January/February 1999

n efficient maintenance strategy can

save industry from the danger and expense
of catastrophic failure. In the USA the food
production industries spend an average
15% of the cost of goods produced on
maintenance. For the iron and steel, paper
and pulp industries, maintenance represents
up to 40% of the total production costs
(1). In the UKs power generation industry
the cost of replacing electrical generation
which may be lost if say an auxiliary motor
fails in service, can be as much as 250 000
per day (2). Therefore, considerable gains
can be achieved by reducing unplanned
stoppages, by identifying defects.
Insurance statistics have revealed that loose
connections cause 25% of all failures in
electrical equipment such as switchboards,
switches, circuit breakers and cables (3).
This means that failures attributable to
temperature increases within some industries
can directly affect the efficient operation
of maintenance, and consequently the
profitability of those industries (4). It is an
established fact that the application of
condition monitoring can increase machine
reliability and hence reduce catastrophic
failure. This results in optimised plant
availability and improved safety.

Maintenance strategy
There is no strict rule as to the application
of an appropriate maintenance strategy.
This is very much dependent on the economics of machine operation, that is, the
criticality of machine. As plants tend to
have many machines with varying
criticality, it is envisaged that the maintenance strategy also will reflect this, that is,
a possible mix of breakdown, regular and
predictive maintenance strategies. A predictive maintenance strategy requires the
application of machine condition monitoring, commonly known as condition-based
maintenance, as shown in Table 1.

Maintenace
strategy
Breakdown
Regular planned
PREDICTIVE

Unit
parameters
failure based
timed based
CONDITION BASED

Table 1. Plant maintenance strategies.

Using infrared thermography

as a diagnostic tool
Thermography, or thermal imaging as it is sometimes called, is a condition monitoring
technique that measures the radiant heat pattern which is emitted from a body, such as
machinery or plant equipment, to determine regions or points of increased, or reduced,
heat emission, which can indicate the presence of a fault in the body. Here, Roderick
Thomas, Faculty of Applied Design and Engineering, Swansea Institute, UK, provides
an introduction to the technology, its advantages and disadvantages, and its application as a diagnostic tool.
reasons for this, including the following:
it does not make contact with surface
that is being measured;
it is largely non-hazardous to personnel
and the workplace;
it is immune to electromagnetic noise;
it can be used in explosive environments;
it is invariably conducted in real-time,
and limited only by the process time that
is required; and
it is reliable, because the components
have a semi-infinite lifetime expectancy.
Thermography is particularly powerful when
it is used to identify the condition of various
machine types and systems, where it can
reveal a range of possible problems (Table 2).
Infrared thermal imaging provides the
means to scan the thermal emissions of
complete machines or processes in a very

Machine Fault

short time and display a picture of the temperature distribution. There are a variety of
thermal imaging instruments available including devices that have the ability to store and
recall images. This ability to retrieve and
analyse previous thermal data is crucial to
the development of predictive maintenance.
Modern portable monitoring systems (thermal imagers) have been developed by a
number of companies and a typical system is shown in Figure 1. The instruments
(5) look very similar to portable video cameras or Camcorders.

Advantages and
disadvantages
The major advantage of thermography is
that it can be put to a large number of industrial uses, which range from machine
condition monitoring and predicting fail-

Temperature Pressure Flow Oil Vibration

Electrical machine faults

Machines cooling systems,
earth faults, circulating currents,
laminations, cracking insulation,
Mechanical misalignment and rub
Commutators, brushes and sliprings
Ancilliary equipment fuses, loose
connections, overload or unbalanced
load, pitted relay contacts, switchgear,
distribution boards, transformers
Mechanical

X
X
X

X
X

Misalignment, bent shaft

Damaged rolling element bearings
Damaged gears
Inadequate or insufficient lubrication
Damaged journal bearings
Loose components

X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X

Energy systems

Thermography
Non-contact thermal monitoring, or thermography as it is commonly called, is primarily
concerned with the transfer of infrared heat
radiation from an object, and it is an
extremely versatile and powerful condition
monitoring tool. There are many valid

Boilers, steam systems, flues, heat

exchangers and regenerators

Refractory insulation, buildings

and Roofing

Electronic systems
Discrete components, printed
circuit boards and bonding

X
Table 2. Temperature condition indicators and faults.

