Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lecture 15A.1
Condition
CAPEX $/B/D
OPEX $/B
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
Conventional
To identify the basic vocabulary, to introduce the major concepts for offshore platform
Average
4000 - 8000
Middle East
500 - 3000
Non-Opec
3000 - 12000
North Sea
10000 - 25000
5 - 10
Deepwater
15000 - 35000
10 - 15
structures, and to explain where the basic structural requirements for design are generated.
PREREQUISITES
None.
Offshore
SUMMARY
The lecture starts with a presentation of the importance of offshore hydro-carbon exploitation,
the basic steps in the development process (from seismic exploration to platform removal)
and the introduction of the major structural concepts (jacket-based, GBS-based, TLP,
floating). The major codes are identified.
World oil production in 1988 was 63 million barrel/day. These figures clearly indicate the
For the fixed platform concepts (jacket and GBS), the different execution phases are briefly
challenge for the offshore designer: a growing contribution is required from offshore
explained: design, fabrication and installation. Special attention is given to some principles of
topside design.
Figure 1 shows the distribution of the oil and gas fields in the North Sea, a major contribution
to the world offshore hydrocarbons. It also indicates the onshore fields in England, the
1. INTRODUCTION
Offshore platforms are constructed to produce the hydrocarbons oil and gas. The contribution
of offshore oil production in the year 1988 to the world energy consumption was 9% and is
estimated to be 24% in 2000.
The investment (CAPEX) required at present to produce one barrel of oil per day ($/B/D) and
the production costs (OPEX) per barrel are depicted in the table below.
Page 1 of 32
Page 2 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
Condition
CAPEX $/B/D
OPEX $/B
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
Conventional
To identify the basic vocabulary, to introduce the major concepts for offshore platform
Average
4000 - 8000
Middle East
500 - 3000
Non-Opec
3000 - 12000
North Sea
10000 - 25000
5 - 10
Deepwater
15000 - 35000
10 - 15
structures, and to explain where the basic structural requirements for design are generated.
PREREQUISITES
None.
Offshore
SUMMARY
The lecture starts with a presentation of the importance of offshore hydro-carbon exploitation,
the basic steps in the development process (from seismic exploration to platform removal)
and the introduction of the major structural concepts (jacket-based, GBS-based, TLP,
floating). The major codes are identified.
World oil production in 1988 was 63 million barrel/day. These figures clearly indicate the
For the fixed platform concepts (jacket and GBS), the different execution phases are briefly
challenge for the offshore designer: a growing contribution is required from offshore
explained: design, fabrication and installation. Special attention is given to some principles of
topside design.
Figure 1 shows the distribution of the oil and gas fields in the North Sea, a major contribution
to the world offshore hydrocarbons. It also indicates the onshore fields in England, the
1. INTRODUCTION
Offshore platforms are constructed to produce the hydrocarbons oil and gas. The contribution
of offshore oil production in the year 1988 to the world energy consumption was 9% and is
estimated to be 24% in 2000.
The investment (CAPEX) required at present to produce one barrel of oil per day ($/B/D) and
the production costs (OPEX) per barrel are depicted in the table below.
Page 1 of 32
Page 2 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
2. OFFSHORE PLATFORMS
2.1 Introduction of Basic Types
The overwhelming majority of platforms are piled-jacket with deck structures, all built in steel
(see Slides 1 and 2).
Page 3 of 32
Page 4 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
2. OFFSHORE PLATFORMS
2.1 Introduction of Basic Types
The overwhelming majority of platforms are piled-jacket with deck structures, all built in steel
(see Slides 1 and 2).
Page 3 of 32
Page 4 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
A second major type is the gravity concrete structure (see Figure 2), which is employed in the
2.3 Construction
The topside structure also must be kept clear of the wave crest. The clearance (airgap)
usually is taken at approximately 1,50 m, but should be increased if reservoir depletion will
Page 5 of 32
Page 6 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
A second major type is the gravity concrete structure (see Figure 2), which is employed in the
2.3 Construction
The topside structure also must be kept clear of the wave crest. The clearance (airgap)
usually is taken at approximately 1,50 m, but should be increased if reservoir depletion will
Page 5 of 32
Page 6 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
Insurance companies covering transport and installation require the structures to be reviewed
by warranty surveyors before acceptance. The warranty surveyors apply standards, if
available, on a confidential basis.
3. OFFSHORE DEVELOPMENT OF AN OIL/GAS FIELD
3.1 Introduction
The different requirements of an offshore platform and the typical phases of an offshore
development are summarized in [9]. After several initial phases which include seismic field
surveying, one or more exploration wells are drilled. Jack-up drilling rigs are used for this
purpose for water depths up to 100 - 120 m; for deeper water floating rigs are used. The
results are studied and the economics and risks of different development plans are evaluated.
