Computer Organization and

Architecture
Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1:Introduction

Organization
Computer Organization
Refers to the operational units and their interconnection that realize
the architecture specification.
Organization attributes include those hardware details transparent
to the programmer
Control signals
Interfaces between Computer and peripherals
Memory technology

Chapter 1:Introduction

Organization
Computer Organization
Refers to the operational units and their interconnection that realize
the architecture specification.
Organization attributes include those hardware details transparent
to the programmer
Control signals
Interfaces between Computer and peripherals
Memory technology

Chapter 1:Introduction

Architecture
Computer Architecture
Computer architecture refers to those attributes of a system visible
to a programmer
Those attributes that have a direct impact on the logical execution of
a program.
Instruction sets
Instruction formats,
Data types,
Addressing modes.

Chapter 1:Introduction

Human Computation vs Computer

Input-Output Equipment

Central Processing Unit

Main Memory

Computer Components

At the most basic level, a computer is a device consisting of

three pieces:
A processor to interpret and execute programs
A memory to store both data and programs
A mechanism for transferring data to and from the outside world.

Chapter 1:Introduction

Functional Units
Arithmetic
and
logic

Input
Memory
Output

Control
I/O

Figure 1.1. Basic functional units of a computer.

Processor

Information Handled by a Computer

Instructions/machine instructions
Govern the transfer of information within a computer as
well as between the computer and its I/O devices
Specify the arithmetic and logic operations to be
performed
Program
Data
Used as operands by the instructions
Encoded in binary code 0 and 1

Memory Unit
Store programs and data
Two classes of storage
Primary storage

Fast
Programs must be stored in memory while they are being executed
Large number of semiconductor storage cells
Processed in words
Address
RAM and memory access time
Memory hierarchy cache, main memory

Secondary storage larger and cheaper

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

Most computer operations are executed in ALU
of the processor.
Load the operands into memory bring them to
the processor perform operation in ALU
store the result back to memory or retain in the
processor.
Registers

Control Unit
All computer operations are controlled by the control unit.
The timing signals that govern the I/O transfers are also
generated by the control unit
Control unit is usually distributed throughout the machine
instead of standing alone.
Operations of a computer:
Accept information in the form of programs and data through an
input unit and store it in the memory
Fetch the information stored in the memory, under program
control, into an ALU, where the information is processed
Output the processed information through an output unit
Control all activities inside the machine through a control unit

mechanical
0th Generation ComputersEarly
computational devices
Abacus
Pascals
Calculator
(1600s)

Babbages
Analytical Engine
(1832)
Difference Engine
Chapter 1:Introduction

12

Abacus
The abacus, a simple counting aid,
may have been invented in
Babylonia (now Iraq) in the fourth
century B.C.
This device allows users to make
computations using a system of
sliding beads arranged on a rack.

Chapter 1:Introduction

13

Blaise Pascal
In 1642, the French mathematician and
philosopher Blaise Pascal invented a calculating
device that would come to be called the "Adding
Machine".

Blaise Pascal
Originally called a "numerical

wheel calculator" or the "Pascaline",

Pascal's invention utilized a train of 8
moveable dials to add sums of up to 8
figures long.

Pascal's mechanical Adding

Machine automated the process of

calculation. Although slow by modern
standards, this machine did provide a
fair degree of accuracy and speed.

Charles Babbage
19th Centuary
English inventor
Taught math at
Cambridge University
Invented a viable
mechanical computer
equivalent to modern
digital computers

Babbages first computer

Built in early 1800s
Special purpose calculator
Perform multi-step operations
automatically
Compute & print mathematical
tables automatically
Perform only addition
Calculates complex function
Used for solving the
polynomial and trigonometric
functions.

Babbages second computer

It was first described in 1837 as the
successor to Babbage's Difference
engine
The Analytical Engine incorporated
An arithmetic logic unit,
Control flow in the form of
conditional branching and loops,
Integrated memory,
The first design for a generalpurpose computer

Babbages second computer

The Store: A mechanical memory unit consisting of sets

of counter wheels.
The Mill: An arithmetic unit which is capable of
performing the four basic arithmetic operations.

