2 f 1 +
Carsons rule
(19.35)
Carsons rule suggests that, as becomes larger, the bandwidth approaches 2f, while as
decreases, the bandwidth becomes closer to 2fm.
32
Example 19.12 Commercial FM broadcast

Problem:
Use Carsons rule to analyze the bandwidth of a commercial FM station.
Solution:
Known quantities: Carrier frequency; modulation index.
Find: Approximate signal bandwidth
fc = 90.5 MHz; Ac = 1; Am = 1; fm = 10 kHz; kf = 6,000; = 0.2.
Assumptions: Assume sinusoidal modulation.
Analysis:
For sinusoidal modulation, the frequency deviation is f = k f A m = 6 kHz.
Then, Carsons rule predicts a bandwidth
1
1
4
= 72 kHz
B = 2 f + 2 f m = 2 f 1 + = 1.2 10 1 +
0.2
Example 19.13
Problem:
Given an FM message signal, find:
a. The bandwidth of the message signal, Bm.
b. Bandwidth of the modulated carrier signal, Bc.
c. Band of frequencies occupied by the signal, B.
Solution:
Known quantities: Modulation frequency, carrier frequency; modulation constant.
Find: Bm; Bc;
v m = 5 cos( 200 t ) ; fc = 100fm; k f =
1000
2
Hz/V
Assumptions: Assume sinusoidal modulation.

Analysis:
a. The message signal is v m = 5 cos( 200 t ) . Hence:
33
f m = 100 Hz
Am = 5
f c = 100 f m = 10 kHz
The bandwidth of the message signal is
Bm = 2 f m
b.
Bm = 200 Hz
The maximum frequency deviation is given by:
f = k f Am
f =
5000
2
Hz 795 Hz
Thus, the bandwidth of the modulated carrier signal is approximately given by:
Bc = 2 (f + f m )
Bc = 2(795 + 100 ) = 1790 Hz
The carrier frequency is f c = 100 kHz . The frequency band is centered about the
carrier frequency. Therefore, the band of frequencies occupied spans from
B
B
fc + c .
fc c
to
Hence
the
frequency
band
is
2
2
1790
1790
to 10000 +
, which equals a band from 9.9105 kHz to
10000
2
2
10.895 kHz
Figure 19.27 depicts the modulating signal and the FM spectrum of the FM signal
examined in this example.
c.
Figure 19.27 Time-domain and spectral plots for Example 19.13
34
Example 19.14
Problem:
In the United States the assigned band for FM commercial broadcast is from 88.0 MHz
to 108.0 MHz with 100 possible channels. Find the bandwidth for each channel.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Band for FM commercial broadcast, number of channels.
Find: The bandwidth of each channel.
Schematics, diagrams, circuits and given data. See problem statement.
Assumptions: None.
Analysis:
The bandwidth for each channel is defined as:
B=
Total Band
Number of channels
108 .0 - 88
100
= 200 kHz
Comments:
Each commercial FM radio station has a bandwidth allocation of 200 kHz.
FM demodulation
Demodulation of an FM signal is accomplished by performing a frequency-to-voltage
conversion, that is, by converting the frequency modulation into a voltage signal. This is
the reverse of the modulation process, and can be realized in a number of ways. We
describe two basic approaches in the following sub-sections.
Frequency-to-voltage conversion
If a pulse of fixed amplitude, A, and fixed duration, , is generated at each zero crossing
of the sensor waveform, it can be readily shown that a voltage proportional to the
instantaneous signal frequency may be obtained. Figure 19.28 depicts the functional
form of a frequency-to-voltage converter.
vS (t)
ti
v (t)
S
zero-crossing
detector
one-shot
multivibrator
OS
vo
t
Z
v OS
A
Ti
t
i-1
ti
Figure 19.28 Frequency to voltage conversion

