STEFANI

SHAH IAN

SAVANT
f

1
I

\
\

I
\

HOSTETTER

'.

~~..

Design .of Feedback

Control Systems

Raymond T. Stefani
California State University, Long Beach

Bahram Shahian
California State University, Long Beach

Clement J. Savant, Jr.

Gene H. Hostetter
--

,\

-----NUST-EME COLLEGE LIBRARY

L11~!"2g*IU- - - - New York

Oxford
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

2002

Oxford University Press

Oxford New York
Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogota Buenos Aires Calcutta
Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Florence Hong Kong Istanbul
Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai
Nairobi Paris Sao Paulo Shanghai Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw
and associated companies in
Berlin Ibadan

Copyright 2002 by Oxford University Press, Inc.

Published by Oxford University Press, Inc.
198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York, 10016
http://www.oup-usa.org
Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior permission of Oxford University Press.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Design of feedback control systems I Raymond T. Stefani ... let al.l.-- 4th ed.
p. em. -- (Oxford series in electrical and computer engineering)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-19-514249-7
I. Feedback control systems. I. Stefani, Raymond T, II. Series.
TJ 216 .0417 2001
629.8'3--dc21

,.,

..

Printing number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper

00-058913

TO
Ted, Rick, and my Inspiration
Saleh and Mahin; Farahnaz, Bita and Nima
Barbara and the Savant family in memory of Clement
Donna and the Hostetter family in memory of Gene

=ontents

Preface

xv

HAPTER 1 Continuous-Time System Description

1.1
1.2

Preview
Basic Concepts
1.2.1
Control System Terminology
The Feedback Concept
1.2.2

1.3
1.4

Modeling
System Dynamics

1.5

Electrical Components
1.5.1
Mesh Analysis
1.5.2
State Variables
1.5.3
Node Analysis
1.5.4
Analyzing Operational Amplifier Circuits
1.5.5
Operational Amplifier Applications
Translational Mechanical Components
1.6.1
Free-Body Diagrams
1.6.2
State Variables
Rotational Mechanical Components
1.7.1
Free-Body Diagrams
1.7.2
Analogies
1.7.3
Gear Trains and Transformers

1.6

1.7

2
2
4
7
9
10

11
13

15
18
21

25
25
29
32
32
35
37

CONTENTS

1.8
1.9

Electromechanical Components
Aerodynamics
1.9.1
Nomenclature
1.9.2
Dynamics
1.9.3
Lateral and Longitudinal Motion
1.1 0 Thennal Systems

vii

40
45
46
46
50
52

1.11 Hydraulics
1.12 Transfer Function and Stability
1.12.1 Transfer Functions
1.12.2 Response Terms
1.12.3 Multiple Inputs and Outputs
1.12.4 Stability

54
55

1.13 Block Diagrams

1.13.1 Block Diagram Elements
1.13.2 Block Diagram Reduction
1.13.3 Multiple Inputs and Outputs

73
73
75
78

1.14 Signal Flow Graphs

1.14.1 Comparison with Block Diagrams
1.14.2 Mason's Rule

79
79
83

1.15 A Positioning Servo

1.16 Controller Model of the Thyroid Gland
1.17 Stick-Slip Response of an Oil Well Drill

94

55
57
67

69

91

96

1.18 Summary
References

101

Problems

105

CHAPTER 2 Continuous-lime System Response

2.1
2.2
2.3

Preview
Response of FIrst-Order Systems
Response of Second-Order Systems
2.3.1
Time Response
2.3.2
Overdamped Response
2.3.3
Critically Damped Response
2.3.4
Underdamped Response
2.3.5
Undamped Natural Frequency and Damping Ratio
2.3.6
Rise Time, Overshoot, and Settling Time

2.4

Higher-Order System Response

2.5

Stability Testing
2.5.1
Coefficient Tests
2.5.2
Routh-Hurwitz Testing
2.5.3
Significance of the Array Coefficients

