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PSY351Biopsychology

Dr.Wersinger
CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELLS
IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
General Questions
What is a sensory neuron? A motor neuron? An interneuron? How do they
interact?
Sensory neuron: Neuron that sense change in the external or internal environment and
sends information about the changes to the CNS. (E.g. of the information; light, sound
waves, odors, tastes/contact with objects.
Motor neuron: Controls contraction of muscles or secretion of a gland. Located within
the CNS.
Interneuron: In between both the sensory and motor neuron, it lies entirely within the
CNS.
Local interneurons: form circuits with nearby neurons and analyze small
pieces of information
Relay interneurons: connect circuits of local interneurons in one region
of the brain with those in other regions
How do they interact? Through these connections, circuits of neurons throughout the
brain perform functions essential to tasks such as perceiving, learning, remembering,
deciding, and controlling complex behaviors.
What is the CNS? The PNS?
CNS: Central Nervous System: the brain and spinal cord
PNS: Peripheral Nervous System: found outside of the brain and spinal cord, consists
of the nerves and most of the sensory organs.
Know the function of the soma, dendrite, axon, axon hillock, trigger zone, myelin,
terminal button, node of Ranvier, and the internal structure of the neuron.

Soma (cell body): cell body of a neuron, contains the nucleus (provides for the
life processes of the cell)
Dendrites: branched, treelike structure attached to the soma of a neuron; receives
information from the terminal buttons of other neurons.
o Synapse: junction between the terminal buttons of the axon and the
membrane of another neuron. (The messages that pass from neuron to
neuron are transmitted across the synapse)
Axon: Long, thin, cylindrical structure that conveys information from the soma of
a neuron to its terminal buttons. (Basic message it carries; action potential)
Terminal Buttons: The bud at the end of a branch of an axon; forms synapses
with another neuron; sends information to that neuron. Special function: when an

PSY351Biopsychology
Dr.Wersinger
action potential traveling down the axon reaches them, they secrete a chemical;
neurotransmitter. This chemical either excites or inhibits the receiving cell.
Internal Structure:
o Membrane: the boundary of the cell. Consist of a double layer of lipid
molecules and also many of the cell organelles, such as the Golgi
apparatus.
o Nucleus: nut, contains the nucleolus and the chromosomes, enclosed by
the nuclear membrane
o Nucleolus: produces ribosomes [cytoplasmic structure, serves as the site
of production of proteins translated from mRNA] (responsible for that
production)
o Chromosomes: carries genetic information (long strands of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid: long complex macromolecule consisting of two
interconnected helical strands) found in the nucleus
o Gene: functional unit of the chromosome, cause production of another
complex molecule (mRNA; messenger ribonucleic acid- macromolecule
which receives a copy of the information stored at that location) which the
mRNA leaves the nuclear membrane and attaches to ribosomes, which
causes production of a particular protein
o Enzymes: direct the chemical processes of a cell by controlling chemical
reactions (without being part of the final product themselves), act as a
catalyst; combining two substances or breaking a substance into two parts.
o Non-coding RNA (ncRNA): a form of RNA that does not encode for
protein but has functions of its own
o Cytoplasm: bulk of the cell consists of cytoplasm. The viscous, semiliquid
substance contained in the interior of the cell (jellylike), contains small,
specialized structures.
o Mitochondria: extract energy from nutrients, mitochondria provide cells
with a special molecule ATP. Contain their own DNA and reproduce
independently of the cells in which they reside.
o Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): molecule of prime importance to
cellular energy metabolism; its breakdown liberates energy.
o Endoplasmic Reticulum: serves as a storage reservoir and as a channel
for transporting chemicals through the cytoplasm, appears in two forms:
rough and smooth.
Rough: contains ribosomes and is involved with production of
proteins that are secreted by the cell
Smooth: produces lipids and provides channels for the segregation
of molecules involved in various cellular processes
o Golgi Apparatus: special form of smooth endoplasmic reticulum,
complex molecules made up of simpler individual molecules is assembled
here. Also serves as a wrapping or packaging agent.
Exocytosis: The secretion of a substance by a cell through means
of vesicles; the process by which neurotransmitters are secreted.