Design and construction of the topside are progressed parallel to the drilling, allowing
Factors involved in the evaluation may include number of wells required, fixed or floated
production to start soon after deck installation. For further wells, the jack-up drilling unit will be
called once again and will reach over the well area of the production deck.
As soon as exploitation is decided and approved, there are four main technical activities, prior
As an alternative to this concept the wells are often accommodated in a separate wellhead
to production:
The wells are drilled from a drilling rig on the permanent platform (see Slide 2). Drilling starts
after the platform is built and completely installed. Consequently production starts between
concepts.
this case the platform has to be installed exactly above the pre-drilled wells.
3.2 Jacket Based Platform for Shallow Water
4. JACKETS AND PILE FOUNDATION
First the jacket is installed. The wells are then drilled by a jack-up drilling unit standing close
by with a cantilever rig extending over the jacket. Slide 3 shows a jack-up drilling unit with a
cantilever rig. (In this instance it is engaged in exploratory drilling and is therefore working in
isolation.)
4.1 Introduction
Jackets, the tower-like braced tubular structures, generally perform two functions:
They provide the substructure for the production facility (topside), keeping it stable
above the waves.
They support laterally and protect the 26-30 inch well conductors and the pipeline
riser.
The installation methods for the jacket and the piles have a profound impact on the design.
Page 7 of 32
Page 8 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
Insurance companies covering transport and installation require the structures to be reviewed
by warranty surveyors before acceptance. The warranty surveyors apply standards, if
available, on a confidential basis.
3. OFFSHORE DEVELOPMENT OF AN OIL/GAS FIELD
3.1 Introduction
The different requirements of an offshore platform and the typical phases of an offshore
development are summarized in [9]. After several initial phases which include seismic field
surveying, one or more exploration wells are drilled. Jack-up drilling rigs are used for this
purpose for water depths up to 100 - 120 m; for deeper water floating rigs are used. The
results are studied and the economics and risks of different development plans are evaluated.
Design and construction of the topside are progressed parallel to the drilling, allowing
Factors involved in the evaluation may include number of wells required, fixed or floated
production to start soon after deck installation. For further wells, the jack-up drilling unit will be
called once again and will reach over the well area of the production deck.
As soon as exploitation is decided and approved, there are four main technical activities, prior
As an alternative to this concept the wells are often accommodated in a separate wellhead
to production:
The wells are drilled from a drilling rig on the permanent platform (see Slide 2). Drilling starts
after the platform is built and completely installed. Consequently production starts between
concepts.
this case the platform has to be installed exactly above the pre-drilled wells.
3.2 Jacket Based Platform for Shallow Water
4. JACKETS AND PILE FOUNDATION
First the jacket is installed. The wells are then drilled by a jack-up drilling unit standing close
by with a cantilever rig extending over the jacket. Slide 3 shows a jack-up drilling unit with a
cantilever rig. (In this instance it is engaged in exploratory drilling and is therefore working in
isolation.)
4.1 Introduction
Jackets, the tower-like braced tubular structures, generally perform two functions:
They provide the substructure for the production facility (topside), keeping it stable
above the waves.
They support laterally and protect the 26-30 inch well conductors and the pipeline
riser.
The installation methods for the jacket and the piles have a profound impact on the design.
Page 7 of 32
Page 8 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
The jacket foundation is provided by open-ended tubular steel piles, with diameters up to 2m.
The most usual form of corrosion protection of the bare underwater part of the jacket as well
The piles are driven approximately 40 - 80 m, and in some cases 120 m deep into the
as the upper part of the piles in soil is by cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes. A
seabed.
sacrificial anode (approximate 3 kN each) consists of a zinc/aluminium bar cast about a steel
tube and welded on to the structures. Typically approximately 5% of the jacket weight is
There are basically three types of pile/jacket arrangement (see Figure 3):
applied as anodes.
The steelwork in the splash zone is usually protected by a sacrificial wall thickness of 12 mm
to the members.
5. TOPSIDES
5.1 Introduction
The major functions on the deck of an offshore platform are:
Pile-through-leg concept, where the pile is installed in the corner legs of the jacket.
