BICOL STATE COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

PEAFRANCIA AVENUE , NAGA CITY

S/Y 2014 - 2015

PROJECT IN
PRINCIPLE OF
ELECTRICITY
OSCAR C. SANCHEZ JR.
(STUDENT)
BSME-1A

ENGR. VYVI S SABIO

(INSTRUCTOR)

Combination Circuit
A combination circuit is one that has a "combination" of
series and parallel paths for the electricity to flow. Its
properties are a combination of the two. In this example, the
parallel section of the circuit is like a sub-circuit and actually
is part of an over-all series circuit.

Series and parallel connection

Series circuits are sometimes called current-coupled or daisy chain-coupled. The current in a series
circuit goes through every component in the circuit. Therefore, all of the components in a series
connection carry the same current. There is only one path in a series circuit in which the current can flow.

Current
In a series circuit the current is the same for all elements.
Resistors
The total resistance of resistors in series is equal to the sum of their individual resistances:

Parallel circuit
If two or more components are connected in parallel they have the same potential difference (voltage)
across their ends. The potential differences across the components are the same in magnitude, and they
also have identical polarities. The same voltage is applicable to all circuit components connected in
parallel.

Voltage
In a parallel circuit the voltage is the same for all elements.

Resistors
The current in each individual resistor is found by Ohm's law. Factoring out the voltage gives

Problem
The current flowing in a circuit containing four resistors connected in series is I = 1.0
A. The potential drops across the first, second and third resistors are, respectively : V =
5 V, V = 8 V and V = 7 V.
The equivalent resistance of the circuit is R = 30 .

.
1. Find the resistance of each resistor in the circuit.

2. Find the total voltage supplied by the battery.

3. Two 6 are connected in parallel to 1.5V dry cell. Find:

a. Total resistance

b. Current in each bulb

c. Total current

d. Total voltage

DELTA TO Y AND Y TO DELTA

The Y- transform, also written wye-delta and also known by many other names, is a
mathematical technique to simplify the analysis of an electrical network. The name derives from
the shapes of the circuit diagrams, which look respectively like the letter Y and the Greek capital
letter . This circuit transformation theory was published by Arthur Edwin Kennelly in 1899. It
is widely used in analysis of three-phase electric power circuits.
The Y- transform can be considered a special case of the star-mesh transform for three resistors
The Y- transform is known by a variety of other names, mostly based upon the two shapes
involved, listed in either order. The Y, spelled out as wye, can also be called T or star; the ,
spelled out as delta, can also be called triangle, (spelled out as pi), or mesh. Thus, common
names for the transformation include wye-delta or delta-wye, star-delta, star-mesh, or T-.
Basic Y- transformation

The transformation is used to establish equivalence for networks with three terminals. Where
three elements terminate at a common node and none are sources, the node is eliminated by
transforming the impedances. For equivalence, the impedance between any pair of terminals
must be the same for both networks. The equations given here are valid for complex as well as
real impedances.
Equations for the transformation from -load to Y-load 3-phase circuit
The general idea is to compute the impedance
at a terminal node of the Y circuit with
impedances ,
to adjacent node in the circuit by

where

are all impedances in the circuit. This yields the specific formulae

Equations for the transformation from Y-load to -load 3-phase circuit

The general idea is to compute an impedance

where

is the sum of the products of all pairs of impedances in the

Y circuit and
with

in the circuit by

is the impedance of the node in the Y circuit which is opposite the edge

. The formula for the individual edges are thus

Simplification of networks
Resistive networks between two terminals can theoretically be simplified to a single equivalent
resistor (more generally, the same is true of impedance). Series and parallel transforms are basic
tools for doing so, but for complex networks such as the bridge illustrated here, they do not
suffice.
The Y- transform can be used to eliminate one node at a time and produce a network that can be
further simplified, as shown.

Transformation of a bridge resistor network, using the Y- transform to eliminate node D, yields
an equivalent network that may readily be simplified further.
The reverse transformation, -Y, which adds a node, is often handy to pave the way for further
simplification as well.

Transformation of a bridge resistor network,

using the -Y transform, also yields an equivalent network that may readily be simplified further.
-load to Y-load transformation equations

.
To relate
from to
from Y, the impedance between two
corresponding nodes is compared. The impedance in either configuration is determined as if one
of the nodes is disconnected from the circuit. The impedance

between N1 and N2 with N3 disconnected in :

To simplify, let

be the sum of

Thus,

The corresponding impedance between N1 and N2 in Y is simple:

hence:
(1)

Repeating for

:
(2)

and for

:
(3)

From here, the values of

and/or subtraction).

can be determined by linear combination (addition

For example, adding (1) and (3), then subtracting (2) yi

thus,

where
For completeness:

(4)

(5)

(6)

Y-load to -load transformation equations

Let
.

We can write the to Y equations as

(1)

 (2)

(3)

Multiplying the pairs of equations yields

(4)

(5)

(6)

and the sum of these equations is

(7)

Factor

from the right side, leaving

in the numerator, cancelling with an

in the

denominator.
(8)

Capacitor and inductor

Capacitor
The symbol of capacitor:

or
The capacitor on the right is polarized. The potential on the straight side (with the plus sign)
should always be higher than the potential on the curved side.