PSY351Biopsychology
Dr.Wersinger
Lysosomes: small sacs that contain enzymes that break down
substances no longer needed by the cell/waste products, organelle
little organ surrounded by membrane. These products are then
recycled or excreted from the cell.
o Cytoskeleton: formed of microtubules (long strand of bundles of protein
filaments arranged around a hollow core; part of the cytoskeleton and
involved in transporting substances from place to place within the cell)
and other protein fibers, linked to each other and forming a cohesive mass
that gives a cell its shape
o Axoplasmic Transport: an active process by which substances are
propelled along microtubules that run the length of the axon
o Anterograde: movement from the soma to the terminal buttons, a
direction along an axon from the cell body toward the terminal buttons.
Accomplished by molecules of a protein called kinesin, they resemble a
pair of legs and feet, attach to the item being transported down the axon.
o Retrograde: another protein, dynein, carries substances from the terminal
buttons to the soma.
Know the unipolar neuron, bipolar neuron, and multipolar neuron. Give one
example of each.
Multipolar Neuron: A neuron with one axon and any dendrites attached to its soma
(most common type found in the CNS)

Bipolar Neuron: A neuron with one axon and one dendrite attached to its soma (usually
sensory, their dendrites detect events occurring in the environment and communicate
information about these events to the CNS, example: vision and audition)
Unipolar Neuron: A neuron with one axon attached to its soma; it only has one stalk,
which leaves the soma and divides into two branches a short distance away (dendrites of
most UN detect touch, temperature changes, and other sensory events that affect the skin,
also events in our joints, muscles, and internal organs; somatosensory system).
Know the glia and their functions (astrocyte, microglia, oligodendrocyte, Schwann
cell, radial glia).
Glia: the supporting cells of the CNS, glues the CNS together but also, surrounds
neurons and hold them in place, controlling their supply of nutrients and some of the
chemicals they need to exchange messages with other neurons, they insulate neurons
from one another so that neural messages do not get scrambled, act as housekeepers,
destroying and removing the carcasses of neurons that are killed by disease or injury.

Astrocytes: star cell, provide support and nourishment, regulate the


composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons, and remove debris and form scar
tissue in the event of tissue damage. Besides transporting chemicals to neurons,
they also serve as the matrix that holds neurons in place nerve glue. They also
surround and isolate synapses, limiting the dispersion of neurotransmitters that are
released by the terminal buttons.

PSY351Biopsychology
Dr.Wersinger

o Phagocytosis (to eat): the process by which cells engulf and digest other
cells or debris caused by cellular degeneration
Oligodendrocytes: provide support to axons and to produce the myelin sheath
(which insulates most axons from one another, preventing messages from
spreading between adjacent axons).
o Node of ranvier: bare portion of axon between adjacent oligodendroglia
or Schwann cells, resembles a string of elongated beads.
Microglia: act as phagocytes and protect the brain from invading
microorganisms, primarily responsible for the inflammatory reaction in response
to brain damage.

Schwann Cells: in the PNS that is wrapped around a myelinated axon, providing one
segment of its myelin sheath. It provides myelin for only one axon, and the entire
Schwann cell surrounds the axon.
Difference in the regenerative properties of axons in the CNS and the PNS results from
differences in the characteristics of the supporting cells, not from the differences in the
axons. (Glia cells of CNS not as cooperative as the supporting cells of the PNS, if axons
in the brain or spinal cord are damaged, new sprouts will form, as in the PNS, the
budding axons encounter scar tissue produced by the astrocytes and they cannot penetrate
this barrier, even when astrocytes do no produce scar tissues, they appear to produce a
chemical signal that instructs regenerating axons to begin the second mode of growth: to
stop elongating and start sprouting terminal buttons).
Another difference, the chemical composition of the myelin protein they produce. The
immune system of someone with multiple sclerosis attacks only the myelin protein
produced by oligodendrocytes.
What is the blood brain barrier? What forms it? Why is it important?
A semipermeable barrier between the blood and the brain produced by the cells in the
walls of the brains capillaries.
In the CNS the capillaries lack these gaps; therefore, many substances cannot leave the
blood. Thus, the walls of the capillaries in the brain constitute the blood-brain barrier.
Function: The presence of the blood-brain barrier makes it easier to regulate the
composition of this fluid. The blood-brain barrier prevents these chemicals (from food
that would interfere with the transmission of information between neurons) from reaching
the brain.
- Area postrema; part of the brain that controls vomiting, the blood-brain barrier
is weaker there; poisons can be detected there and can initiate vomiting.