11

Machine, Plant & Systems Monitor

lying principle which can be used to identify problems. Generally a thermal hot
spot is the result of loose, oxidised or corroded electrical connections. The condition
and sometimes more importantly predictive information is produced by comparing measured temperature trends with operating current, and predicting future temperatures, where predictions can be calculated by using Joules Law (Equation 1)
EQUATION 1
P = I2R [Watts]
Figure 1. A portable monitoring system (courtesy: Agema).
ure to intelligent maintenance planning and
thermal efficiency monitoring. The disadvantages seem to be declining, driven by
developments in software, materials technology and microelectronics engineering. However, the main drawback is associated with
the practicalities of operating the camera,
which often depend on the industrial application. The main advantages and disadvantages are summarised in Table 3 and Table 4.

motive, paper, cement, coal, offshore, glass

and electronics industries (5). Here, the
application of thermography to the following main types of plant and machine systems is considered:

Using thermography

Electrical systems

There are many documented uses of infrared monitoring particularly in the steel,
power generation, building services, auto-

Electrical systems are considered critical

items in most plants. The relationship between current and resistance is the under-

electrical;
mechanical;
electronic;
energy; and
medical and research.

DESIGN
Process plant: Steam and water lines, heating units (ovens, furnaces, boilers) kilns,
process pipes, containers, ducts, vents, exhaust stacks, flue pipes, buildings e.g., installation of refractory insulation.
Intelligent machine design: Cooling design on electrical machines,
PLANT AND MACHINE MAINTENANCE
Maintenance planning, procedures and reporting: implementing timely, appropriate
maintenance on mechanical and electrical plant and machines.
Efficiency monitoring: cooling towers, doors, windows, ventilators, heat exchangers,
steam traps, foam and refractory insulation.
MACHINE AND COMPONENT FAILURE
Analysis of mechanical component condition: bearings, seals, gears, actuators,
hydraulic rams
Analysis of electrical component condition: fuses, switches, insulators, relays, busbars,
commutators, brushgear
Table 3. Advantages of thermography.

COST
Hardware: Cameras and lenses can be expensive.
Software: Software limitations on some systems.
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Object source: Emissivity, transmission and size of detail.
The objects emissivity must be known or calculated.
Object surroundings: The object surroundings should have a homogeneous (ambient)
temperature and should not include hot areas so positioned, that the radiaition can be
reflected by the object.
Atmospheric influences/attenuation: Distance, composition (clear, misty, etc) and
ambient temperature can affect quality of detail
Table 4. Disadvantages of thermography.

12

where P is the heat generated, I is the load

current (amps) that is consumed and R
(ohms) is the electrical resistance.
In electrical systems a possible hot spot can
be accurately measured and a prediction
made that is based on the assumption that
a slight change in resistance results in the
current doubling, particularly for systems
that are not taking full load current (2),
(Figure 2). Cold spots can also indicate
open circuits. These are mainly caused by
blown fuses, and often can take several
days to inspect.
When two conductors come together a
contact is made and because of the roughness and deformation of the surfaces this
contact is limited to a certain number of
points known as elementary contacts
(usually in the order of a few millimetres
in size). The condition of the contact is also
affected by the constriction resistance,
which is the reduction in contact area that
causes the resistance to the current flow to
rise, and by the film resistance, which is
the development of resistive oxide layers.
The deterioration of contact through an
increase in electrical contact resistance (the
sum of the constriction resistance and film
resistance) will produce heat and thermal
hot spots that can be identified easily in a
thermal image. However, the rate of deterioration substantially increases with time.
Trend monitoring is a technique that has
been developed by many manufacturers of
thermal imaging equipment to identify,
monitor and predict future contact condition. The technique involves plotting collected temperature measurements against
time in order to quantify any deviations
from the norm (Figure 3). This approach
can give maintenance personnel advance
warning of imminent machine failure.
The trending of measured increases in temperature at defined points over a period of
time can be used to track the way in which
a fault deteriorates. Ideally, the temperature measurements should be performed