Ideally frequency to voltage (F-V) conversion could be obtained by computing the
following integral:
35
ti
At
vos (t ) dt = T = 2 A f i
i
t
(19.36)
i 1
yielding a voltage proportional to the frequency of S(t) during the ith cycle of the carrier
waveform. In practice it is quite difficult to reset the integrator of Figure 19.27 at each
zero crossing, so practical F-V converters employ a low-pass filter in place of the ideal
integrator.
Phase-locked demodulation
Another method for implementing F-V conversion utilizes a phase locked loop (PLL) as
a frequency-to-voltage converter, or FM demodulator. The PLL, can act as an FM
demodulator once it is phase-locked to an input signal waveform. When the PLL is in
lock, any change in the input signal frequency generates an error voltage at the output of
the phase detector, which can be either analog (a mixer), or digital, consisting of a pair of
zero crossing detectors.
The output voltage of the PLL, vo(t), is the voltage which is required in order to maintain
a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) running at the same frequency as the input signal,
and changes in the input signal frequency are matched by changes in vo(t). In this sense,
the PLL acts as an F-V converter, with the input-output characteristic shown in Figure
19.29. Note that the PLL can offer only a finite lock range.
vo
vS
phase
detector
low-pass
filter
voltage
controlled
oscillator
amp
vo
lock range
center frequency
, rad/s
Figure 19.29 Phase-Locked Loop F-V conversion
Integrated circuit receivers

FM demodulation is performed using integrated circuit receivers; additional information
may be found in the following websites:
http://www.national.com/pf/DS/DS8906.html
http://www.national.com/pf/LM/LMX3162.html
19.8
19.9
19.10
19.11
Use the Matlab files that accompany Example 19.11 to compute and plot the
phase angle of the two spectra. Are the phase spectra identical?
What is the effect of changing the amplitude of the modulating signal on the
bandwidth of the FM modulated signal?
Investigate the effect of changing on the FM modulated signal bandwidth and
analyze the spectrum of the FM signal of Example 19.11 with = 0.5 .
Find the carrier frequency for Channel 11 used by WCBE Radio, Columbus OH,
per the FCC regulations for the commercial broadcast in the US (use data in
Example 19.14).
36
19.5
EXAMPLES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
The objective of this chapter is to summarize some important applications of

modern communication systems. The overview given in this chapter is certainly not
exhaustive, but will give you a good summary of the technology underlying some of
todays communication systems and of their capabilities.
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Figure
19.30
GPS principle
(Courtesy:
Trimble
Navigation)
The Global Positioning System (GPS), illustrated in Figure 19.30, is rapidly

supplanting older navigation technologies based on radio communications used by the
aircraft and marine industries, such as Loran-C. GPS is based on 24 satellites linked to
ground stations, and effectively replaces with much greater accuracy the century-old
system of navigation based on star position. You can think of the satellites as man-made
stars. Differential GPS is capable of position measurements with accuracy of a few
centimeters. In recent years, GPS receivers have been miniaturized, and today amateur
sailors, private pilots and other private users have the ability to purchase hand-held GPS
units. Among the uses of GPS we list navigation systems for cars, boats, planes and
guiding agricultural machining for precision agriculture. The operation of GPS is
explained in five basic steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Table 19.5 Basic operation of GPS