103

119
119

120
126
126
127
128
128
129
136
141
143
143

145
147

CONTENTS

iii

2.5.4
2.5.5
2.5.6
2.5.7

148
150
154
155
159
159
163
165
168
171
173
174

Performance Specifications

183

Left-Column Zeros
Row of Zeros
Eliminating a Possible Odd Divisor
Multiple Roots
2.6 Parameter Shifting
2.6.1
Adjustable Systems
2.6.2
Kharitonov's Theorem
2.7 An Insulin Delivery System
2.8 Analysis of an Aircraft Wing
2.9 Summary
References
Problems
~HAPTER 3

3.1
3.2

Preview
Analyzing Tracking Systems
3.2.1
Importance of Tracking Systems
3.2.2
Natural Response, Relative Stability, and Damping
3.3 Forced Response
3.3.1
Steady State Error
3.3.2
Initial and Final Values
3.3.3
Steady State Errors to Power-of-Time Inputs
3.4 Power-of-Time Error Performance
3.4.1
System Type Number
3.4.2
Achieving a Given Type Number
3.4.3
Unity Feedback Systems
3.4.4
Unity Feedback Error Coefficients
3.5 Performance Indices and Optimal Systems
3.6 System Sensitivity
3.6.1
Calculating the Effects of Changes in Parameters
3.6.2
Sensitivity Functions
3.6.3
Sensitivity to Disturbance Signals
3.7 Time Domain Design
3.7.1
Process Control
3.7.2
Ziegler-Nichols Compensation
3.7.3
Chien-Hrones-Reswick Compensation
3.8 An Electric Rail Transportation System
3.9 Phase-Locked Loop for a CB Receiver
3.10 Bionic Eye
3.11 Summary
References
Problems

183
184
184
187
189
189
190
192
198
198
200
201
204
208

215
215
216
220
223

224
224
225

231
234
237
240

242
244

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 4 Root Locus Analysis

4.1
4.2

Preview
Pole-Zero Plots
4.2.1
Poles and Zeros
4.2.2
Graphical Evaluation
4.3 Root Locus for Feedback Systems
4.3.1
Angle Criterion
4.3.2
High and Low Gains
4.3.3
Root Locus Properties
4.4 Root Locus Construction
4.5 More About Root Locus
4.5.1
Root Locus Calibration
4.5.2
Computer-Aided Root Locus
4.6 Root Locus for Other Systems
4.6.1
Systems with Other FomlS
4.6.2
Negative Parameter Ranges
4.6.3
Delay Effects
4.7 Design concepts (Adding Poles and Zeros)
4.8 A Light-Source Tracking System
4.9 An Artificial Limb
4.10 Control of a Flexible Spacecraft
4. J 1 Bionic Eye
4.12 Summary
References
Problems

CHAPTER 5 Root Locus Design

5.1
5.2
5.3

5.4
5.5
5.6

5.7
5.8
5.9

Preview
Shaping a Root Locus
Adding and Canceling Poles and Zeros
5.3.1
Adding a Pole or Zero
5.3.2
Canceling a Pole or Zero
Second-Order Plant Models
An Uncompensated Example System
Cascade Proportional Plus Integral (PI)
5.6.1
General Approach to Compensator Design
5.6.2
Cascade PI Compensation
Cascade Lag Compensation
Cascade Lead Compensation
Cascade Lag-Lead Compensation

ix

254
254
255
255
256
260
260
261
262
263
272
272
284
286
286
288
293
295
300
302
308
310
313
314
314
327
327
328
329
329
330
334
338
341
341
343
347
351
355

CONTENTS

5.10 Rate Feedback Compensation (PD)

5.11 Proportional-Integral-Derivative Compensation
5.12 Pole Placement
5.12.1 Algebraic Compensation
5.12.2 Selecting the Transfer Function
5.12.3 Incorrect Plant Transmittance
5.12.4 Robust Algebraic Compensation
5.12.5 Fixed-Structure Compensation

