172

Proceedings of the National Seminar & Exhibition

on Non-Destructive Evaluation
NDE 2009, December 10-12, 2009

Digital Radiography Systems Techniques and Performance

Evaluation for Space Applications
V.N. Misale, S. Ravi and R. Narayan
Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC)
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) Bangalore

Abstract
The x-ray radiography is a mandatory NDT method for qualification of propulsion system components and assemblies to ensure structural
integrity with zero defects. The major development in conventional film radiography is digitization of x-ray films, followed by radiographic
image processing and quantitative evaluation to enable accept/ reject decisions. An LS85 Kodak film digitizer is used for digitization and analysis.
Performance evaluation of this system with reference to current standards and a case study for estimating depth of defect are discussed. The
next major development is film less amorphous Silicon based flat panel system with pulsed x ray source The Fox Rayzor flat panel system
is being used for various space applications. This performance evaluation of this system and two case studies to measure the gap between
the vanes and hemisphere and Electron beam impingement analysis are discussed in this paper.

1. Introduction
Liquid propulsion systems are the main entities of our
space program. The propulsion systems consists of
propellant tanks, pressurant tanks, various components like
filter assemblies, pyro valves, latch valves, venturi, plumb
line systems with transition joints, reducers, welds, engines,
thrusters, etc. The propulsion system elements are realized in
all welded condition. And X ray radiography is a major
method to ensure that welds are free from internal defects.
Other NDT techniques like ultrasonic testing, penetrant
testing, eddy current testing, holography, are also used as
supplementary methods.
Propulsion systems with zero defects are used in both
launch vehicles and satellites. Once launched space systems
are not amenable for any repair or rework. Further the effects
of defective components can be catastrophic leading to
mission failure. Hence it is necessary to ensure zero defects
at various stages of realization of the systems. X ray
radiographic NDT plays a vital role in this direction and it is
one of the mandatory tests for qualification of the systems.
Using X ray radiography, the discontinuities are characterized
and analyzed to determine if the observed discontinuities are
acceptable. If they are not acceptable, they are repaired and
rechecked. If they are beyond repair, the components are
rejected.
Traditionally x-ray film radiography with fine grain x-ray
films and mini focus x-ray machines were good enough to
detect the unacceptable defects in propellant tanks. Recently
the film radiography is being supplemented with modern
digital radiography methods for defect characterization, better
coverage, improved detection capabilities, faster inspection,
better archiving and loss-less image transfer for teleinterpretation. These new methods being used are x-ray-film
digitization and image processing techniques using Kodak
LS85 film digitizer and amorphous silicon detector based

VIDISCO Fox-Rayzor flat panel imaging system for near real

time image capture, image processing, archiving and lossless image transfer for tele-interpretation. In this paper we
discuss performance evaluation of these systems and few
case studies as applied to our propellant tanks.

2.

X ray Film digitization system

The purpose of x-ray film digitization is to capture the

film radiographic image and convert it into digital image.
Digitization helps in digital archiving, quantitative evaluation,
image processing, automatic image evaluation, (remote) image
transfer and production of reference catalogues for flaw

Fig. 1 : Principle of a laser scanner (Kodak LS85) and

photograph

NDE 2009, December 10-12,2009

173

evaluation. The principle of point-by-point digitization is

employed in our system. Fig.1 shows the principle of our
laser scanner.
2.1 Digitization process
The x-ray film is moved in front of a collection tube. A
laser beam (wavelength ~680 nm, red) with a fixed diameter
(50 m) passes through the film. The collection tube
integrates the diffuse transmitted light through the film and
a photo multiplier (PMT) registers the same with voltage
proportional to the light intensity behind the film. During the
scan the folding mirror moves the laser beam along a
horizontal line on the film. The output after logarithmic
amplification and digitization with 12 bits yield grey values
that are proportional to the optical density of the film. The
scanning speed is 75 lines per second.
The laser scanner illuminates the film with focused light
and measures the diffuse light intensity behind the film.
Whereas the other methods of digitization namely line by
line digitization using CCD scanners and array digitization by
CMOS cameras illuminate film with diffuse light and measure
the light intensity that passes the film in one direction. Laser
scanner principle has two main advantages:
l

The quantity of collected light is considerably higher.

The laser focuses the whole light intensity on the point
to measure. The radiation passing the film is collected
over a spatial angle as great as possible in the detector.
Scattered light from regions with low optical density
passing to regions of high optical density, thereby
distorting the measurement, is nearly avoided by point
wise illumination.

Fig. 2 : EPRI Reference radiograph for digitizer Evaluation (not

to scale)

2.3 Results
1.
2.

2.2 Film digitizer experiments

3.
An EPRI reference radiograph (8"x10") as per ASTM E
1936-03 (1) shown in Fig. 2 was scanned for the evaluation
of our digitization systems to evaluate basic parameters of
our film digitization system. The reference radiograph has
following six types of targets.
1.

Spatial resolution targets, consisting of converging line

pairs in a range of 1... 20lp/mm.

2.