Skirt piles through pile sleeves at the jacket-base, where the pile is installed in guides
attached to the jacket leg. Skirt piles can be grouped in clusters around each of the jacket
legs.
well control
separation of gas, oil and non-transportable components in the raw product, e.g.
water, parafines/waxes and sand
power generation
There are basically two structural types of topside, the integrated and modularized topside
Vertical skirt piles are directly installed in the pile sleeve at the jacket base; all other guides
are deleted. This arrangement results in reduced structural weight and easier pile driving. In
contrast inclined piles enlarge the foundation at the bottom, thus providing a stiffer structure.
There are four structural concepts in practice. They result from the lifting capacity of crane
vessels and the load-out capacity at the yards:
Lateral load resistance of the pile is required for restraint of the horizontal forces. These
the modularized topside consisting of module support frame (MSF) carrying a series
Number, arrangement, diameter and penetration of the piles depend on the environmental
loads and the soil conditions at the location.
Page 9 of 32
of modules.
Page 10 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
The jacket foundation is provided by open-ended tubular steel piles, with diameters up to 2m.
The most usual form of corrosion protection of the bare underwater part of the jacket as well
The piles are driven approximately 40 - 80 m, and in some cases 120 m deep into the
as the upper part of the piles in soil is by cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes. A
seabed.
sacrificial anode (approximate 3 kN each) consists of a zinc/aluminium bar cast about a steel
tube and welded on to the structures. Typically approximately 5% of the jacket weight is
There are basically three types of pile/jacket arrangement (see Figure 3):
applied as anodes.
The steelwork in the splash zone is usually protected by a sacrificial wall thickness of 12 mm
to the members.
5. TOPSIDES
5.1 Introduction
The major functions on the deck of an offshore platform are:
Pile-through-leg concept, where the pile is installed in the corner legs of the jacket.
Skirt piles through pile sleeves at the jacket-base, where the pile is installed in guides
attached to the jacket leg. Skirt piles can be grouped in clusters around each of the jacket
legs.
well control
separation of gas, oil and non-transportable components in the raw product, e.g.
water, parafines/waxes and sand
power generation
There are basically two structural types of topside, the integrated and modularized topside
Vertical skirt piles are directly installed in the pile sleeve at the jacket base; all other guides
are deleted. This arrangement results in reduced structural weight and easier pile driving. In
contrast inclined piles enlarge the foundation at the bottom, thus providing a stiffer structure.
There are four structural concepts in practice. They result from the lifting capacity of crane
vessels and the load-out capacity at the yards:
Lateral load resistance of the pile is required for restraint of the horizontal forces. These
the modularized topside consisting of module support frame (MSF) carrying a series
Number, arrangement, diameter and penetration of the piles depend on the environmental
loads and the soil conditions at the location.
Page 9 of 32
of modules.
Page 10 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
Slide 4 shows an integrated deck (though excluding the living quarters and helideck) being
moved from its assembly building.
Page 11 of 32
Page 12 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
Slide 4 shows an integrated deck (though excluding the living quarters and helideck) being
moved from its assembly building.
Page 11 of 32
Page 12 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
In living quarter modules (5-25 MN) all sleeping rooms require windows and several doors
must be provided in the outer walls. This requirement can interfere seriously with truss
stiffened plate walls (so called stressed skin or deck house type).
7. CONSTRUCTION
7.1 Introduction
The design of offshore structures has to consider various requirements of construction
relating to:
1. fabrication.
2. weight.
3. load-out.
4. sea transport.
5. offshore installation.
6. module installation.
7. hook-up.
8. commissioning.
A documented construction strategy should be available during all phases of the design and
the actual design development should be monitored against the construction strategy.
The substructure of the deck is rigidly connected to the concrete column and acts as a beam
supporting the deck modules. This connection introduces wave-induced fatigue in the deck
structure. A recent development, foreseen for the Norwegian Troll platform, is to provide a
flexible connection between the deck and concrete column, thus eliminating fatigue in the
deck [10].
Equipment modules (20-75 MN) have the form of rectangular boxes with one or two
intermediate floors.
The jacket is loaded-out and seafastened aboard a barge. At the offshore location the barge
is moored alongside an offshore crane vessel.
The floors are steel plate (6, 8 or 10 mm thick) for roof and lower floor, and grating for
intermediate floors.
Page 13 of 32
Page 14 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
In living quarter modules (5-25 MN) all sleeping rooms require windows and several doors
must be provided in the outer walls. This requirement can interfere seriously with truss
stiffened plate walls (so called stressed skin or deck house type).
7. CONSTRUCTION
7.1 Introduction
The design of offshore structures has to consider various requirements of construction
relating to:
1. fabrication.
2. weight.
3. load-out.
4. sea transport.
5. offshore installation.
6. module installation.
7. hook-up.
8. commissioning.