357
361
365
366
367
370
373
378

5.13 An Unstable High-Performance Aircraft

5.14 Control of a Flexible Space Station
5.15 Control of a Solar Furnace
5.16 Summary
References
Problems

381
385
388
393
394
395

'HAPTER 6 Frequency Response Analysis

405

6.1
6.2

6.3

6.4

6.5

6.6
6.7

Preview
Frequency Response
6.2.1
Forced Sinusoidal Response
6.2.2
Frequency Response Measurement
6.2.3
Response at Low and High Frequencies
6.2.4
Graphical Frequency Response Methods
Bode Plots
6.3.1
Amplitude Plots in Decibels
Real Axis Roots
6.3.2
Products of Transmittance Terms
6.3.3
6.3.4
Complex Roots
Using Experimental Data
6.4.1
Finding Models
6.4.2
Irrational Transmittances
Nyquist Methods
6.5,1
Generating the Nyquist (polar) Plot
6.5.2
Interpreting the Nyquist Plot
Gain Margin
Phase Margin

6.8 Relations Between Closed-Loop and Open-Loop Frequency Response

6.9 Frequency Response of a Flexible Spacecraft
6.10 Summary
References
Problems

405
406
406

407
410
412
420
420
424
428
433
446

446
447
449
450
456
464
469

475
480
485
488
488

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 7 Frequency Response Design

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5

Preview
Relation Between Root Locus, Time Domain, and Frequency Domain
Compensation Using Bode Plots
Uncompensated System
Cascade Proportional Plus Integral (PI) and Cascade Lag Compensations

7.6 Cascade Lead Compensation

7.7 Cascade Lag-Lead Compensation
7.8 Rate Feedback Compensation
7.9 Proportional-Integral-Derivative Compensation
7.10 An Automobile Driver as a Compensator
7.11 Summary
References
Problems

CHAPTER 8 State Space Analysis

8.1

8.2

8.3

8.4

8.5

8.6

Preview
State Space Representation
8.2.1
Phase-Variable Form
8.2.2
Dual Phase- Variable Form
8.2.3
Multiple Inputs and Outputs
8.2.4
Physical State Variables
8.2.5
Transfer Functions
State Transformations and Diagonalization
8.3.1
Diagonal Forms
8.3.2
Diagonalization Using Partial Fraction Expansion
8.3.3
Complex Conjugate Characteristic Roots
8.3.4
Repeated Characteristic Roots
Time Response from State Equations
8.4.1
Laplace Transform Solution
Time Domain Response of First-Order Systems
8.4.2
8.4.3
Time Domain Response of Higher-Order Systems
8.4.4
System Response Computation
Stability
8.5.1
Asymptotic Stability
BIBO Stability
8.5.2
Internal Stability
8.5.3
Controllability and Observability
8.6.1
The Controllability Matrix
The Observability Matrix
8.6.2
8.6.3
Controllability, Observability, and Pole-Zero Cancellation

xi

501
501
501
505
507
509
514
517
520
523
525

529
530
530
535

535
536
537
540
542
547

551
554
558
562

564
567

575
575
576
577

579
584
584

585
587

589
592
594
595

CONTENTS

8.7
8.8

8.6.4
Causes of Uncontrollability
Inverted Pendulum Problems
Summary

References

612
614

Problems
HAPTER 9

9.1
9.2

9.3
9.4

9.5

9.6
9.7

596
603
610

State Space Design

Preview
State Feedback and Pole Placement
9.2.1
Stabilizability
9.2.2
Choosing Pole Locations
9.2.3
Limitations of State Feedback
Tracking Problems
9.3.1
Integral Control
Observer Design
9.4.1
Control Using Observers
9.4.2
Separation Property
9.4.3
Observer Transfer Function
Reduced-Order Observer Design
9.5.1
Separation Property
9.5.2
Reduced-Order Observer Transfer Function
A Magnetic Levitation System
Summary

626
626
626
630
632
635
637
638
640

644
646
647
650
653

654
657
667

References

668

Problems

669

HAPTER 10 Advanced State Space Methods

10.1 Preview
10.2 The Linear Quadratic Regulator Problem
10.2.1 Properties of the LQR Design
10.2.2 Return Difference Inequality
10.2.3 Optimal Root Locus
10.3 Optimal Observers-the Kalman Filter
10.4 The Linear Quadratic Gaussian (LQG) Problem
10.4.1
Critique of LQG
10.5 Robustness
10.5.1 Feedback Properties
10.5.2 Uncertainty Modeling
10.5.3 Robust Stability
10.6 Loop Transfer Recovery (LTR)