Density contrast sensitivity targets, block targets of 1

cm with D =0.05 at D=2 and D=0.10 at a darker
background of density D=3.5,

3.

1cm2

Stepped density targets, a series of 13 Nos of

blocks with density between D=0.5 and 4.5: 4.5, 4.02, 4.0,
3.5, 3.02, 3.0, 2.5, 2.02, 2.0, 1.5, 1.02, 1.0 and 0.5,

4.

Sharp edge targets to ensure unsharpness < 10 micron

5.

Linearity targets, these targets provide a geometrical

measurement scale in horizontal and vertical direction of
25.4 mm units,

6.

Parallel line pair target: a parallel line pair gage with a

resolution between 0.5 and 20 lp/mm.

4.
5.
6.

Spatial resolution achieved 4.0 lp/mm

Density contrast sensitivity achieved D =0.02 at D=2
and D=0.1 at a darker background of D=3.5,
Linear response of [Grey values (GV)] to optical densities
(OD) is evident in the range 0.0 to 3.5 D. and from 3.5
4.0D the response needs correction factor nearly
proportional to optical density. See table 1
Linearity is uniform and equal in both horizontal and
vertical directions.
Working ranges of optical densities: 0-4;
When the optical densities are more than 4.0 clipping
occurs. And digitizer cannot be used.

2.4 Performance of digitizer

The European standard CEN TC 138 (2)Non-destructive
testing - Qualification of radiographic film digitization systems
has 2 parts namely - Part 1: Definitions, quantitative
measurements of image quality parameters, standard reference
film and qualitative control. And Part 2: Minimum
requirements. In this section we discus performance of our
LS85 Kodak Digitizer with reference to the standard.
1.

Standard requires that digitizer must be able to reach the

density of 4 or 5, without increase the image noise by
its own detector noise. Our scanner is able to cover the
density range up to 4.0D with linear response is evident
up to density level 3.5D and from 3.5 D to 4.0 D minor
correction is needed. The correction factor is as follows

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Misale et al. : Proceedings of the National Seminar & Exhibition on Non-Destructive Evaluation

Table 1 : Optical density Vs Grey level values

Optical
density

Expected
grey value

Observed
grey value

Correction
needed

12

NIL

0.5

500

510

NIL

1000

998

NIL

1.02

1020

1016

NIL

1.5

1500

1510

NIL

2000

2007

NIL

2.02

2020

2030

NIL

2.5

2500

2517

NIL

3000

2990

NIL

3.02

3020

3013

NIL

3.5

3500

3496

NIL

4000

3800

~+50D

4.1

4100

3910

~+50D

4.5

4500

4010

clipping

True Grey value

= Observed grey value

0<D<3.5

permits some reduction of image quality and DA -the

basic technique, which permits some reduction of image
quality and further reduced spatial resolution. Our
system is found to be of class DS while working up to
Optical density level 3.5 and that of class DB from
density level 3.5 to 4.0D. Digitized images archived have
not shown any deterioration since last 5 years thus
validating the film digitization and computer based
archiving, handling processing, evaluation.

= Observed grey value

+ 50 D
3.5dD<4.0
2.

Further, the NDT X-ray films have a high signal-to-noise

ratio (SNR) and high spatial resolution. Keeping in view
the wide range of NDT applications, in terms of the
grain sizes of silver halide crystals, (1 m-100m) and Xray energies between 40 and 15000 keV requirements for
spatial resolution is limited to the inherent unsharpness,
which is caused by interaction of X-rays with the
screen-film system. The unsharpness values range
between 30 and 1000 m, depending on the energy and
the screen film system. The inherent unsharpness values
determined independently for 200keV with D4 films were
found to be ~80m. and hence the minimum requirement
for resolution is 4.0 lp/mm, which was achieved in our
digitizer.

3.

Next requirement is minimum digital resolution

requirement >10 bit. Our system is has 12 bit resolution.

4.

Of the three quality classes namely DS - the enhanced

technique, which performs the digitization with an
insignificant reduction of signal-to-noise-ratio and
spatial resolution, DB -the enhanced technique, which

Fig. 3 : Cross sectional view of EB joint in a propellant tank

5.

As far as image transfer is concerned, KODAK LS85

digitizer is fully compliant with ASTM E 2339, Standard
Practice for Digital Imaging and Communication in
Nondestructive Evaluation (DICONDE),

2.5 Case Study: Digital evaluation of Electron Beam (EB)

welds of a propellant tank.
In a propellant tank closure joint joining two cylindrical
shells made of titanium alloy Ti6AL4V by means of electron
beam weld, a discontinuity named under bead undercut was
observed and it was not accessible for visual inspection and
repair. Defect characterization in terms of size and depth was
necessary for acceptance decisions. The joint configuration
is a butt weld with bottom lip configuration and full
penetration EB weld. Figure 3 shows cross sectional view of
joint.

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175

Fig. 4 : Electron beam weld of a propellant tank

Amorphous silicon FPD Pixel Layout, single pixel & circuit.

Fig. 5 : Magnified view of under bead undercut and its grey value
line profile

By scanning the x-ray film, digital image was obtained

by LS85 Kodak digitizer. This digital image is shown in figure
4. Magnified view shows the presence of the under bead
undercut. The size in terms of breadth and width could be
measured easily from magnified image.
To estimate depth dimension, we made a Ti6AL4V step
wedge of known step thick nesses and its radiograph along
with the discontinuity is shown in Fig. 5. Calibrated Grey
value line profiles of thickness steps were compared with the
defect line profile and an estimate of depth of defect was
made. The defect depth (0.3mm) was well within operating
margins and the tank was cleared for flight and flown
successfully.

3.

Fig. 6 : Vidisco Fox Rayzor FPD Imaging

Digital flat panel radiographic imaging system

Digital flat panel radiography is a form of x-ray imaging,

where digital flat panel x ray sensors are used instead of x
ray film. to record the X-ray image and make it available as
a digital file that can be presented for interpretation and
saved as an x-ray record. The advantages of DR over film
include immediate image preview and availability, a wider
dynamic range and ability to apply special image processing
techniques that enhance overall display of the image. In this
paper we discus Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) based FPD imaging
sysstem perforamance and case studies on NDE of Propellant
tanks.

Fig. 7 : Mechanism of amorphous System silicon x ray detection

and Gadox Scintillator

representation(3). Figure 6 shows a photograph of Vidisco

Fox Rayzor FPD Imaging system and figure 7 shows the
mechanism of x ray detection in amorphous silicon detector.

3.1 Amorphous Silicon

3.2 Case Study of Propellant tank burn through and repair
(a-Si) type of FPD have a-Si detectors, positioned just
below Gadolinium Oxysulfide (Gd2O2S) scintillator that
converts X-ray to light. The light is then channeled through
the a-Si photodiode layer where it is converted to a digital
output signal. The digital signal is then read out by Thin
Film Transistors (TFTs) The image data file is sent to a
computer for display, processing and interpretation. Figure 5
shows pixel layout individual pixel and circuit

During the realization of a titanium propellant tank,

electron beam weld was abruptly stopped due to
instantaneous variation in power supply. The weld showed
presence a deep open cavity. Possibility of burn through
could not be ruled out, even though depth of open cavity
was visually measured to be ~ 2mm against wall thickness of
5.5 mm. The defect was rewelded to fill the cavity. And the

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Fig. 8 : EB weld defect in propellant tank, which was resolved as holes in guide cone and intermediate part, and weld is free from defects.

while the gap was uniform in 3 vanes (~3 mm) and the other
vane was touching the hemisphere. Both are shown in Fig. 9.

4.

Fig. 9 : Left image shows vane gap and right image shows no
gap.

weld surface appeared to be satisfactory. However Normal

radiographic exposure was as shown in figure 8. The defect
appeared as burn through and was not in acceptable zone.
This called for serious investigation and Vidisco Fox Rayzor
FPD system was put to use.
The digital radiography scanning with FPD was carried
out at small angle and the defect began to resolve into 2
overlapping pores one darker image and other as lighter
image. And when the angle was nearly tangential, total
separation of images was seen and it was found that the
weld was free from defect but the EB impingement has caused
holes in guide plate of 0.6mm thickness and intermediate
bottom of 2.0mm thickness. The hole sizes were characterized
and effect of the holes on the function of the tank were
investigated. The FPD system was found to be very effective.
3.3 Case study II: Propellant tank vane Assembly
The surface tension type propellant tanks have vane
assembly as apart of propellant management system. The
vane assemblies are made of thin commercial pure titanium
sheets. Normally a template is used during assembly to
ensure certain minimum gap between vane and hemisphere.
In one of the propellant tanks, during vibration testing
variation in natural frequency of the internals was noticed
and further investigations were called for to verify that gap
exists. Vidisco Flat panel digital X ray system was put to use.
Minimum gap between vane and hemispheres were imaged
as a tangential projection all along the length of vanes and
the same was repeated for all 4 vanes. It was observed that

Conclusions

The digital radiography has supplimented x ray film

radiography to a greater extent. The X ray film digitizers have
given a new dimension for information extraction from x ray
film. They help in archiving the image, they provide grey
value levels which are linearly proportional to optical
densities to enable quantitative characterization of
discontinuities and depth evaluation. A case study of
underbead undercut proves the point. They do not
deteriorate the image quality and maintain acceptable quality
levels. Image processing functions do helpin
interpretation.Our LS85 Kodak digitizer function is in
accordance with current standards. One of the limitation was
non linearity in film densitiesgreater than 3.5 and clipping
effect at 4.0 D.
The Vidisco Fox rayzor amorphous silicon flat panel
imaging system is very versatile, amazingly quicker, and
provides acceptable radiography quality and two case studies
have given a new insight into the way we can do
nondestructive evaluation of Propulsion systems.

5.

Acknowledgements

Authors are greatful to LPSC Management, DD SRQA,

DD LPSC(B) and Director LPSC for constant encouragement
in preparing this paper and kind permission to present this
paper in National Seminar NDE 2009 at Tiruchirapalli Dec
2009.

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