GPS operates based on triangulation of signals received from
satellites.
Triangulation is performed by the GPS receiver by measuring
distance knowing the travel time of radio signals.
Travel time is computed with the aid of accurate timing
references.
The exact position of the satellites in space is used to calculate
distance.
Delays experienced by the signals in traveling from the satellite to
the ground stations are corrected.
Triangulation
The technique of triangulation is based on distance (range) measurements from
the receiver location to the satellite. Four satellites are needed to determine exact
position of any receiver location on earth.
Measuring Distance
To measure distance, GPS computes the time required to receive each satellite signal.
The receiver and satellite both generate a synchronized signal; comparison of the signal
received from the satellite with that in the receiver is used to calculate time of travel.
Since the speed of travel of electromagnetic waves is known, distance can be calculated.
Timing Accuracy
Satellites carry atomic clocks on board to provide accurate timing. The clock in a lowcost GPS receiver need not be as accurate, as an additional range (distance) measurement
can be used to remove the timing error in the receiver.
Satellite Positions
The position of the satellites is essential in calculating distance. The orbits of GPS
satellites are known, and any deviations are measured by the Deaprtment of Defense; any
errors are transmitted to the satellites, which in turn transmit this error information to the
receivers along with their timing signals.
37
Correcting Errors
Signals traveling through the ionosphere experience additional delays, which turn into
transmission errors. There are many methods for correcting errors; the technique called
differential GPS can eliminate almost all errors.
Further information
http://www.trimble.com/gps/
http://www.garmin.com/
http://www.cnde.iastate.edu/staff/swormley/gps/gps.html
http://www.motorola.com/SPS/MCORE/gps/
Radar
The acronym RADAR stands for RAdio Direction And Ranging. Radar
systems operate by radiating electromagnetic waves (typically at microwave frequencies)
and by detecting the echo returned from reflecting objects (targets). Radar technology
was developed during World War II and played a significant part in the success of the
Allied Forces. While military applications are obvious, today Radar finds widespread
civilian application in air traffic control and in tracking weather conditions, as well as in
marine navigation (see Figure 19.31 for some examples of radar technology used in the
latter application, and Figure 19.32 for an example of weather radar). In addition to
detecting the position of a stationary target, radar is capable of determining the trajectory
of a moving target, thus predicting its future location. This function is, for example, very
useful in weather radar where one wishes to predict weather conditions. The principle on
which radar operation is based is that of the doppler shift, a concept with which you are
probably already intuitively familiar (think of the sound of a train whistle as the train
moves by a stationary observer). The doppler shift permits distinguishing a moving
target from a stationary one, thus allowing the radar system to discern the echo of a
stationary target from that of a moving target.
Further information
http://cirrus.sprl.umich.edu/wxnet/radsat.html
http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/education/classroom/
http://www-cmpo.mit.edu/Radar_Lab/FAQ.html
http://www.skywarn.ampr.org/radartut.htm
Figure 19.31 Radar

antenna (top) and
displays.
(Courtesy:
ProNav)
38
Figure 19.32 Weather radar from http://cirrus.sprl.umich.edu/wxnet/radsat.html

Sonar
Figure 19.33 Sonar

displays for marine
navigation (Courtesy:
ProNav)
The term SONAR stands for SOund NAvigation and Ranging. Sonar is
conceptually similar to radar, in that it uses information about the reflection and
transmission of waves to determine the behavior of targets or the properties of the
environment. The principal difference between Sonar and Radar is that the former is
based on the reflection and propagation of acoustic (sound) waves, while the latter is
based on radio frequency electromagnetic waves.
The applications of sonar are numerous, ranging from inexpensive depth finders
and imaging systems used to aid the navigation of small and large sea vessels (see for
example Figure 19.33), to underwater navigation, to ocean thermal mapping. You will
find a number of interesting resources related to Sonar in the Internet sites listed below.
Further information
http://vision.dai.ed.ac.uk/ashley/Sonar/sonar_def.html
http://www.marine-group.com/acoustic.htm
http://oalib.njit.edu/
39
Computer Networks
The distinction between communication and computer networks is increasingly
blurred today, as computers are used more and more commonly. In this brief subsection
we describe some of the basic ideas behind todays computer network technology.
Networks are divided into two basic categories: local area networks and wide area
networks. Generally speaking, a local area network ties computers and other
communication systems within the same building, while wide area networks interconnect
buildings, cities and countries.
Figure 19.34 depicts the three basic network architectures: bus, ring and star.
The bus architecture is characterized by a common bus shared by all elements of the
network; all data traffic is present on the bus, and can be read at each node. As an
example of a very common communication standard based on a bus architecture is
Ethernet, the computer communication protocol commonly used for high-speed data
transmission (see Chapter 15). When a computer wishes to transmit on the bus, it first
listens to determine whether the bus is available. If the bus is available, the computer can
transmit. Should a collision occur, a protocol is followed to repeat transmission. The
standard that rules this type of transmission is called carrier-sense multiple
access/collision detection (CSMA/CD). The bus architecture is effective whenever
nodes share in the communications approximately equally. If one or a few nodes had a
disproportionate share of the traffic, then this architecture would not be very effective.
Bus architecture
Ring architecture
Star
architecture
Figure 19.34 Communication System architectures