675
675
676
680
680
682

685
687
690
692
693

695
698

705

CONTENTS

10.7 Roo Control

10.7.1
10.7.2
10.7.3
10.7.4
10.8 Summary
References
Problems

A Brief History
Some Preliminaries
Hoo Control: Solution
Weights in Hoo Control Problems

CHAPTER 11 Digital Control

11.1 Preview
11.2 Computer Processing
11.2.1 Computer History and Trends
11.3 AID and DJA Conversion
11.3.1 Analog-to-Digital Conversion
11.3.2 Sample and Hold
11.3.3 Digital-to-Analog Conversion
11.4 Discrete-Time Signals
11.4.1 Representing Sequences
11.4.2 z-Transformation and Properties
11.4.3 Inverse z Transform
1l.5 Sampling
11.6 Reconstruction of Signals from Samples
11.6.1 Representing Sampled Signals with Impulses
11.6.2 Relation Between the z Transform and the Laplace Transform
11.6.3 The Sampling Theorem
11.7 Discrete-Time Systems
11.7.1 Difference Equations and Response
11.7.2 z-Transfer Functions
11.7.3 Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs
11.7.4 Stability and the Bilinear Transformation
11.7.5 Computer Software
11.8 State-Variable Descriptions of Discrete-Time Systems
11.8.1 Simulation Diagrams and Equations
11.8.2 Response and Stability
11.8.3 Controllability and Observability
11.9 Digitizing Control Systems
11.9.1 Step-Invariant Approximation
11.9.2 z-Transfer Functions of Systems with Analog Measurements
11.9.3 A Design Example
11.10 Direct Digital Design
11.10.1 Steady State Response

xiii

709
709
710
713
715
722
723
724
733
733
734
734
737
737
739
741
741
741
744
749
751
753
753
756
757
760
760
762
763
764

768

771
771
774
777
779
779
782
785
788
788

CONTENTS

References

789
790
798
800

Problems

802

ii.1O.2 Deadbeat Systems

11.10.3 A Design Example
11.11 Summary

JENDIX A Matrix Algebra

812

A.l

Preview

812

A.2

Nomenclature

812

A.3

Addition and Subtraction

812

AA

Transposition

A.5

Multiplication

813
813

A.6

Determinants and Cofactors

814

A.7

Inverse

816

A.8

Simultaneous Equations

817

A.9

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

819

A.lO Derivative of a Scalar with Respect to a Vector

821

A.ll Quadratic Forms and Symmetry

823

A.12 Definiteness

824

A.13 Rank

826

A.14 Partitioned Matrices

827

Problems

830

")ENDIX B Laplace Transform

834

B.l

Preview

834

B.2

Definition and Properties

834

B.3

Solving Differential Equations

835

BA

Partial Fraction Expansion

837

B.5

Additional Properties of the Laplace Transform

841
842.
842
843
844

B.5.1
B.5.2
B.5.3
B.5.4
lex

Real Translation
Second independent Variable
Final- Value and initial-Value Theorems
Convolution integral