Real capacitors:

Notice that the capacitor on the far right is polarized;the negative terminal is marked on the can
with white negative signs. The polarization is also indicated by the length of the leads: the short
lead is negative, the long lead is positive.
A capacitor is a device that stores electric charges. The current through a capacitor can be
changed instantly, but it takes time to change the voltage across a capacitor.
The total capacitance of capacitors in parallel is equal to the sum of their individual capacitance

.
The working voltage of a parallel combination of capacitors is always limited by the smallest
working voltage of an individual capacitor.
Combining conductances
From Kirchhoff's circuit laws we can deduce the rules for combining conductances. For two
conductances
and
in parallel the voltage across them is the same and from Kirchhoff's
Current Law the total current is

Substituting Ohm's law for conductances gives

and the equivalent conductance will be,

For two conductances

and
in series the current through them will be the same and
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law tells us that the voltage across them is the sum of the voltages across
each conductance, that is,

Substituting Ohm's law for conductance then gives,

which in turn gives the formula for the equivalent conductance,

This equation can be rearranged slightly, though this is a special case that will only rearrange like
this for two components.

The value of two components in parallel is often represented in equations by two vertical lines
"||", borrowing the parallel lines notation from geometry.

This simplifies expressions that would otherwise become complicated by expansion of the terms.
For instance, the expression
refers to 3 resistors in parallel, while the expanded
expression is
.hepatic, and other arteries respectively. The total
resistance is less than the resistance of any of the individual arteries.

Inductors
The symbol for an inductor:

Real inductors (and items with inductance):

An inductor stores energy in the form of a magnetic field, usually by means of a coil of wire. An
inductor resists change in the current flowing through it. The voltage across an inductor can be
changed instantly, but an inductor will resist a change in current.
Unless we are tuning an oscillator or something, we generally don't purposefully add inductors to
mechatronics circuits. However, any device with coils, such as motors or transformers, add
inductance to a circuit.
Inductors follow the same law, in that the total inductance of non-coupled inductors in series is
equal to the sum of their individual inductances:

When there are more than two inductors, the mutual inductance between each of them and the
way the coils influence each other complicates the calculation. For a larger number of coils the
total combined inductance is given by the sum of all mutual inductances between the various
coils including the mutual inductance of each given coil with itself, which we term selfinductance or simply inductance. For three coils, there are six mutual inductances

,
coils:

and

,
,

and
and

. There are also the three self-inductances of the three

.

SEMICONDUCTOR
A semiconductor is a material which has electrical conductivity between that of
a conductor such as copper and that of an insulator such as glass. Semiconductors are the
foundation of modern electronics, including transistors, solar cells, light-emitting
diodes (LEDs), quantum dots and digital and analog integrated circuits. The modern
understanding of the properties of a semiconductor relies on quantum physics to explain the
movement of electrons and holes inside a lattice. An increased knowledge of semiconductor
materials and fabrication processes has made possible continuing increases in the complexity and
speed of integrated semiconductor devices.
The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor material increases with increasing temperature,
which is behaviour opposite to that of a metal. Semiconductor devices can display a range of
useful properties such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other, showing
variable resistance, and sensitivity to light or heat. Because the electrical properties of a
semiconductor material can be modified by controlled addition of impurities, or by the
application of electrical fields or light, devices made from semiconductors can be used for
amplification, switching, and energy conversion.
Current conduction in a semiconductor occurs through the movement of free electrons and
"holes", collectively known as charge carriers. Adding impurity atoms to a semiconducting
material, known as "doping", greatly increases the number of charge carriers within it. When a
doped semiconductor contains mostly free holes it is called "p-type", and when it contains mostly
free electrons it is known as "n-type". The semiconductor materials used in electronic devices are
doped under precise conditions to control the location and concentration of p- and n-type
dopants. A single semiconductor crystal can have many p- and n-type regions; the pn
junctions between these regions are responsible for the useful electronic behaviour.
Some of the properties of semiconductor materials were observed throughout the mid19th and
first decades of the 20th century. Development of quantum physics in turn allowed the
development of the transistor in 1948. Although some pure elements and many compounds
display semiconductor properties, silicon, germanium, and compounds of gallium are the most
widely used in electronic devices.

ASSSIGNMENT
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Describe the relationship among matter, elements and atoms.

Describe the structure of an atom.
Explain the concept of charge as it relates to the atoms.
State the relationship current, charge and time.
Discuss the electron flow and conventional current.

PREPARATION
1. The relationship between matter and atoms is that atoms control and regulate matter.
The relationship between matter and elements is that every substance, chemical, or solid has a
specific density while the relationship between an element and atom is that elements are
produced by atoms. In short, atoms make up the element which composes of all matter.
2. Atoms are composed of three types of particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. All matter
is made up of atoms. An atom is like a tiny solar system. In the centre of the atom is the nucleus
which is a cluster of protons and neutrons. Atom has also the same number of electrons and
protons to make the atoms electrically neutral.
3.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Specific resistivity of the different material that is good conductor and
those are not.
2. Give an example of parallel and series circuit.
3. What is node?
4. Compute for the total resistance.