PSY351Biopsychology
Dr.Wersinger
How is the membrane potential set up? (To understand this, you have to know
potential, diffusion, electrostatic pressure, semi-permeable membrane, ions, etc.)
The interneuron releases an inhibitory neurotransmitter, which decreases the activity of
the motor neuron, blocking the withdrawal reflex. (E.g. holding a hold bowl with a thin
towel. (tb))
Electrodes: electrical conductors that provide a path for electricity to enter or leave a
medium. One electrode- simple wire placed in the seawater, another electrode- tiny
electrode that will record the membrane potential without damaging the axon
(microelectrode- a very small electrode, which can be made of glass or metal)
Electrical charge is called membrane potential which is across the cell membrane; the
difference in electrical potential inside and outside of the cell.
Oscilloscope: like a voltmeter, measures voltage but also produces a record of these
voltages, graphing them as a function of time.
Resting potential: the membrane potential of a neuron when it is not being altered by
excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials; approximately -70mV in the giant squid
axon.
Depolarization: reduction (toward zero) of the membrane potential of a cell from its
normal resting potential; the membrane potential suddenly reverses itself, so the inside
becomes positive and the outside becomes negative.
Hyperpolarized: An increase in the membrane potential of a cell, relative to the normal
resting potential. The membrane potential quickly returns to normal, but first it
overshoots the resting potential, becoming hyperpolarized- more polarized than normalfor a short time (2 msec)
Action Potential: a very rapid reversal of the membrane potential; brief electrical
impulse that provides the basis for conduction of information along an axon.
Threshold of excitation: the value of the membrane potential that must be reached to
produce an action potential
Diffusion: the process whereby molecules distribute themselves evenly throughout the
medium in which they are dissolved. When there are no forces or barriers to prevent them
from doing so, molecules will diffuse from regions of high concentration to regions of
low concentration (molecules are constantly in motion).
Electrolytes: Some substances are dissolved in water, they split into two parts, each with
an opposing electrical charge.

PSY351Biopsychology
Dr.Wersinger
Electrostatic pressure: attractive force between atomic particles charged with opposite
signs or the repulsive force between atomic particles charged with the same sign ( just
like diffusion moves molecules, EP moves ions from place to place; cations are pushed
away from regions with an excess of cations and same for anions.)
Intracellular fluid: Fluid within the cells
Extracellular fluid: body fluids located outside of cells, resembles seawater (NaCl)
The forces of diffusion and electrostatic pressure contributed by these ions give rise to
the membrane potential. Because a balance between the forces of diffusion and
electrostatic pressures, understanding produces the membrane potential what produces
this potential ions in the extracellular and intracellular fluids.
Organic anions (A-), Chloride ions (Cl-), Sodium ions (Na+), Potassium ions (K+)
Sodium-potassium transporter: a protein found in the membrane of all cells that
extrudes sodium ions from and transports potassium ions into the cell.
Describe the basis of the action potential. (Again, theres a lot here).
A brief increase in the permeability of the membrane to Na+ (allowing these ions to rush
into the cell) is immediately followed by a transient increase in the permeability of the
membrane to K+ (allowing these ions to rush out of the cell).
// What is responsible for these transient increases in permeability?
- Sodium-potassium transporter; actively pumps sodium ions out of the cell and
pumps potassium ions into it.
- Ion channel; a specialized protein molecule that permits specific ions to enter
or leave cells.
Voltage-dependent ion channels: an ion channel that opens or closes according to the
value of the membrane potential; the influx of positively charged sodium ions produces a
rapid change in the membrane potential from -70mV to +40mV.
Refractory; the channels become blocked and cannot open again until the membrane once
more reaches the resting potential. At this time, no more Na+ can enter the cell.
When voltage-dependent potassium channels in the membrane are open (allowing the K+
ions to move freely through the membrane), because the inside of the axon is positively
charged, so K+ is driven out of the cell by diffusion and by electrostatic pressure. This
outflow of cations causes the membrane potential to return towards its normal value. As it
does so, the potassium channels begin to close again.
Eventually, sodium-potassium transporters remove the Na+ ions that leaked in and
retrieve the K+ ions that leaked out.