January/February 1999

Figure 2. Hot spot on a fuse (courtesy: Agema).

in conjunction with current measurements,
where the load is variable. This will enable the rises in temperature to be corrected
to a reference current value for a valid comparison (Equations 2 & 3).
Correction of temperature rises to a reference current (cooling by natural convection and radiation):

r = m

Ir
Im

EQUATION 2

1.67

Correction of temperature rises to a reference current (cooling by forced convection

and radiation):
EQUATION 3

Ir
Im

r = m

where r is the temperature rise at the

reference current value (K); m is the
measured temperature rise (K); Ir is the
reference current (amps); and Im is the
measured current (amps).
An inherent advantage of trending is that
it requires measurements to be taken at all
of the identified points, ensuring critical
items are not overlooked. It is less reliant
on accurate surface emissivity values, because measurements from the same surface
are compared over a period of time.
Trending also offers a useful way of indicating changes where temperature rises are
relatively small or difficult to locate, for
example, through a switch-panel door.

Electrical components for the purpose of

this article are classified as either low current
devices, which are covered by electronics
and microelectronics engineering, or high
current devices such as fuses, busbars,
switchgear, knife breakers, cables, insulation,
transformers and isolators. All of these electrical components have been successfully inspected using infrared monitoring. Electrical
systems typically suffer from problems
such as loose connections, load imbalances
and corrosion resulting in resistive heating.
Thyristors are used increasingly to control
the speed of large motors. These devices
can be connected in parallel, which can
make it difficult to detect a problem. A fuse
which has blown on a good thyristor may
only have a slight effect on the motor
speed, but it could lead to a serious problem. Also, carrying out the inspection during live conditions would pose a considerable safety risk.
Other possible electrical applications include measuring the electrical imbalance
between electrical phases. Unequal temperatures indicate imbalance on threephase systems. On high-voltage electrical
motors it is common to encapsulate the
electrical connections in pitch, this makes
identifying loose connections an extremely
difficult and time-consuming task. Other
examples include:
inspecting high-voltage transformers;
inspecting high-voltage power lines;
blown, damaged fuses and fuse holders;
overheating power factor capacitors; and
switchgear, control panels, isolators, circuit
breakers, relay contacts and connections.
Rotating electrical machines are an essential item within many industries. However,
they are subject to a number of possible
failures. These failures have been identified (7) as rotor body defects, rotor winding faults, water coolant faults, stator
winding faults, winding insulation defects,
and stator core defects. When applying condi-

Temperatures shown as increase above an ambient of

approximately 20 degrees centigrade

Temperature above ambient (K)

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0

50

90

120

160

180

200

DAYS

220

232

285

320

340

Figure 3. Trend
monitoring
of
a faulty busbar
connection using
spot measurements.

13

tion monitoring to these electrical machines

there are three main sources of problems:
mechanical sources, which cover bearings,
rotor unbalance, looseness, misalignment,
end-winding damage, brush or brushholder vibrations;
aerodynamic sources which involve
turbulence, blade-passing frequency; and
electromagnetic sources such as static
air-gap eccentricity, dynamic air-gap
eccentricity, air-gap permeance variations,
open or shorted windings, unbalance
current phase, broken rotor bars, torque
pulses and magnetostriction.
In monitoring motor defects the following
parameters have been established as being
appropriate: vibration, temperature, motor speed, axial flux and stator current.
When applying thermal condition monitoring
to electrical machines the machine components
shown in Table 5 can be monitored.
Machine enclosure:
Overheating and cooling.
Defective cooling system.
Poor electrical connections.
Frame overheating.
Rotor body and windings overheating
Stator
Stator core - lamination hot spot.
Stator windings
Stator end winding portion - cracking insulation
Bearing and seals overheating