Babbages second computer

(a) Operation Cards: Selects one of four arithmetic operating by activating the
mill to perform the selected function.
(b) Variable Cards: Selects the memory locations to be used by the mill for a
particular operation (i.e. the source of the operands and the destination of the
results).
Output: Could be directed to a printer or a card punch device.

mechanical
0th Generation ComputersEarly
computational devices

Computing speed is limited

- Inertia of moving parts
Transmission of digital
information is quite
unreliable
Chapter 1:Introduction

21

1st Generation Computers

Moving parts
Transmitted & processed
at speed approaching
Speed of light
(300,000km/s)
Vaccum tubes Developed
in 1900s
Processes & stores
digital signals
Programmed in
machine language
Often programmed
by physical connection
(hardwiring)

Chapter 1:Introduction

22

1st Generation Computers

The ENIAC ( Electronic
Numerical Integrator and
Calculator)
The first programmable electronic
computer 1946
Enormous machine- 18000
vacuum tubes, 1800 square feet,
30 tons
Accumulator : Set of electronic
memory units
Capacity : Twenty 10 digits
decimal numbers
Operations : Addition, subtraction,
Division, multiplication & Square
root extraction
Store Program Concept- Von
Chapter 1:Introduction
Neumann

23

Stored Program Concept

Stored program Computer(1944)
Data & instructions encoded in binary
Data & instructions stored in same
memory
Can change program without rewiring

1st Generation Computers

The EDVAC( Electronic Discrete
Variable Computer)-1951
Binary serial computer with
automatic addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and
automatic checking
Two kinds memory
Main Memory: Capacity of
1024 words or 1K Words
Secondary Memory: Capacity
of 20K words
Capacity of 1,000 44-bit words

Chapter 1:Introduction

25

Organization of 1st Generation

Computers

Instructions

Data
Programs,
Data,
Operator
Command

Chapter 1:Introduction

26

Organization of IAS Computers

Fetching & Interpreting
Instructions

Instruction Unit
I-unit

Executing
Instructions

Execution Unit
E-unit

IAS Computer Machine Language

40-bit word, two machine instructions per word.
Left instruction

bit 0

7 8

8-bit opcode

Right instruction

19 20

27 28

39

12-bit memory address

(operand)

Memory Capacity
212 = 4K * 40( bit words)
28

IAS Data Transfer Instructions

Instruction format: Op A
Instruction
LOAD MQ
LOAD MQ, M(X)
STOR M(X)
LOAD M(X)

Opcode
00001010
00001001
00100001
00000001

Description
AC MQ
MQ M(X)
M(X) AC
AC M(X)
29

IAS Arithmetic Instructions

Instruction
Opcode
Description
ADD M(X) 00000101 AC AC + M(X)
SUB M(X) 00000110 AC AC M(X)
MUL M(X) 00001011 AC, MQ MQM(X)
DIV M(X) 00001100 MQ, AC MQ/M(X)

30

How IAS Computer Adds Two Numbers

Suppose the numbers are stored in memory
locations 100 and 101, and
The sum is to be saved in memory location 102
Instruction Opcode Description
LOAD M(100) 00000001 AC M(100)
ADD M(101) 00000101 AC AC + M(101)
STOR M(102) 00100001 M(102) AC
Spring 2013, Jan 16 . . .

ELEC 5200-001/6200-001 Lecture 2

31

IAS Computer Machine Language

40-bit word, two machine instructions per word.
Left instruction

bit 0

7 8

8-bit opcode

Right instruction

19 20

27 28

39

12-bit memory address

(operand)

Memory Capacity
212 = 4K * 40( bit words)
32

IAS Computer Machine Code

00000001 000001100100 00000101 000001100101

Load

100

Add

101

00100001 000001100110 00000000 000000000000

Stor

Spring 2013, Jan 16 . . .

102

Stop

ELEC 5200-001/6200-001 Lecture 2

33

Review : First-Generation
Computers
Late 1940s and 1950s
Stored-program computers
Programmed in assembly language: Example ADD A,B
Used magnetic devices and earlier forms of memories
Examples: IAS, ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC, Mark I, IBM
701
Spring 2013, Jan 16 . . .

ELEC 5200-001/6200-001 Lecture 2

34

2nd Generation Computers

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes

High speed electronic switch for binary signal
Smaller
Requires less power
Cheaper
Primary memory
Ferrite core memory
Secondary memory
Magnetic Disks
Various programming languages introduced
High-level
FORTRAN (Formula Translation)
COBOL ( Common Business Oriented
Language)
IBM 7094
IOP processor
Chapter 1:Introduction

35

Basic Model is IAS Computers

Index register

I/O Devices

I/O Interface

Data and
Address
Manipulation

I/O
Processor

3rd Generation Computers

Integrated circuit (IC) or the ability to place

transistor & associated components onto silicon chips
Result was easily mass-produced components
reducing the cost of computer manufacturing
significantly
Smaller size
Higher Speed
Concept of Multiprocessing introduced
Silicon chips now contained
Allows instruction from different programs to be
both logic (CPU) and memory
executed simultaneously
Micro-programming Introduced
To achieve instruction set compatibility across
models
Minicomputers introduced
Popular computers included PDP-8, PDP-11
More sophisticated programming languages and OS
developed
Chapter 1:Introduction