The ring architecture (see Figure 19.32) is characterized by each node having
two connections: inbound and outbound. All network traffic must pass through each
node. To determine whether a data is to be received by a specific node, a token is passed
around the ring. When a node needs to transmit, it captures the token and sends data out
in its place. When the message is received by the intended receiver, the message is
marked read and is sent back around the ring; when the message reaches the original
sender, the latter removes the message from the ring and replaces it with the token. Note
that a node cannot transmit until it receives a token. This method ensures that no one
node can dominate communications around the ring. Among the drawbacks of this
architecture is the fact that if a node is disconnected, the entire ring fails to operate.
The star architecture (see Figure 19.34) connects each node to a central hub
connection. Note that a star architecture can be used to implement both bus and ring
networks. The hub can serve the purpose of monitoring and enforcing various
restrictions.
Local Area Networks
Local area networks (LANs) are physically connected networks of computers in
relative close proximity. Office and school networks are the most common examples.
Connections are made through either copper wire (twisted pair or coaxial), or optical
fiber. Copper wire in the form of unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is capable of data rates
up to 100 Mbit/s (Mbps), and is most commonly used in LANs because of its low cost.
Tabled 19.6 summarizes the performance of different UTP categories.
Table 19.6 Twisted pair copper cable applications
40
Category
1
2
3
4
5
Application
Telephone
Token ring 4 Mbps
10BaseT Ethernet
Token ring 16 Mbps
100BaseT Ethernet
Maximum data rate

1 Mbps
4 Mbps
10 Mbps
20 Mbps
100 Mbps
Coaxial cable is also used for LANs, especially Ethernet3, and comes in thick
and thin forms. Fiber optics are becoming increasingly common, through FDDI (fiber
distributed data interface) backbone networks, which carry the bulk of the traffic in a
large local area network such as corporate networks and university campuses. FDDI can
support a 100 Mbps rate using a token ring architecture.
Wide area networks
Outside of the local area, networking needs are usually handled by a
telecommunications provider, for example a telephone or cable TV company. Services
that are provided by telecommunications providers are based on bandwidth needs, and
include traditional copper lines (DS-n service), Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN), also based on copper lines, and optical fiber service (OC-n). Table 19.7
summarizes the data rates achievable through OC-n. Note that the fastest fiber optic
service is nearly 10 Gbps!
Table 19.7 Optical fiber service data rates
OC-n
Data rate (Mbps)
OC-1
51.84
OC-3
155.52
OC-12
622.08
OC-48
2488.32
OC-192
9953.28
Wireless Networks and Personal Communication Systems
Antenna
Cell
coverage area
Figure 19.35
Coverage pattern in
cellular system
Navigation)
Wireless mobile networks are becoming increasingly common in everyday