Table 5. Thermal monitoring of electrical

machines.
Thermal images of rotating machines,
particularly those with commutators and
brushgear, are used to indicate uneven wear
as a result of the brushes making poor
contact with the commutator segments.
An electrical machines rating is generally
fixed by the maximum permissible
temperature which the insulation can
withstand, and it is therefore an excellent point
at which to set a temperature alarm.
Conventional means of temperature
measurement employ thermocouples that
are embedded in a motors stator. These
devices are sometimes not suitable for some
applications, particularly for those
industries where there are extremely high
process temperatures involved, such as in
an annealing furnace or a hot mill.
Conventional temperature monitoring
under theses conditions could be affected
by excessive process temperatures. For
example, in a hot mill, very hot steel
can cause traditional devices to be activated
because of the high temperatures that
are present outside the motor. Certain machinery may also require electrical isolation.
A major advantage of non-contact thermal
monitoring is that it does not require electrical

Machine, Plant & Systems Monitor

Figure 4. Drive side motor temperatures

(courtesy: Inframetrics).
machine isolation and provides information
on the condition of a machines component.
The thermal image in Figure 4 shows the temperatures of a motor drive side and shaft.

Mechanical systems
Mechanical systems represent a large
proportion of equipment that is used
by most industries. This equipment
includes rotating and reciprocating
machines such as large turbines and
compressors. Thermography can be used
to monitor this complex machinery, which
invariably is composed of a large number
of components.
One thing that all rotating and reciprocating
machines have in common is that in
operation they generate heat through
friction, which is the result of normal or
excessive wear. Friction can lead to
catastrophic failure, caused by defective
components such as bearings, seals,
pulleys, conveyors, pumps, couplings,
shafts, gears and chain drivers, and it
is often linked to inadequate maintenance,
a lack of lubrication or even misuse.
This wear information combined with
the vibration data can prove to be a
most accurate indication of machine component condition as both measurements are
related to wear and can be trended against time.
Possible reasons for mechanical machine
problems include:
increased loading on the bearings
thereby reducing bearing life;
increased stress on the machine
components leading to fatigue problems;
increased forces applied to a machine,
such as loose foundations; and
effects of inertia which lead to imbalance
in rotating parts.
Some examples of machine deterioration
are misalignment, unbalance, looseness,
damaged vanes and blades, damaged bearings and gears, eccentricity, aerodynamic
and hydraulic problems.

Machine systems that make use of bearings, gears and other mechanical components are subject to many of the problems
identified in Table 6. Misalignment can
cause expensive energy losses in rotating
machinery which can lead to problems
such as looseness, a bent shaft, imbalance,
even catastrophic failure. Thermography
can be used to identify gross misalignment
as significant temperature rises occur
across the couplings. Other examples include chains, couplings, belt wear and slippage, fluid leakage, pneumatic actuators
flywheels, clutches, and tank level measurement.

Hydraulics
Monitoring the condition of hydraulic
components using thermography is
generally not common. Perhaps this is
because the high flow speed, fast pressure
changes and fast movements make
diagnosis complex and difficult. However,
temperature in hydraulic systems can vary
to some degree during the cycle of the
system because of wear, a malfunction and
increases in leakage. These problems can
be detected using thermography and have
been documented (8) as:
leakage;
clogging of moving parts in components;
component failures (even small leakages
can be detected); and
the design or installation of component
parts.
The detection of faulty hydraulic
components in the steel industry has
proven to be quite successful (9). For
example, a defective seal with a small
axial incision was installed in a hydraulic
cylinder which was then used in an
experiment to prove the accuracy of
thermography. The fault was quickly
picked up on the thermal image as a hot
spot resulting from a high-pressure
(around 500 psi) fluid escaping from
the incision. This was conclusively proven
by rotating the hot spot. The most common

problems in hydraulic systems are listed in

Table 6.
Often it is difficult to locate defects within
hydraulic components using simple visual
monitoring techniques (10). For instance,
a hot spot on a pressure cylinder may coincide with a physically small defect in the
hydraulic actuation system.