37

3rd Generation Computers

Micro-programming
Allows a CPU program control unit to be designed in a
systematic & flexible way
Microprogram
Low level Control sequences
Micro Programs are stored in special control memory
Instruction from CPU's main instruction set is executed by
invoking & executing corresponding microprogram.
A CPU with no floating point arithmetic circuits can execute floating
point instructions
if micro-programs are written to perform the desired floating
point operation by means of fixed point arithmetic circuits

Chapter 1:Introduction

38

4th Generation Computers

Miniaturization took over

From SSI to VLSI

SSI (10-100 components per chip)
MSI (100-1000)
LSI (1,000-10,000)
VLSI (10,000+)

Intel developed a CPU on a single chip the

microprocessor
This led to the development of microcomputers

Most of the 4th generation has revolved around not new

technologies, but the ability to better use the available
technology
with more components per chip, what are we going to use them
for? More processing elements? More registers? More cache?
Parallel processing? Pipelining? Etc.
Chapter 1:Introduction
39

The Von Neumann Architecture

Chapter 1:Introduction

40

Von Neumann Architectures

There is a single pathway used to move

both data and instructions between
memory, I/O and CPU
the pathway is implemented as a bus

The von Neumann

architecture operates on the
fetch-execute cycle

the single pathway creates a

bottleneck
known as the von Neumann
bottleneck
A variation of this architecture is the
Harvard architecture which separates
data and instructions into two
pathways
Another variation, used in most
computers, is the system bus version
in which there are different buses
between CPU and memory and
memory and I/O
Chapter 1:Introduction

Fetch an instruction from

memory as indicated by the
Program Counter register
Decode the instruction in
the control unit
Data operands needed for
the instruction are fetched
from memory
Execute the instruction in
the ALU storing the result in
a register
Move the result back to
memory if needed

41

Bus
A bus is a set of wires designed to transfer
all bits of a word from a specified source to
a specified destination on the same or a
different IC
Uni-directional
Transfers data in one direction only
Bi-directional
Transfers data in both direction
No logical function
Buses can be dedicated or shared
Shared Buses
Do not allow simultaneous transfers
between different devices
Cheaper

Chapter 1:Introduction

42

Intra-system Bus

Typical Bus transactions:

Memory Read

Transfer of data words from Memory to CPU

Memory Write
Transfer of data words from CPU to Memory
CPU serve as Bus master
Memory serve as slave

Input -Output operations

Transfer of data words from I/O devices to Memory

CPU serve as Bus master
I/O devices serve as slave

Chapter 1:Introduction

43

Intra-system Bus
Address Bus : Carries Address
Control Bus : Carries Control signals
Memory read/write signal
Interrupt request
Clock signals
Data Bus :
A bus transaction includes two parts:
Sending the address
Receiving or sending the data

Chapter 1:Introduction

44

Bus
Versatility:
New devices can be added easily
Peripherals can be moved between computer
systems that use the same bus standard

Low Cost:
A single set of wires is shared in multiple ways

Chapter 1:Introduction

45

Bus
It creates a communication bottleneck
The bandwidth of that bus can limit the maximum I/O throughput
The maximum bus speed is largely limited by:
The length of the bus
The number of devices on the bus

Chapter 1:Introduction

46

Bus
Most I/O devices are slower
than that of CPU & Memory
Example- Magnetic Disk
Serial transfers
Special Interface Circuits
I/O Bus Controllers
Conversions
Serial to parallel
Parallel to serial
A single I/O Controller can
interface many I/O devices

Chapter 1:Introduction

47

Need for Bus Arbitration

A bus master wanting to use the bus asserts the bus request
A bus master cannot use the bus until its request is granted
A bus master must signal to the arbiter after finish using the bus
Bus arbitration schemes usually try to balance two factors:
Bus priority:
the highest priority device should be service first
Fairness:
Even the lowest priority device should never
be completely locked out from the bus

Daisy Chaining Bus Arbitration

Control Signals
Bus Request
Bus Busy
Bus Grant

Daisy Chaining Bus Arbitration

Very few Control lines

Priorities are wired in,
Units priority can not be changed under
program control

Priorities are wired in,

Units priority can be changed under program
control

Conclusion
This chapter has given you an overview of the
subject of computer architecture.
You should now be sufficiently familiar with
general system structure to guide your studies
throughout the remainder of this course.
Subsequent chapters will explore many of these
topics in great detail.