845

Preface

As the new millennium begins, we look back in gratitude to the many faculty and students who have
used the three earlier editions of this textbook and made many helpful suggestions to the authors. In
those earlier editions we introduced comprehensive design examples, drill problems, and wide margins
with notes. Other texts followed our lead and emulated those items. What other texts cannot emulate,
we believe, is the clear and understandable exposition we bring to the field of control system science.
Throughout this book we try to make complicated methodology accessible to a spectrum of students
with widely varying backgrounds. Detail is there for those who want to know "why." Summaries and
marginal comments are there for those who simply want to know "how."
Revisions
The most obvious change in this edition is the comprehensive keying of this text to MATLAB. We
created sections of "Computer-Aided Learnirig" by which each student can learn how the MATLAB
platfonn can be used to verify all figures and tables included in the text. We selected a small group of
MATLAB commands to efficiently focus the use of that computational package. In a basic course such
as this, it is essential that every student use the computer as an aid to learning and not as the primary
source of information. The student should learn all basics and should be able to sketch (albeit roughly)
time response plots, root locus plots, and BodeJNyquist plots manually. MATLAB (or any other
computer tool) may then be used to fine-tune understanding and to obtain results of high accuracy. But,
those results must be critically reviewed by a knowledgeable user; otherwise the computer becomes
the master and the user becomes the slave.
Chapter I has been substantially revised. Linearization is introduced by which models may be generated. Operational amplifier applications are included for the various types of compensator designed
later in the text. Substantive coverage is made of aerodynamics, thermal systems, and hydraulic systems. Drill problems cover those topics. Stability is covered in more detail. Signal flow graphs are better
compared to block diagrams. Design examples are added for the human thyroid gland as a controller
and for oil well drill dynamics.
For Chapter 2, we include the significance of Routh array coefficients and the stability implication
of multiple roots occurring as even divisors. An example of Kharitonov's theorem is added.

xv

PREFACE

xvi

Hurwitz determinants are now presented in Chapter 3. It is now shown how coefficients of the
transfer function may be selected to force a given type number to occur. An interesting biomedical
design example is added, that of a bionic eye for the blind. Time response examples are added to
illustrate time domain design.
The main change to Chapter 4 is inclusion of computer-aided means for calculating breakaway
points, entry points, departure angles, and approach angles. The MATLAB command rltool is
introduced. Delay effects are evaluated as a function of 1/ T where T is the delay in seconds. The
bionic eye example is again used, this time to illustrate use of the root locus.
Chapter 5 is revised comprehensively. Root locus design methods are now more general and more
flexible. The effect of adding or canceling poles or zeros is covered in detail. The MATLAB command
rl tool is suggested as a primary computer aid in that the effect of each root locus design point may
be evaluated in terms of step response and the Bode plot. A new design example is introduced for a
solar furnace.
Chapter 6 now begins with an introduction to all frequency response plots. It is argued that
frequency response data are complex vectors, hence can be plotted in a variety of ways resulting in
Bode, Nyquist, and Nichols plots. There is a new section that discusses the relation between open-loop
and closed-loop frequency response plots. Closed-loop frequency response data such as bandwidth
and peak resonance are introduced more formally. Nichols plots, Nichols charts, and constant loci M
and N circles are also discussed. Chapter 7 on frequency domain design remains unchanged.
Chapter 8 now includes a design example of the classic inverted pendulum problem and several
variations. This famous problem has become a benchmark for testing novel control design techniques
and provides an excellent tool for introducing the important concepts of controllability, observability, pole-zero cancellation, and practical issues such as sensor placement. Appropriate MATLAB
commands for state space modeling, transforniation, analysis, and simulation are also discussed.
Chapters 9-11 have minor corrections along with the introduction of MATLAB commands for
digital control.
Use of This Textbook
The text can be divided into six areas:
Classical analysis including modeling (Chapters 1-4,6)
Classical design (Chapters 5 and 7)
State-variable analysis (Chapter 8)
State-variable design (Chapter 9)
Advanced topics (Chapter 10)
Digital control (Chapters 11)
These six areas represent building blocks to construct a course. We have purposely included more
material than a three-semester unit course or a four-quarter unit course would normally cover. The
extra material is intended to give ~he instructor flexibility in structuring a course to meet the needs of
the program, the university, and the community served. We suggest that it is better to cover a smaller
number of units well than to cover a larger number poorly.
For example, a two-course sequence could be created where the first course covers classical
analysis (Chapters 1-4 and 6) followed by a second course including state variables, design, and
advanced topics (Chapters 5 and 7-10). Chapter 11 is often used as reference material, introducing
the student to digital control and providing a comparison with analog methods. The possibilities are
endless.