Electronic systems
Electronic and microelectronic systems,
particularly printed circuit boards (PCBs)
and their components, have benefited
greatly from the development of various
thermographic methods of inspection. This
has arisen mainly because PCBs contain
many small components whose individual
temperatures are difficult to monitor by
conventional means.
Initially, temperature measurement devices
were produced to monitor the individual
temperature patterns which are associated
with single components (11). This has progressed to more complex computerised
thermographic systems for automatic inspection of complete electronic printed circuit boards (12).
It is a well known fact that high operating
temperatures of electronic components result in a reduced service life, with the failure rate increasing almost exponentially
(Figure 5) with a thermal acceleration factor determined by Equation 4.
EQUATION 4
= Failure rate at T
Failure rate at 75C
In sophisticated systems, placing components
in racks can sometimes lead to additional
overheating problems. This can be checked
in situ by varying the ambient temperature
for a complete system and monitoring the
thermal effect on the electronics (13).
The conceptual bathtub curve (14)
(Figure 6), based on reliability studies,
shows that initially a new component has

Hydraulic component

Thermal problem

Cylinder

Leakage of piston or rod sealing

Valves:
Pressure valves
Directional valves
Check valve
Valve packages
Valve blocks

Leakage through failure, leakage, jammed spool.

Solenoid failure, leakage, jammed spool.
Brake valve, etc. leakage.
Leakage, solenoid failure.
Leakage near surface

Pumps and motors

Leakage (volumetric efficiency), failure, bearings.

Pipes, hoses, fittings

Leakage, clogging.

Complete system

Failure, wrong settings, too high warming of system,

small leakage of oil outside of system.
Table 6. Thermal problems in hydraulic systems (8).

14

January/February 1999
Figure 5. The failure rate of
a carbon composite resistor
increases by a factor of 22.

Thermal acceleration factor

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
20

34

48

62

76

90

104

118

132

Temperature degrees centigrade - Thermal acceleration for

bipolar digital devices

a high probability of failure, which is

known as the running-in condition, and
it is sometimes caused by poor installation
problems. The probability of failure is then
reduced for a period of time, depending
on the operating conditions. (This part of
the curve could be considered to represent
the components normal operating condition.) Finally the probability of failure is
greatly increased with time, representing
final life or the components wear-out condition, and it is for this region that the
ability to predict component condition has
been developed.
Thermography can be used to inspect
discrete components to avoid thermal
run-away which can be catastrophic if left
undetected. When designing PCBs the individual effect of a mass of components
must be taken into consideration, including measurements to determine the optimum dimensions of various cooling components such as heat-sinks, and the required spacing between each part (15).
Mass-produced computer-based products
that contain very small components
often only (1 mm2 in size) require personnel to used specialist infrared microscopes
to carry out thermal monitoring.
It is difficult to monitor thermal patterns
on printed circuit boards in-situ mainly
because of the lack of space. However, by
removing a circuit board these temperatures can be monitored closely and thermal profiles can be produced easily. To

identify problems in PCBs, Schneider (16)

suggests using the steps listed in Table 7.
At the Hill Air Force Base in Utah, USA,
thermal imaging is the main diagnostic tool
that is used to detect faults in circuit cards
which are used in the F-16 jet fighters flight
control panel (17).
Thermography can also be used in the nondestructive test inspection of integrated
circuit bonds, where induced heat creates
a thermal pattern. However, the test must
take into account the exact geometry of
the component that is being tested, the position of the component, and acceptable
temperature and component variations.
Other examples include PCB evaluation
and checking the integrity of conductor
paths, and heat distribution of integrated
circuit components.