applications. With the advent of digital cellular telephony, the performance and cost of
mobile network services have improved to the point that a wireless communication
system may be preferable to a land-line-based one. An interesting statistic is that in a few
European countries the number of wireless telephone lines has recently exceeded that
of fixed telephone installation.
The widespread availability of such mobile
communication capabilities has led to the concept of personal communication systems
(PCS), capable of providing voice and data services in just about any setting.
Mobile wireless networks use a radio frequency (RF) carrier, and usually adopt
a cellular architecture. In such an architecture, a large number of antennas is used; each
antenna is at the center of a cell, as shown in Figure 19.35. A stationary user would then
receive the signals through the antenna corresponding to the cell where s/he is located. If
the user is in motion, a handoff procedure is used to transfer the communication from
one cell to an adjacent cell. The new generation of digital cellular telephony is based on
the concept of microcells, with antennas spaced very closely. This technology is very
effective in urban areas, but has limited coverage in rural areas.
A new generation of satellite-based mobile telephones has recently been
launched (see e.g.: Motorola Iridium); this technology permits communications to and
from anywhere on the globe, but its cost is very high, making it suited only for
specialized applications (e.g.: explorations in remote areas).
See brief description of Ethernet communication protocol in Section 15.7.
41
Further information
http://www.sprintpcs.com/index.html
http://www.mot-sps.com/solutions/isdn/isdn-tutorial.html
http://www.mot.com/SPS/WIRELESS/information/idenoverview.html
http://www.mot.com/SPS/WIRELESS/information/gsmoverview.html
http://www.mot.com/SPS/WIRELESS/information/gsmoverview.html
http://www.mot-sps.com/cgi-bin/get?/books/apnotes/pdf/an1575*.pdf
http://mot-sps.com/support/technical/tutorials/dspbasics.html
The Internet
The Internet is a very large network that is based on sending information packets
using the TCP/IP protocol. Today we take the Internet for granted, but it took some 30
years for the Internet to reachits present form. The earliest precursor of the Internet, the
ARPANet, was originally established as a project of the Defense Advanced Projects
Research Agency (DARPA) in 1962. In the 1980s the ARPANet was replaced by the
NSFNet, administered by the National Science Foundation; NSFNet became todays
Internet in the 1990s, and the system is operated by private as well as by non-profit and
corporate Internet Service Providers. Access to the Internet is today almost ubiquitous; in
many countries a significant percentage of private homes and most businesses make use
of the Internet as a means of communications on a daily basis.
42
HOMEWORK PROBLEMS
Section 19.2 Fourier series and transform
19.1
Compute the Fourier series coefficients for a periodic square wave of unit
amplitude, time period , and duty cycle as shown in Figure P19.1 and defined
mathematically as.
1 for | t |
x (t ) =
1 for | t | <
Figure P19.1 Square wave signal of period and duty cycle

Use Matlab to plot the frequency spectrum of this signal with time period,
1
=
sec and duty cycle, a. = 50% , b. = 30% .
300
19.2
A full wave rectified sinusoidal signal of natural frequency 0 rad/sec is shown
in Figure P19.2.
a. Find the Fourier series coefficients for the full wave rectified sinusoid.
b. Generate the frequency spectrum for a full wave rectified sinusoid of natural
frequency 0 = 200 rad/sec.
Figure P19.2 Full wave rectified sine wave of natural frequency 0 rad/sec.
19.3
A full wave rectified cosine signal of natural frequency 0 rad/sec is shown in
Figure P19.3.
a. Find the Fourier series coefficients for the full wave rectified cosine.
b. Generate the frequency spectrum for a full wave rectified cosine with natural
frequency 0 = 150 rad/sec.
43
Figure P19.3 Full wave rectified cosine wave of natural frequency 0 rad/sec
19.4
Compute the Fourier series coefficients for the cosine-burst signal shown in
Figure P19.4.
Figure P19.4 Cosine-burst signal.

19.5
The triangular pulse signal shown in Figure P19.5 is mathematically defined as:
| t |
x (t ) = A 1
(u ( t + T ) u (t T ))
Figure P19.5 Triangular pulse x(t) of duration 2T.

a.
b.
19.6
by:
Find the Fourier transform of the triangular pulse.

Plot the frequency spectrum of a triangular pulse of period T = 0.01 sec and
amplitude A = 0.5 .
A double exponential signal shown in Figure P19.6 is defined mathematically
e at ,
x (t ) = 0,
at
-e ,
for
t >0
for
t =0
for
t <0
44
Figure P19.6 Double exponential signal

a.
Compute the Fourier transform of the signal. (Hint: Can use the linearity
property of Fourier transform)
b. Plot the frequency spectrum of the signal using Matlab for a = 8 .
19.7
Evaluate the Fourier transform of the damped sinusoidal wave shown in Figure
P19.7 and having the functional form:
x (t ) = exp(-at) cos( 2f c t )u(t )
where u (t ) is the unit step function.
Figure P19.7 Damped Sinusoidal signal

19.8
An ideal sampling function consists of an infinite sequence of uniformly, spaced
delta functions and is mathematically defined as:
T 0 ( t ) =
( t mT0 )
m =
Figure P19.8 Dirac delta function with period T0.