Raymond T. Stefani
Bahram Shahian
Clement J. Savant Jr. (late)
Gene H. Hostetter (late)

Continuous-Time
System Description

The first conscious use of feedback control of a physical system by mankind lives in
prehistory. Possibly it was a spillway in an irrigation network, where excess water was
automatically drained. Development of a mathematical framework for the description,
analysis, and design of control systems dates from the introduction of James Watt's
flyball governor (1760), which was used to regulate the speed of steam engines, and
the subsequent work by James Clerk Maxwell (ca. 1868) and others to improve the
design and extend its applicability.
Since that era, the theory and practice of control system design advanced rapidly.
Important new concepts and tools were developed in connection with telephone and
radio communications in the 1920s and 1930s. Rather poorly performing electronic
devices, including amplifiers and modulators, were dramatically improved by feedback. World War II further accelerated the development of classical control theory
and practice. Heavy guns had to be rapidly and accurately positioned. Precise navigation and target tracking were increasingly important, and aircraft performance was
improved greatly with the incorporation of complex control systems to aid the pilot.
Latter, automation became a household word as industry began to depend more and
more upon automatically controlled machinery.
Today, feedback control systems are pervasive in industry and in our everyday
lives. They range from governmental regulation (such as that governing monetary
policy) to automated and highly flexible manufacturing plants to sophisticated automobiles, household appliances, and entertainment systems. It is our purpose to learn
to design feedback control systems for a wide variety of applications.
1

CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

Control system designers find that block diagrams provide a particularly useful
way to visualize the interconnections of system components, thus revealing the
system structure. Successful design begins by creating a mathematical model of the
system to be stabilized. Next, the contentS of the blocks within a diagram must be identified. Finally, values must be selected for those parameters that are adjustable, and
sometimes additional components must be added to provide acceptable performance.
This chapter begins by defining basic control system terminology. Since design
requires a model of each system of interest, the behaviors of many typical electrical,
mechanical, and electromechanical systems are described. The resulting differential
equations must be rendered into a forin useful to the controls engineer. The goal can be
accomplished by Laplace-transforming each differential equation and then generating
a relationship, the transmittance, between the input and output of each block of the
control system block diagram. In Appendix B, a summary of the Laplace transform
method is presented.
The block diagram can be reduced to just one input-output relationship, the
system overall transfer function. By converting the block diagram into an equivalent
fo~, the signal flow graph can be developed. Subsequent chapters will describe the
design steps that follow once the block diagram has been defined and the transfer
function has become available.
All the chapters of this text conclude with examples that are intended to reinforce
the key points of the chapter in an interesting and informative manner. Chapter 1
concludes with discussion of a positioning servo, analysis of the thyroid gland, and
design of an oil well drilling system.
While the material in the first chapter involves subjects already known to the
reader from previous experience, the text provides a coherent review. The emphasis
here is on using rather than proving results.

1.2.1 Control System Terminology

The plant (process), inputs,

and outputs are defined.

Controller and open-loop

control are defined.

Control systems influence each facet of modem life. Automatic washers and dryers, microwave ovens, chemical processing plants, navigation and guidance systems,
space satellites, pollution control, mass transit, and economic regulation are a
few examples. In the broadest sense, a control system is any interconnection of
components to provide a desired function.
The portion of a system that is to be controlled is called the plant or the process.
It is affected by applied signals, called inputs, and produces signals of particular
interest, called outputs, as indicated in Figure 1.l(a). The plant is fixed insofar as the
control system designer is concerned. Whether the plant is an automobile engine, an
electri!=al generator, or a nuclear reactor, it is the designer's job to ensure that the plant
operates as required. Other components must be specially created and connected as
a means to an end.
A controller may be used to produce a desired behavior of the plant, as shown
in Figure 1.1(b). The controller generates plant input signals designed to produce

BASIC CONCEPTS

Inputs

Outputs

Desired
Disturbance
plant
inputs
behavior , . - - - - - - ,

(a)

(b)

Pump
load
Shalt
speed

30

(e)

60
90
120
Throttle position (angle)

ISO

(d)

Figure 1.1 (a) A plant or process to be controlled. (b) An open-loop control system.
(c) Example of an open-loop control system. (d) Engine speed versus throttle angle curves.