More and more emphasis is now being

placed on energy conservation. Factories
and in particular plants that consume large
amounts of energy, such as those that produce electricity, steel, gas and petrochemicals, are very aware of how important this
is. The reasons underpinning the need to
reduce energy consumption in an green
world are growing. The demand for energy also appears to be increasing, no more
so than in the generation and transmission
of electrical energy.
A properly designed energy conservation

45

Monitoring Parameter

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
100

400 600

800

900 960 980

Time (Days)

990

Non-contact thermal monitoring of machines

and plant is a passive technique which can
highlight where a defective part or wasteful
condition exists. Performance monitoring
of systems is also an important consideration.
Within the steel industry it has been
demonstrated that vast financial savings can
be made by monitoring refractory linings (18).
The efficiency of space heating relies on
adequate maintenance to ensure good insulation and to reduce the possibility of
leaks or blockages in a system. Faulty insulation and fluid leaks are readily visible
as local increases in temperature. Blocked
pipes on the other hand are detected as
differential temperatures across a pipe.
Other examples include: identifying defective valves (Figure 7), fluid leaks, blocked
radiators, and damaged refrigerator sections of heat exchangers.

Energy systems

40

programme can lead to a reduction in

wasted energy. In the process and manufacturing industries energy conservation
results in reduced fuel and operating costs.
There is continued pressure for improved
energy conservation particularly in light of
global warming and to protect the environment. Governments continue to put
extreme pressure on industry to set higher
environmental standards.

Figure 6. Conceptual bathtub

curve (14).

15

Figure 7. Defective valve (courtesy:

Inframetrics).

Refractory insulation
Refractory structures such as kilns and furnaces
are required to operate at temperatures as
high as 1500C. Using thermography an
inspection can be carried out while the
plant is operating. Thermal patterns reveal
internal problems, and are used to predict condition and to plan any remedial maintenance.
The temperature distributions from furnaces
and sometimes the product itself can indicate
furnace and product condition. In the steel
industry, the location of steel strip within
a furnace is monitored by fixed thermal
cameras, while the insulation of the furnace
walls are monitored using portable thermal
imaging cameras. Other examples include
checking the integrity of insulation,

Machine, Plant & Systems Monitor

of Electrical Machines, pages 38-54, 1987.

Step

Procedure

Let the PCB adapt to its normal temperature.

Take the PCB out of the rack and start recording a series of thermograms, noting
the time that elapses from removal to taking the first thermogram.

Monitor the reduction in object temperature in the thermograms.

Plot temperatures in a log-linear diagram (should form a straight line)

Check back to the time of removal (t=0) and establish the correct temperature of
the components in its normal thermal environment.

Table 7. Procedures that can be used to identify thermal problems on printed circuit boards (16).
brickwork and poor joints on furnaces
and kilns;
refractory lined duct;
blast furnace stoves;
burner operation;
operation of water-cooled elements; and
product temperature measurement.

Buildings and roofs

The pattern, and the extent of heat loss
from surfaces and features of buildings can
be used to identify defects in insulation,
sealing and structural integrity.
The source of defects, caused by poor construction or moisture build-up, can be pinpointed. A thermal imager can easily produce colour or black and white images to
survey a building to establish the pattern
of heat loss and quickly identify problem
areas. The thermal image in Figure 8 shows

Medical systems
There appears to be a resurgence of medical applications that use thermography as
a diagnostic tool. In dermatology, for example, thermographic systems with high
spatial resolution allow subcutaneous features of cooled skin to be visualised. Fine
vascular structures and the underlying
pathological processes can directly affect
surface temperature patterns. Other medical examples include:
thermal monitoring of patients during
transplant operations, and temperature
patterns in operating theatres;
cardiac surgery, skin grafting and mi
cro-vascular surgery (wound healing;
research into the impact of physical
training, neuromuscular disorders; and
research into hypothermia treatments
and diabetic care.

References
1. Mobley, R.K. (1990) An Introduction
to Predictive Maintenance.
2. Ross, W.H. (1995) Condition monitoring of electrical machines in Scottish Power.
IEE Colq. On Cond. Mon. of Elect.
Machs., Digest No. 95/019.