PSY351Biopsychology
Dr.Wersinger
At the peak of the action potential a very thin layer of fluid immediately inside the axon
becomes full of newly arrived Na+ ions; this amount is indeed enough to reverse the
membrane potential.
Sodium-Potassium transporters are not very important on short-term basis, but on longterm basis it is. Without the activity of sodium-potassium transporters, the concentration
of sodium ions in the axoplasm would eventually increase enough that the axon would no
longer be able to function.
What is the all-or-none law?
This law states that an action potential either occurs or does not occur; and once
triggered, it is transmitted down the axon to its end. An action potential always remains
the same size, without growing or diminishing.
A single action potential is not the basic element of information; rather, variable
information is represented by an axons rate of firing (firing refers to the production of
action potentials). A high rate of firing causes a strong muscular contraction and a strong
stimulus (such as a bright light) causes a high rate of firing in axons that serve the eyes.
All or none law is supplemented by rate law.
How is the action potential conducted? (Know what saltatory conduction means.)
Conduction of an action potential in a myelinated axon is somewhat different from
conduction in an unmyelinated axon.
The action potential gets retriggered, or repeated, at each node of Ranvier, and the
electrical disturbance that results is conducted decrementally along the myelinated area to
the next node. Transmission of this message, hopping from node to node is called
saltatory conduction; conduction of action potentials by myelinated axons. Action
potential appears to jump from one node of Ranvier to the next.
Advantages to myelin:
- Economic advantage: Sodium ions enter axons during action potentials, and
these ions must eventually be removed. At the end of it, myelinated axons expend
much less energy to maintain their sodium balance.
- Speed: Conduction of an action potential is faster in a myelinated axon because
the transmission between the nodes is very fast. To increase the speed of
conduction is to increase size.
What is a synapse? Why is it important?
Synapse: junction between the terminal buttons of the axon and the membrane of another
neuron. (The messages that pass from neuron to neuron are transmitted across the
synapse)

PSY351Biopsychology
Dr.Wersinger
Synaptic Transmission: the transmission of messages from one neuron to another
through synapse.
Postsynaptic potentials: brief depolarization or hyperpolarization that increase or
decrease the rate of firing of the axon of the postsynaptic neuron; alterations in the
membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron, produced by liberation of neurotransmitter
at the synapse.
What is a neurotransmitter?
What is a receptor? What are the two broad types of receptors? How do these types
differ? How are they similar?
Whats a graded potential? How is that different than the action potential?
What is an EPSP?
What is an IPSP?
What are the mechanisms by which the postsynaptic potential is terminated?
What is temporal summation? What is spatial summation?
What is meant by neural integration? What is the result of neural integration?
Key Terms
sensory neuron
motor neuron
interneuron
central nervous system
peripheral nervous
system
soma
dendrite
synapse
axon
multipolar neuron
bipolar neuron
unipolar neuron
terminal button (bouton)
neurotransmitter
membrane
cytoplasm
mitochondria
adenosine triphosphate
(ATP)
nucleus
chromosome
deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA)
gene
cytoskeleton
enzyme

axoplasmic transport
microtubule
glia
astrocyte
phagocyteosis
oligodendrocyte
myelin sheath
node of Ranvier
microglia
Scwann cell
blood-brain barrier
area postrema
electrode
microelectrode
membrane potential
resting potential
depolarization
hyperpolarization
action potential
threshold of excitation
diffusion
electrolyte
ion
electrostatic pressure
intracellular fluid
extracellular fluid

sodium-potassium
transporter (NaKATPase pump)
ion channel
voltage-gated ion
channel
ligand-gated ion channel
all-or-none law
rate law
saltatory conduction
postsynaptic potential
binding site
ligand
dendritic spine
presynaptic membrane
postsynaptic membrane
synaptic cleft
synaptic vesicle
postsynaptic receptor
ionotropic receptor
metabotropic receptor
G-protein
Second messenger
EPSP
IPSP
reuptake
enzymatic deactivation

PSY351Biopsychology
Dr.Wersinger
Ach
AChE

neural integration
autoreceptor

Key Concepts
blood-brain barrier
reflex
membrane potentials (resting, action, EPSP, IPSP)
semipermeability
ion channels
conduction of the action potential (saltatory conduction)
all-or-none law
rate law
synaptic transmission
receptors (ionotropic, metabotropic)
neural integration
autoregulation

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