a.
Compute the Fourier transform of ideal sampling function shown in Figure P19.8.
45
b.
Also, use Matlab to generate the time domain signal and its amplitude spectrum for
To = 0.01 sec .
19.9
Download the utterance signal utter.au and use the Matlab command
auread(utter.au) to load it to the workspace. Use the FFT tools in Matlab to
identify the frequency components of the signal.
19.10 A bat echolocation chirp signal is provided to you on the book website. Do a
frequency analysis of the signal and explain what you observe. (Courtesy Digital Signal
Processing Group, Rice University)
Section 19.3 Amplitude modulation and demodulation
19.11 Find the modulation index for an AM modulated signal having a carrier of
amplitude Ac = 1.0 and, the amplitude of the carrier at the maximum is Amax = 3.0 and
at the minimum is Amin = 0.6 .
19.12 Plot the anticipated frequency spectrum of a carrier signal with an amplitude of
unity and frequency f c = 1.3 MHz that is AM modulated ( = 1) with a signal, m (t ) ,
where
m (t ) = 0.8 sin( 2 5000 t ) + 0.4 sin( 2 10000 t ) + 0. 2 sin( 2 20000 t )
19.13 Plot the anticipated time domain response of a carrier signal with an amplitude
of unity and frequency f c = 10 MHz that is AM modulated ( = 1) with a signal, m (t ) ,
where
| t |
m (t ) = A 1
T = 0. 01 sec
T
Hint: The message signal is a triangular wave of time period T.
19.14 An AM radio station uses a carrier signal of unity amplitude and frequency
f c = 1.6 MHz . The message signal is a voice signal having certain frequency
components and defined as:
m ( t ) = 0.4 sin( 2 340t ) + 0.35 sin( 2 960t ) + 0.3 sin( 2 1345t ) + 0.2 sin( 2 2230t ) + 0.1 sin( 2 2890t )
Plot the time domain and the frequency domain AM modulated signal of modulation
index = 1 .
19.15 A non-periodic message signal, m (t ) is amplitude modulated ( = 1) by a
carrier signal of unity amplitude and frequency f c = 0.5 MHz . Plot the time and
frequency domain signal.
m (t ) = 0.4 sin( 2 340 t ) + 0.35 sin( 2 960 t ) + 0.3 sin( 2 1345 t ) + 0. 2 sin( 2 2230 t ) + 0. 1sin( 2 2890 t ) + u (t )
1 for
u (t ) =
t 0.01
0 otherwise
19.16 Consider a modulating wave m (t ) that consists of a single frequency component
and defined as:
m(t ) = Am cos( 2f m t )
where Am is the amplitude of the modulating wave and f m is the frequency. The
sinusoidal carrier wave has amplitude Ac and frequency f c . The signal is amplitude
modulated to produce the signal s (t ) . Find the average power delivered to a 1-ohm
resistor by s (t ) .
19.17 The carrier frequency of the W-OSU channel is 0.82 MHz. If the upper sideband
of the AM modulated signal has frequency components of amplitude 0.4 at 0.825 MHz,
0.2 at 0.83 MHz, and 0.25 at 0.84 MHz,
a. Find the modulating signal equation.
b. Plot the spectrum of the modulating signal.
c. Plot the spectrum of the AM signal including the lower sideband.
46
19.18 The AM commercial radio band in the US is authorized to operate from 525 kHz
to 1.7 MHz. A carrier frequency is assigned to each station, and regulations require them
to be separated by 10 kHz. Find:
a. Number of channels that can be accommodated in the given frequency range.
b. The maximum modulating frequency that can be transmitted without overlap.
19.19 The speech signal utter.au is to be AM modulated for transmission on a AM
commercial radio band in the US. Plot the frequency spectrum of the AM signal. Use any
channel according to their separations and a modulation index = 1 in your design.
Section 19.4 Frequency modulation and demodulation
19.20 The message signal given by m (t ) = 5 cos( 750 t ), is frequency modulated by a
carrier frequency 105 times the message frequency and the modulation constant
is k f = 1005 . Find the bandwidth of the message signal.
19.21 If the message signal given by m (t ) = 2 cos( 360 t ), is frequency modulated by a
carrier frequency 100 times the message frequency and the modulation constant
k f = 1000 . Find the bandwidth of the modulated carrier signal.
19.22 For the band of frequencies occupied by the FM signal of Problem 19.21
19.23 A message signal m (t ) is FM modulated by a carrier of unity amplitude and
frequency f c = 10.0 MHz , with modulating constant k f = 1000 . Plot the time and
frequency domain FM modulated signal if m (t ) = 0.8 sin( 2 5000 t ) .
19.24 A packet of information is sent on an FM channel of frequency
f c = 15.0 MHz that uses a modulating constant k f = 6000 . Plot the frequency spectrum
of the FM modulated signal.
m (t ) = 0.4 sin( 2 340 t ) + 0.35 sin( 2 960 t ) + 0.3 sin( 2 1345 t )
+0.2 sin( 2 2230 t ) + 0.1sin( 2 2890 t ) + u ( t )
1 for t 0.001
0 otherwise
19.25 WOSU-FM uses a carrier frequency of 90.5 MHz and modulating constant
k f = 66000 . The speech signal utter.au is transmitted on this channel. Plot the frequency
spectrum of the FM modulated speech signal.
19.26 Consider Example 19.13. If Channel 2 is allocated for country music and the
message signal may be considered to be m (t ) = 10 cos( 2 10 3 t ) . Find:
a. The carrier frequency.
b. The value of k f
u (t ) =