Figure 8. Building heat losses (courtesy:

Horton Levi Ltd).
that there is substantial heat loss to the right
of the building (the lighter areas) and also a
high level of heat loss through the windows.
The detection of a leak in a roof is based
on solar loading of the water that is trapped
in the insulation layer of the roofing system.
Since water has a greater heat capacity than
the rest of the roofing material, it retains
the heat for a longer period of time and
wet areas can be easily detected at night
after the dry areas of the roof have cooled.
Other examples include identifying heat
losses in large buildings and in internal
damp patches, and leaks in chimneys and
vents.

3. Epperly, R.A., Herberlein, G.E. and

Eads, L.G. (1997) A tool for reliability and
safety: predict and prevent equipment failure with thermography. IEEE App. Soc.
Procs., pp 59-68.
4. Willmot, P. (1991) Towards Total Productive Maintenance (TPM), 3rd National
Conference on Plant Engineering and
Maintenance, Bristol.
5. Thomas, R.A. (1999) Thermography.
Coxmoor Publishing Company. (ISBN 1
90189 200X).
6. British Standard Institution (1989) PD 6524:
Guide to specifying permissible temperature
and temperature rise for parts of electrical
equipment, in particular for terminals.
7. Tavner, P.J. and Penman, J. (1987) Failures
on real machines. Condition Monitoring

16

8. Pietola, M., Makinen, R., Vayrynen, P.,

Kesanto, J.S. and Varrio, J. (1995) Using
a high resolution thermograph in predictive maintenance and fault diagnosis of
fluid power components and systems, The
Fourth Scandinavian International Conference Procs. on Fluid Power, pages 719-727,
September 26-29, Tampere, Finland.
9. Green, L. (1977) The role of thermography. Condition Monitoring Nat. Conf.
Proc., February 1977.
10. Industrial Maintenance (1998) Thermography gives maintenance insight; reprinted from Industrial Maintenance, September 1988 Issue.
11. Gionis, N. and Campbell, D.S. (1990)
The use of thermal imaging to assess electronic components. Hybrid Circuits No 22,
pages 34-38, May 1990.
12. Kaplan, H. (1985) Thermal signatures
of electronic modules for automatic testing. Honeyhill Technical Company
Progress Report, Connecticut, USA.
13. Agema (1985b) Thermography in electronics - a survey of recent applications,
AR 8503. Survey of recent applications.
14. Davidson, J. (1998) The concept of
mechanical reliability; The Reliability of
Mechanical Systems. Edited by John
Davidson. IMechE Guide for the Process
Industries, p 10.
15. Agema (1985a) Thermal studies of
PCBs and IC capsules, AR8501. Survey of
recent applications.
16. Schneider, V. (1985) Thermographic
temperature measurement on electrical
PCBs. Elektronic.
17. Allred, L.G., Howard, T.R. and Serpen.
G. (1996) Thermal imaging is the sole basis for repairing circuit cards in the F-16
flight control panel, Auto Test Conference,
pp. 418-424, (ISBN 0780333799).
18. Green, L. (1990) Condition monitoring its impact on plant performance of
British Steel, Scunthorpe Works. Iron and
Steel-making, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 355-362.
For further information, contact: Roderick
Thomas, Faculty of Applied Design and
Engineering, Swansea Institute, Swansea,
SA2 0UT, UK. Tel: +44-01792-481117;
fax: +44-1792-481158
This article is based on a book entitled
Thermography (ISBN 1 90189 200X),
which is written by the author and forms
part of the Machine & Systems Condition
Monitoring Series that is published by
Coxmoor Publishing Co.

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Condition Monitoring 99 (Proceedings)
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1 901892 00 X
1 901892 02 6
1 901892 01 8
1 901892 03 4
1 901892 04 2
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1 901892 06 9
1 901892 07 7
1 901892 08 5
1 901892 09 3
1 901892 10 7
1 901892 10 5
0268 - 8050
0268 - 8050
1 901892 11 5
1 901892 131

May 1998
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