Chapter 1:Introduction

52

1.3 An Example System

Consider this advertisement:

a
C
L1

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?
e
ch

?
?
z
MH

MB?
?

?
?
I
C
P

USB
??

What does it all mean??

Chapter 1:Introduction

53

1.3 An Example System

Measures of capacity and speed:
Kilo- (K) = 1 thousand = 103 and 210
Mega- (M) = 1 million = 106 and 220
Giga- (G) = 1 billion = 109 and 230
Tera- (T) = 1 trillion = 1012 and 240
Peta- (P) = 1 quadrillion = 1015 and 250
Exa- (E) = 1 quintillion = 1018 and 260
Zetta-(Z) = 1 sextillion = 1021 and 270
Yotta-(Y) = 1 septillion = 1024 and 280

Whether a metric
refers to a power of
ten or a power of two
typically depends
upon what is being
measured.

Hertz = clock cycles per second (frequency)

1MHz = 1,000,000Hz
Processor speeds are measured in MHz or GHz.

Byte = a unit of storage

1KB = 210 = 1024 Bytes

1MB = 220 = 1,048,576 Bytes
Main memory (RAM) is measured in MB
Disk storage is measured in GB for small systems,
TB for large systems.
Chapter 1:Introduction

54

1.3 An Example System

Measures of time and space:

Milli- (m)
Micro- ()
Nano- (n)
Pico- (p)
Femto- (f)
Atto- (a)
Zepto- (z)
Yocto- (y)

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

thousandth = 10 -3
millionth = 10 -6
billionth = 10 -9
trillionth = 10 -12
quadrillionth = 10 -15
quintillionth = 10 -18
sextillionth = 10 -21
septillionth = 10 -24

We note that cycle

time is the reciprocal
of clock frequency.

A bus operating at
133MHz has a cycle
time of 7.52
nanoseconds:

Millisecond = 1 thousandth of a second

Hard disk drive access times are often 10 to 20 milliseconds.

Nanosecond = 1 billionth of a second

Main memory access times are often 50 to 70 nanoseconds.

Micron (micrometer) = 1 millionth of a meter

Circuits on computer chips are measured in microns.
Chapter 1:Introduction

55

1.3 An Example System

The microprocessor is the brain of
the system. It executes program
instructions. This one is a Pentium
(Intel) running at 4.20GHz.

A system bus moves data within the

computer. This one runs at 400MHz.

Chapter 1:Introduction

56

1.3 An Example System

Computers with large main memory capacity can
run larger programs with greater speed than
computers having small memories.
RAM is an acronym for random access memory.
Random access means that memory contents
can be accessed directly if you know its location.
Cache is a type of temporary memory that can be
accessed faster than RAM.

Chapter 1:Introduction

57

1.3 An Example System

This system has 256MB of (fast)
synchronous dynamic RAM
(SDRAM) . . .

and two levels of cache memory, the level 1 (L1)

cache is smaller and (probably) faster than the L2 cache.
Note that these cache sizes are measured in KB.

Chapter 1:Introduction

58

1.3 An Example System

Hard disk capacity determines
the amount of data and size of
programs you can store.

This one can store 80GB. 7200 RPM is the rotational

speed of the disk. Generally, the faster a disk rotates,
the faster it can deliver data to RAM. (There are many
other factors involved.)

Chapter 1:Introduction

59

1.3 An Example System

ATA stands for advanced technology attachment,
which describes how the hard disk interfaces with (or
connects to) other system components.

A CD can store about 650MB of data. This drive

supports rewritable CDs, CD-RW, that can be written
to many times.. 48x describes its speed.
Chapter 1:Introduction

60

1.3 An Example System

Ports allow movement of data
between a system and its external
devices.

This system has ten ports.

Serial ports send data as a series of pulses along one or two data lines.

Parallel ports send data as a single pulse along at least eight data lines.

USB, Universal Serial Bus, is an intelligent serial interface that is self-configuring. (It
supports plug and play.)
Chapter 1:Introduction

61

1.3 An Example System

System buses can be augmented by
dedicated I/O buses. PCI, peripheral
component interface, is one such bus.

This system has three PCI devices: a video

card, a sound card, and a data/fax modem.
Chapter 1:Introduction

62

1.3 An Example System

System buses can be augmented by
dedicated I/O buses. PCI, peripheral
component interface, is one such bus.

Network interface built into

themotherboard.
Chapter 1:Introduction

63