A documented construction strategy should be available during all phases of the design and
the actual design development should be monitored against the construction strategy.
The substructure of the deck is rigidly connected to the concrete column and acts as a beam
supporting the deck modules. This connection introduces wave-induced fatigue in the deck
structure. A recent development, foreseen for the Norwegian Troll platform, is to provide a
flexible connection between the deck and concrete column, thus eliminating fatigue in the
deck [10].
Equipment modules (20-75 MN) have the form of rectangular boxes with one or two
intermediate floors.
The jacket is loaded-out and seafastened aboard a barge. At the offshore location the barge
is moored alongside an offshore crane vessel.
The floors are steel plate (6, 8 or 10 mm thick) for roof and lower floor, and grating for
intermediate floors.
Page 13 of 32
Page 14 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
The jacket is lifted off the barge, upended from the horizontal, and carefully set down onto the
seabed.
After setting down the jacket, the piles are installed into the sleeves and, driven into the
seabed. Fixing the piles to the jacket completes the installation.
7.2.2 Launch Installed Jackets
The jacket is built in horizontal position.
For load-out to the transport barge, the jacket is put on skids sliding on a straight track of steel
beams, and pulled onto the barge (Slide 5).
Two parallel heavy vertical trusses in the jacket structure are required, capable of taking the
support reactions during launching. To reduce forces and moments in the jacket, rocker arms
are attached to the stern of the barge.
Page 15 of 32
Page 16 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
The jacket is lifted off the barge, upended from the horizontal, and carefully set down onto the
seabed.
After setting down the jacket, the piles are installed into the sleeves and, driven into the
seabed. Fixing the piles to the jacket completes the installation.
7.2.2 Launch Installed Jackets
The jacket is built in horizontal position.
For load-out to the transport barge, the jacket is put on skids sliding on a straight track of steel
beams, and pulled onto the barge (Slide 5).
Two parallel heavy vertical trusses in the jacket structure are required, capable of taking the
support reactions during launching. To reduce forces and moments in the jacket, rocker arms
are attached to the stern of the barge.
Page 15 of 32
Page 16 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
The next phase is to upright the jacket by means of controlled flooding of the buoyancy tanks
and then set down onto the seabed. Self-upending jackets obtain a vertical position after the
Lifting of heavy loads from barges (Slide 6) is one of the very important and spectacular
launch on their own. Piling and pile/jacket fixing completes the installation.
construction activities requiring a focus on the problem when concepts are developed.
Weather windows, i.e. periods of suitable weather conditions, are required for these
operations.
The topside is assembled above the sea on a temporary support near a yard. It is then taken
by a barge of such dimensions as to fit between the columns of the temporary support and
between the columns of the GBS. The GBS is brought in a deep floating condition in a
sheltered site, e.g. a Norwegian fjord. The barge is positioned between the columns and the
Lifting of heavy loads offshore requires use of specialized crane vessels. Figure 7 provides
GBS is then deballasted to mate with and to take over the deck from the barge. The floating
information on a typical big, dual crane vessel. Table 1 (page 16) lists some of the major
GBS with deck is then towed to the offshore site and set down onto the seabed.
Page 17 of 32
Page 18 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
The next phase is to upright the jacket by means of controlled flooding of the buoyancy tanks
and then set down onto the seabed. Self-upending jackets obtain a vertical position after the
Lifting of heavy loads from barges (Slide 6) is one of the very important and spectacular
launch on their own. Piling and pile/jacket fixing completes the installation.
construction activities requiring a focus on the problem when concepts are developed.
Weather windows, i.e. periods of suitable weather conditions, are required for these
operations.
The topside is assembled above the sea on a temporary support near a yard. It is then taken
by a barge of such dimensions as to fit between the columns of the temporary support and
between the columns of the GBS. The GBS is brought in a deep floating condition in a
sheltered site, e.g. a Norwegian fjord. The barge is positioned between the columns and the
Lifting of heavy loads offshore requires use of specialized crane vessels. Figure 7 provides
GBS is then deballasted to mate with and to take over the deck from the barge. The floating
information on a typical big, dual crane vessel. Table 1 (page 16) lists some of the major
GBS with deck is then towed to the offshore site and set down onto the seabed.