desired outputs. Some of the plant inputs are accessible to the designer and some are
generally not available. The inaccessible input signals are often disturbances to the
plant. The double lines in the figure indicate that several signals of each type may be
involved. Arrows indicate direction of flow. This system is termed open-loop because
the control inputs are not influenced by the plant outputs: that is, there is no feedback
around the plant.
Such an open-loop control system has the advantage of simplicity, but its performance is highly dependent upon the properties of the plant, which may vary with
time. The disturbances to the plant may also create an unwanted response, which it
would be desirable to reduce.
As an example, suppose that a gasoline engine is used to drive a large pump, as
depicted in Figure l.l(c). The carburetor and the engine comprise a common type
of control system wherein a large-power output is controlled with a small-power
input. The carburetor is the controller in this case, and the engine is the plant. The
desired plant output, a certain engine shaft speed, may be obtained by adjusting the
throttle angle.
Two plots of engine speed versus throttle angle are shown in Figure 1.1 (d). If the
nominal curve is used, a throttle angle of 80 produces an engine speed of 2300 rpm.
Suppose that a disturbances occurs, consisting of a change in engine load. For the new
curve, a throttle angle of 80 produces an engine speed of only 1000 rpm. In some
cases open-loop control may be acceptable. In other cases, it may not be acceptable
to have system output change when other values change. In these more critical cases,
the closed-loop procedure of the next section may be needed.
Table 1.1 shows five examples. The first two examples are for open-loop systems
in that no measurements are taken to adjust controller influence on the plant. Each
of the two controllers is specified when a manual setting is made of temperature
and speed respectively. Hair dampness and the type of material being drilled are

Open-loop examples 'are

presented.

CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

disturbances affecting desired performance. In these two cases, the user simply alters
the total time until the job is done. In the case of the hair dryer, output air temperature
remains constant while drying time for hair will vary according to wetness. In the case
of the drill, output speed may vary while the drilling requirement remains constant.
Figure l.l(b) describes these systems.

1.2.2 The Feedback Concept

Closed-loop control is
distinguished from open-loop
control.

If the requirements of the system cannot be satisfied with an open-loop control system,
a closed-loop or feedback system is desirable. A path (or loop) is provided from the
output back to the controller. Some or all of the system outputs are measured and
used by the controller, as indicated in Figure 1.2(a). The controller may then compare
a desired plant output with the actual output and act to reduce the difference between
the two.
Let us return to Table 1.1 and consider the third and fourth examples. Temperatures and speed are the system outputs, as was the situation for the first two examples,
but now measurements are used to keep the outputs constant in the presence of dis- ,
turbances. If outside temperatures drops, a thermostat determines that the room is
becoming too cold. The thermostat causes furnace heat to increase which, in tum,
causes the room temperature to increase to the predetermined value.
Changes in driving conditions represent disturbances affecting an automobile's
speed. One possible feedback control configuration is shown in Figure 1.2(b).
A tachometer produces a voltage proportional to the engine shaft speed. The input
voltage, which is proportional to the desired speed, is set with a potentiometer. The
tachometer voltage is subtracted from the input voltage, giving an error voltage that
is proportional to the difference between the actual speed and the desired speed.
The error voltage is then amplified and used to position the throttle. The throttle
actuator could be a reversible electric motor, geared to the throttle arm. When the
engine shaft speed is equal to the desired speed (when the difference or error is zero),
the throttle remains fixed. If a change in load or a change in the engine components

Table 1.1 Examples of Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Systems

~"l~y"q\'~~i-

"Q~'!tppt

Input

' Controller

Heat setting

Dial

Hair dryer

Hair dampness

Speed setting

Dial

Drill

Type of material

Desired
temperature
Desired speed

Thermostat

Furnace

Cruise control

Auto engine

Desired
performance

Electorate

President

Outside
temperature
Driving
conditions
Economy

Hot air
temperature
Rotating drill
bit speed
Hot air
temperature
Car speed

None

Decisions

Evaluation

None
Room
temperature
Enginerprn