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1

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Figure 19.1 Block diagram of a communication system

Table 19.2 Frequency bands

Long-range navigation, sonar.

Very Low Frequency

High Frequency (HF)

Very High Frequency

Ultra High Frequency

Navigational aids, radio beacons.

> 300 GHz

Classification of communication systems

An example of this phenomenon is the changeover from analog to digital systems in

Direct wave transmission with repeater

Figure 19.3 Propagation of radio frequency waves

Periodic signals: Fourier series

Figure 19.6 A periodic signal

Sine-cosine (quadrature) representation (19.3)

Magnitude and phase representation

It is straight forward to show that (19.4) is equivalent to (19.3), by expanding (19.4):

Similarly, one can show that (19.4) is equivalent to (19.3) if

In each of the above representations, 0 = 2 f0 =

Odd and Even functions

(a) Even function

(b) Odd function

Figure 19.8 Examples of even and odd functions

Example 19.2 Fourier series of a sawtooth waveform

Schematics, diagrams, circuits and given data.

then we evaluate the integral of equation 19.11:

Fourier series of pulse train

Figure 19.10 Periodic pulse train

Thus we may rewrite the coefficients as:

Non-periodic signals, Fourier transform

Conversely, if the function X ( ) is known, the inverse Fourier transform is

Inverse Fourier transform (19.14)

The pair x (t ) and X ( ) represent a Fourier transform pair, a relationship

Delta or unit impulse function (19.15)

Table 19.3 Properties of Fourier transforms

Table 19.4 Fourier transform pairs

The importance of the Fourier transform is that it allows us to view signals in

Example 19.4 Fourier Transform of sine wave

Figure 19.14 Fourier

Hence, the Fourier transform coefficients are given by,

Example 19.5 Fourier Transform of rectangular pulse signal

Figure 19.16 Fourier

Figure 19.19 Definition of 3-dB (half-power) bandwidth

Example 19.7 Bandwidth of commercial AM (or TV, or FM) signals

Check Your Understanding

The spectrum of a signal can be described by the function X ( ) = 2

AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

The concept of amplitude modulation (AM) was introduced in Chapter 4

Example 19.8 Single-tone amplitude modulation

Assumptions: Assume unity amplitude for the carrier, Ac = 1, and a modulating

Example 19.9 Double-Tone modulation

Amlitude modulated signal, s(t)

Normalized spectrum of modulated signal, s(t)

AM demodulation; integrated circuit receivers

The resulting squared term, cos 2 ( ct ) can be expanded to yield:

FREQUENCY MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

To illustrate this definition, consider the case of a simple sinusoidal signal,

cosine function) is i (t ) = t , and therefore the instantaneous signal frequency is given

In the above expression we have implicitly defined the frequency deviation, f:

The frequency deviation is a very important characteristic of an FM signal; f represents

Finally, the sinusoidally modulated FM signal is defined in equation 19.30: