IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-94, 6 ,no.

November/December 1975
GENERAL EXPRESSION FOR POSITIVE SWITCHING
IMPULSE
STRENGTH VALIDUP TO EXTRA LONG AIR
GAPS

, 'R Lacey
I. Kromer
(Senior Member)
Ultra High Voltage Laboratory
- "Les Renardisres"
Electricits de France Paris

G.
Gallet
G.
Leroy

ABSTRACT
At "Les Renardisres", great care has been taken to
A new algebraic expression has been established
for the critical sparkover voltage (CSOV)
d a i r insula- build the impulse test circuit completely corona free
by using double toroid electrodes and smooth tubular
tion submitted to positive switching impulses. By using
busbars, limiting the electric stress under positive
the concept of the gap factor, the expression is found
S ,I. to 7 . 7 kV/cm/MV peak value2, up to3 . 5
The 50
to be valid for all practical gap configurations in the
percent sparkover voltage expressed in terms
d t h e time
distance range1 to at least30 m. Based on theseconsiI toderations, an absolute limit of2.4 MV is foreseen for to crest and the gap distance is given in figure
gether with the results already published by other lathe rated voltage of sptems.
AC
*arkover VOltqg-uqp
boratories.
der A.C. or lightnihg impulses are alse predicta6le
Cdplementary investigations concerning the physics of
discharge are needed for further improvements.

MV.

INTRODUCTION
Studies of E.H.V.networks have already pointed out
the great importance of switching impulses of positive
polarity and appear to suggest the possibility of a saIt is thus essenturation effect at longer distances.
tial to find out the importance ofthese non linearities
and even a possible technical limit for rated voltages
of A.C. networks.
L. Paris has previously proposed a simple expressionl giving the50 percent breakdown voltage Us0 as a
function of the gap distance, together with the notion
of a gap factor,
k , for a given wave shape

Us0 = k

. 500

d0s6

(u5Q in M
V and d in meters).

Even if this expression is very useful for designing purposes in the E.H.V. range( 2 to 8 m), it can
not, however, be extended into the U.H.V. range.
Many experiments have recently been carried out in
the U.H.V. range, some of them at "Les RenardiSree".
From all the available results,
an attempt can now be
made to elaborate a better expression giving the dielectric behaviour of various air gaps.
EXPRESSION

FOR

ROD-PLANE

GAPS

200

400

e00
800
T I M E TO CREST

1000

Fig. 1 Switchingimpulsesparkovervoltage
gaps.

1200

Tsr(ps)

of r o d p l a n e

- the rod-pbe gap - must

The most simple geometry
be considered first, mainly because a large number of
Some qualitative facts are already wellestablished
results have been obtained for this configuration invarious testing conditions, but also because it is the
- The 50 percent sparkover voltage (SOV)
versmthe
only one which is sufficiently identicalin different
time to crest varies according to a U curve.
laboratories.
- The minimum of this curve
: the "critical sparkover voltage" (CSOV) corresponds to a particular value
of the time to crest called the "criticaltime to crest"
(CTcr)

Paper T 73 408-2, recommended and approved the

by IEEETransmission
of the Power
IEEE Engineering
Society fp
oresentation

- The critical time to crest increases with

tkgap
distance3.

& DistributionCommittee

For a given gap distance, when theto time

crest
at the IEEE PES Summer &
Meeting
Energy Resources Conf., Anaheim, Cal., -July
14-19,1974.Manuscript submitted February 13, available
1973;made
for printing of the applied wave shape corresponds to the critical
May 16,1974.
value, the sparkovers take place near the crest,whereas
1989

f o rs h o r t e r times t oc r e s t ,t h e yu s u a l l yt a k ep l a c e
on
t h e t a i l , and conversely. Thus the CSOV may beconsider e de i t h e ra s
a c r e s tv o l t a g eo r
as an a c t u a l v o l t a g e .

ad
P 1P.U.)
AUlU

Some discrepanciesareobservedbetweenlaboratories,probably due t ot h ep r e s e n ti n s u f f i c i e n td e f i n i t i o n of theparameters.

Ekanwhile enough d a t a arenow a v a i l a b l e t o make one
steptowards a q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s .
Up t o 21 m y theexperimentalresultscovercritical
points.Their CSOV l e v e l s ( f i g u r e 2) publishedbydiffer e n tl a b o r a t o r i e s ,a r ei n
a betteraccordancethanthe
s i d e s of the U curves. C. Menemenlis haspointedout4
thatthestandarddeviation
u p r e s e n t sa l s o a U curve
when i t i s shown a s a f u n c t i o n of t h e time t oc r e s t ,
which means that the withstand
wlw (Ugo-ku) i s hardly
influenced by thetimetocrest
and t h e r e s u l t o b t a i n e d
f o rt h ec r i t i c a l
Tcr beingrepresentative of thewithstandvoltage.Finally,reports
fromJapanese5 and European Laboratories indicate
thatCSOV k e l s obtained with
exponential and damped o s c i l l a t o r y wave shapesor
by
varying tk impedance d the generator are almost equal.

Fig. 3 Variation of the sensivity of d to U versus distance : calculated points ami estimated line.
Taking intoaccountthenumericalcoefficients
of
theaboveequation
and the CSOV of the IO m gap(which
has
been
extensively
studied
at
"Le's RenardiPres")
U50 = 1.88 MV (understandardatmosphericconditions8)
,
thus :
u = - 3.4
(2)
(U i n EN and d meters)
in
1 +;i

I t shouldbepointedoutthatthisexpression
is
i n good agreementwithexperimentalresultsobtained
over a range of gapdistances,from
1 t o 21 meters.Test
29 meters f
a time
d a t a g a r e a l s o known i n the range 21
t o c r e s t l o w e rt h a nt h ec r i t i c a lv a l u e s .
From them,CSOV
l e v e l s may be estimated, which a r e a l s o c o n s i s t e n t w i t h
theproposedexpression.

A g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of a l l wave shapes i s possiblelO

b u tt h er e s u l t sa r el e s sc o n s i s t e n t ,s i n c et h er e s u l t s
obtained by d i f f e r e n t l a b o r a t o r i e s d i s a g r e e .

15

10

25 d h )

20

This expression has not yet been physic- explained,but i t i s p o s s i b l e t o t h i n k

of some l i n k s w i t h t h e
physics of discharge.

GAP DISTANCE

F i g . 2 Variation of CSOV versusdistance

p d n t s m d estimated curve

: experimental

Thisleadstotheconclusionthat
a p r e c i s e knowledge of the CSOV l e v e l s i s obviously needed andwillbe
adequatefordesignpurposes
of f u t u r e U.H.V.
structures.

i s related
how t h er a t e dv o l t a g e
lines,P.Ailleret'suggestedthat
an accurate study should be
made ofthe numerical values
Ad
of theparameter m = -1
f o rd i f f e r e n tv a l u e s
of d .
AU u
Around any p o i n t , t h e d i s t a n c e
d v a r i e s a s Um, m representing the sensivity ofd with
U , and being c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the non l i n e a r i t y of. the voltage-distance curve.
from f i g u r e 2
The values of m f o rd i f f e r e n td i s t a n c e s
are p l o t t e d i n f i g u r e 3 which s u s s t s f i t t i n g a s t r a i g k
l i n e s t a r t i n g from m = 1,correspondingtothefollowing
equation :
I no r d e rt of i n d

tu t h e c o s t of U.H.V.

Ad d
-hUIU

(1)

CSOV
The slope of t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e g i v i n g t h e
i n terms of
gap
d i s t a n c e i s 4.25 kV/cm a t t h eo r i g i n
(d
0 ) . This
correspondstothe
so called"unstable
streamer"regiondescribed
by E . Ledcell. It happens
thatapproximatelythe
same value i s generally accepted
asthevoltagegradientalongthestreamersduringthe
dischargeprocess. Such coincidencesleadustosuppose
t h a t fromthestudies
now inprogressconcerningthe
physics d l o n g s p a r k s i n a i r 1 2
some answers may k given
tothequestionsraisedabove.

Further,thenearlyperfectalignment
of the exper i m e n t a lp o i n t sg i v e ni nf i g u r e
3 suggeststhepossib i l i t y of e s t a b l i s h i n g a rather simple mathematical mod e l of thelongspark,
much simpler however thanthe
model we
may
expect when consideringthepresent
knowledge of the various physical
phenomena involved.
GENERALIZATION TO ALL CONFIGURATIONS :
THE GAP FACTOR
CONCEPT
L.Paris showed t h a t m the range from 2 t o 8 m t h e
sparkovervoltage
of any e l e c t r o d ec o n f i g u r a t i o n submittedtoswitchingimpulses(120/4000
us) is proportional t ot h a t of a rodplanegap
of the same length. The
c o e f f i c i e n t d p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y i s c a l l e d t h e gap f a c t o r .

(d i n m e t e r s )

This may be regarded as

a linear differential equa
:
t i o n which hasthegeneralsolution

1990

Thus t h e c r i t i c a l f l a a b o v e r v o l t a g e
of any configuWith U.H.V. and longerdistances,thequestionremains
ratiDn $a well represented by the general formula
:
whether t h i s f a c t o r a p p l i e s e i t h e r t o t h e
same vawsbape
ortothecritical
time tocrest.The
l e e r i s obviously
d e s i r a b l e , and present studies ensure that
it is t r u e i
n
'
3.4
U50 = k
p r a c t i c a lc a s e s .
8
(3)
1 +;r
A f i r s t d e m o n s t r a t i o n i s g i v e n by t h e tower windows
equippedwith V string insulators.Many results are avaiBut i t i s a l s oi m p o r t a n tt on s t et h a tt h ee x p r e s l a b l ei nt h el i t e r a t u r e ,
and fromexperiments
a t "Les
sion (1) :
Renardilres". However i t i s necessaryto make a s e l e c tionbecause any m o d i f i c a t i o ni nt h e
geometry of t h e
t e s t o b j e c t changes the results.
It hasbeendemonstray * = 1 d
ted that reproducible results are obtzhed with the followingconditions
:

+x

Same gap d i s t a n c e t o

each s i d e ,

I n s u l a t o rl e n g t hg r e a t e rt h a n
1.2 t i m e st h ea i r
gap l e n g t h , where no flashovertakesplacealongthe
s t r i n g s , ( t h e tower i s t h e r e f o r e equipped with V strinLg),

Conductor e n t e r i n g t h e tower window horizontally,

o r a t an angle but with the presence dgrading shields,

Dry c o n d i t i o n s( r e s u l t sc o r r e c t e df o rs t a n d a r d
atmospheric conditions),

Theminimum

a i r gap d i s t a n c e h s t o beconsidered.

The curvesplotted on f i g u r e 4 areobtainedunder

theseconditions. Theminimum of t h e U curvesarepreI, w i t ht h er a t i o st ot h e
CSOV of t h e
s e n t e di nt a b l e
corresponding rod planegaps. From t h e s e r e s u l t s , i t i s
obvious t h a tt h ec r i t i c a lf l a s h o v e rv o l t a g e
of t h e two
c o n f i g u r a t i o n sa r ep r o p o r t i o n a lf o rt h ed i f f e r e n t
gap
lengths.

-.-.-

U50 [kV1

--

i s s t i l l v a l i df o rc o n f i g u r a t i o n so t h e rt h a nt h er o d
from a t e s t e d s t r u c plane. It allows the extrapolation
t u r e t o onewithcomparabledimensionseven
ifthe
gap
f a c t o r i s unknown.
F i n a l l y , we should point out that the
knowledgeof
the gap factor
also
allows
the
determination
of the
sparkover voltage under lightning impulse(via the curve
presented by L. P a r i s 1 4 ) and a l s o under A.C. v o l t a g e .
Good consistent experimentalresults are indeed obtained
A.C. sparkovervoltage i s :
by c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e

where k l i s equalto
kl

SOV (Tcr = 5,000 us)

c sov

E *( 1

- 3O),

fi b e i n gr e l a t e dt o rms values and ( I 30) due t ot h e

i s only
t e s t i n g method under A.C.,where eachpeakvalue
a l i t t l e higherthanthepreceedingone.

REWARDIERES
PROJECT U W
CEO0
WESTIYGHOUBE

A t t h ep r e s e n ts t a g e
of t h e knowledge, t h er a t i o
5,000 us) and CSOV v a r i e ss l i g h t l y
between SOV (Tcr
with the gap d i s t a n c e and may be estimated from results
a t about 1.25 i n t h e whole range 2 t o 6 m.

Figure 5 presentscomparativeresultsobtained
a simulatedexternalphase.

200

400

800

800

on

Tcr [ea]

F i g . 4 Switchingimpulsesparkovervoltage

o f tower

windows with V s t r i n g s

Table I
TowerwindowsLvith
V string :
CSoV andgap
factor under dry conditions

c sov

d
(m>

4.55
5.00
5.50
5.90
6. IO
7.60
8.25
8.75
1,22
9.30

1,530
1,660
1,700
1 ,780
2,170
2,120
Mean value

I .I7
1 .I7
1.20
1.18
1.21
1.20
1.20
1.16
1 .I9

Fig. 5 @arkover voltage

rent constraints
1991

of e x t e r n 1 phase under d i f f e -

MV.

EVALUATION OF THE GAP FACTOR

stand switching surges greater than about

k * 3
In
other words, there is a highest permissible voltage fo
The choice of the gap factor is
a difficult pro- future U.H.V.transmission lines given by the dielectric
blem. L. Paris proposed a collection of values which
behaviour of air when submitted to switching surges of
has been completed by measurements made in different
positive polarity.
laboratories. But any modification in the geometry of
the test object may change the gap factor and
the
k vaFor A.C. networks, considering
an overvoltage faclues must be carefully selected.For example, tower wintor of 1.5 which is broadly agreed now in that voltage
dows in the range 420/1,300
kV may havek values as lowrange15, and a gap factor of 1.15 corresponding to the
as 1 . 1 (10 X less than the former proposals).In the same conductor plane gap, the highest permissible voltage
way,artificial rain reduces the sparkover voltage by
:
dry anconditions wsll be for an infinite gap distance
extra 5 X to 7 X , the electrode geometry being affected
by the water droplets.
1
1 6
= 3.4
1.15
(1
30).
E 2.4 Mv
1.5
1.1
For air insulation, K.H.Schneideand K.H. Weck13 X,"
proposed recentlya method based upon voltage distribu1.1.
tion into the gap. They have shown that the gap factor with u = 6 X and a safety coefficient of
of insulation gaps may be predicted by consideration of
It should be stressed again that this value is
the ratio between the values of the electrostatic poH.V. based upon pure dielectric considerations and supposes
tential at IO X and 60 % of the gap length from the
that expression (3) is also valid for insulation diselectrode.
tances in air higher than 29 m.
This very attractive method needs further inproveA previous theory16 had led the authorstu the conments, in order to enlarge the range of validity.
conclusion that the saturation effect is less pronounced
at extremely large gaps (some hundreds of meters)due to
Our recent studies lead us supposethat besides the
pa
modifications of the field distribution, it is nealso a change in the relative importance of some physical
rameters. But,from a practical point of insulatim
view,
cessary to consider the different possible discharge
distances greater than some tens of meters are not expaths in parallel. In the latter case, the sparkover
probability functiond t h e total configuration is bound pected for future.U.H.V. lines.
to the elementary ones:
Consequently, expredons ( 1 ) to ( 3 ) are valid for
1 to, at least, 30 meters.
network
studied in the range
P = 1
(I
p1) ( 1
p2)
(1
pn)

- -

... -

CONCLUSIONS
Forexample,thetowerwindowtestedat"Les
Renardiired'was made of5 adjacent panels corresponding
to 5 separate discharge paths. When the configuration 1 . A new algebraic expression is proposed for determining the critical sparkover voltage
dair insulation
was made with a bundle conductor,the insulator strings,
submitted to switching impulses
dpositive polarity.
the arcing rings and only one panel (an3 one of them)
is tested, a gap factor of 1.27 is measured. The 50 X
U = k * 3 4
(U in MV, d in meters)
sparkover voltage of5 such gaps in parallel is the vol1
(0.5)'E
= 0.13 to
tage which hasa probabilityp = 1
sparkover the configuration with one panel, i.e. 1.13
2. The constant k called the gap factor, corresponds to
u below the 50 X sparkover
times the standard deviation
those previously given by L.Paris, and may be compu
voltage. With u = 5 X , the gap factor is changed from
ted by considering both the voltage distribution
in
1.27 to 1.20 which fits exactly the experimental value
the gap (as recently proposed by K.H. Schneider and
measured on the tower window.
K.H. Weck) and the statistics due to parallel discharge paths.
The same method used with
a configurationd a conductor-plane, considering it as a series of2 meters3. paThe knowledge ofk allows also the predetermination
nels (i.e. gap factor 1.27) leads to
a gap factor of
of the sparkover vokage under lightning impulses and
about 1.12, very close to the value obtained experimen- A.C. voltages.
tally by Paris.
4. This expression is valid from
1 to, at least, 30m.
The use of the above general formula allows the
predetermination of the gap factor for configurations
5 . With an overvoltage factor of 1.5 p.u. it would be
consisting of two discharge paths, e.g. the external
impossible from the dielectric point of view to
phase of a tower.
build an A.C. network with a rated voltage higher
krill probably
than 2.4 MV (although an economic limit
Therefore, it is supposed that thegap factor t a k
appear at a much lower level).
into account two different influences,the fields
distcr
sion in the gap and the statistics of parallel gaps.
6. Further improvements in this field can only be expe
ted by studies into the processes involved in the
It is expected that this separation and the analy- physics of discharge.
sis of typical structures will always allow the predetermination of a gap factor. As a result, it will in
REFERENCES
future be calculated bya computer with a program of
1. L. Paris, "Influence of Air Gap Characteristics on
equipotential determinations.
Line-to-Ground Switching Surge Strength", I.E.E.E.
HIGHEST PERMISSIBLE VOLTAGE FOR A.C. SYSTEMS
Trans., Vol. Pas 86 no 8 , August 1967, pp.936-947.

+f

e n 2 . G. Leroy et al., "One Step towards U.H.V. The New

When d increases, it can be seen from the above
pression (3) that U increases up toa final limit which Laboratory of E.D.F. at
Les Renardiires", I.E.E.E.
Conference Paper C 72 223
1.
is k * 3.4 MV (50 X sparkover voltage).
If this law is still valid for extremelylarge gaps,
3 . G. Gallet and G. Leroy, "Up and DOM" Testing Modait means that in any case it would be impossibleto with-

1992

lities Using Fully Automatic Equipment. Application l o . G. Gallet and G. Leroy, "Expression for Switching
at "Les Renardisres"
iu the Study of Large Air Gaps", Impulse Strength Suggesting a Highest Permissible
Voltage for A.C.Systems", I.E.E.E. Conference Paper
I.E.E.E. Conference PaperC 72 562 7.
C 73 408 2.
C. Menemenlis and G. Harbec, "Coefficient of Variation of the Positive Impulse Breakdown of Long Air l l . E.Lemke,"Die Leaderentladung und ihre Bedentung fiir
das Durchschlagverhalten Langer Luftfunkenstrecken",
Gaps", I.E.E.E. Transactions PaperT 73 436 3.
Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift derElektrotechnik 1969
no 13, pp. 77-91.
5. T. Harada, Y. Aihara and Y. Aoshima, "Influence of
Switching Impulse Wave Shape on Flashover Voltages
of Air Gaps", I.E.E.E. Trans., Vol. Pas
92, no 3, 12. The "Les RenardiOres Group", "Researchon Long Air
Gap Discharges at Les RenardiOres",Electra, Vo1.23,
May-June 1973, pp. 1085-1093.
July 1972, pp. 53-157.
6. A. G h m , "Einfluss eines Funkenstrecken Vorwider1 3 . K.H. Schneider and K.H. Weck,"Parameters
Idhencing
standes auf das Durchschlagverhalten von Luftfunkenthe Gap Factor", report presented to the Colloquium
strecken bei positiver Schaltstossspannung", -ET2
A
of CIGRE SCno 33 In maKuw, 17-22 September 1973.
94 (1973) H 9, pp. 564-565.

'.

Bd.

7.

P. Ailleret, "Le plafond Bconomique

des ultra-hautes
tensions. ThBorie de base dans l'analyse de lignes
aBriennes en parallPle", Revue
GnCralede 1'ElectricitB (Paris), no 12, December 1972,pp. 799-803.

14.

L. Paris and R. Cortina, "Switching and Lightning

Impulse Discharge Characteristics of Large Air Gaps
and Long Insulator Strings", I.E.E.E. Trans., Vol.
Pas 87 no 4, April 1968, pp. 947-957.

I.E.C., Technical Committeeno 42, High Voltage Tes- l5. Final report of the U.H.V. Ad-Hoc Group of CIGBE,
Electra, no 24, October 1972, pp. 9-41.
ting Technique, Draft, 42(Central OfficeIl4, 1973.

'.

16. G.N. Alexandrow,"Features d the Developmentof Spark

H.C. Barnes and D.E. Winters, "U.H.V. Transmission
Discharge in Long Air Gaps"(in Russian), Journal of
Switching Flashover CharacteDesign Requirements
Technical Physics,no 4,1969, pp. 744-747,U.S.S.R..
ristics of Extra Long Gaps", I.E.E.E. Trans., Vol.
Pas 90, no 4, 1971, pp. 1579-1589.

1993