Page 17 of 32
Page 18 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
For lifting, steel wire ropes in a four-sling arrangement are used which directly rest in the four-
Operator
point hook of the crane vessel, (see Figure 8). The heaviest sling available now has a
diameter of approximately 350 mm, a breaking load of approximately 48 MN, and a safe
working load (SWL) of 16 MN. Shackles are available up to 10 MN SWL to connect the
Name
Mode
Thor
Monohull
padeyes installed at the module's columns. Due to the space required, connecting more than
one shackle to the same column is not very attractive. So when the sling load exceeds 10
Odin
Monohull
Heerema
Hermod
Balder
DB50
McDermott
DB100
DB101
Semisub
Semisub
Monohull
Semisub
Semisub
Type
Fix
2720
Rev
1820
Fix
2720
Rev
2450
Fix
Rev
Fix
Rev
Fix
4000
Rev
3800
Fix
1820
Rev
1450
Fix
3360
Rev
2450
DB102
Semisub
Rev
Micoperi
M7000
Semisub
Rev
ETPM
DLB1601 Monohull
Rev.
1600
Notes:
1. Rated lifting capacity in metric tonnes.
2. When the crane vessels are provided with two cranes, these cranes are situated at
the vessels stern or bow at approximately 60 m distance c.t.c.
1. 3. Rev = Load capability with fully revolving crane.
Fix = Load capability with crane fixed.
Page 19 of 32
Page 20 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
For lifting, steel wire ropes in a four-sling arrangement are used which directly rest in the four-
Operator
point hook of the crane vessel, (see Figure 8). The heaviest sling available now has a
diameter of approximately 350 mm, a breaking load of approximately 48 MN, and a safe
working load (SWL) of 16 MN. Shackles are available up to 10 MN SWL to connect the
Name
Mode
Thor
Monohull
padeyes installed at the module's columns. Due to the space required, connecting more than
one shackle to the same column is not very attractive. So when the sling load exceeds 10
Odin
Monohull
Heerema
Hermod
Balder
DB50
McDermott
DB100
DB101
Semisub
Semisub
Monohull
Semisub
Semisub
Type
Fix
2720
Rev
1820
Fix
2720
Rev
2450
Fix
Rev
Fix
Rev
Fix
4000
Rev
3800
Fix
1820
Rev
1450
Fix
3360
Rev
2450
DB102
Semisub
Rev
Micoperi
M7000
Semisub
Rev
ETPM
DLB1601 Monohull
Rev.
1600
Notes:
1. Rated lifting capacity in metric tonnes.
2. When the crane vessels are provided with two cranes, these cranes are situated at
the vessels stern or bow at approximately 60 m distance c.t.c.
1. 3. Rev = Load capability with fully revolving crane.
Fix = Load capability with crane fixed.
Page 19 of 32
Page 20 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
7.5 Load-out
Transportation is performed aboard a flat-top barge or, if possible, on the deck of the crane
7.5.1 Introduction
vessel.
For load-out three basic methods are applied:
The module requires fixing to the barge (see Figure 9) to withstand barge motions in rough
seas. The sea fastening concept is determined by the positions of the framing in the module
skidding
platform trailers
shearlegs.
7.5.2 Skidding
Skidding is a method feasible for items of any weight. The system consists of a series of steel
beams, acting as track, on which a group of skids with each approximately 6 MN load
capacity is arranged. Each skid is provided with a hydraulic jack to control the reaction.
7.5.3 Platform Trailers
Specialized trailer units (see Figure 10) can be combined to act as one unit for loads up to 60
- 75 MN. The wheels are individually suspended and integrated jacks allow adjustment up to
300 mm.
Page 21 of 32
Page 22 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
7.5 Load-out
Transportation is performed aboard a flat-top barge or, if possible, on the deck of the crane
7.5.1 Introduction
vessel.
For load-out three basic methods are applied:
The module requires fixing to the barge (see Figure 9) to withstand barge motions in rough
seas. The sea fastening concept is determined by the positions of the framing in the module
skidding
platform trailers
shearlegs.
7.5.2 Skidding
Skidding is a method feasible for items of any weight. The system consists of a series of steel
beams, acting as track, on which a group of skids with each approximately 6 MN load
capacity is arranged. Each skid is provided with a hydraulic jack to control the reaction.
7.5.3 Platform Trailers
Specialized trailer units (see Figure 10) can be combined to act as one unit for loads up to 60
- 75 MN. The wheels are individually suspended and integrated jacks allow adjustment up to
300 mm.
Page 21 of 32
Page 22 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
7.5.4 Shearlegs
Load-out by shearlegs is attractive for small jackets built on the quay. Smaller decks (up to 10
- 12 MN) can be loaded out on the decklegs pre-positioned on the barge, thus allowing deck
and deckleg to be installed in one lift offshore.
7.6 Platform Removal
In recent years platform removal has become common. The mode of removal depends
strongly on the regulations of the local authorities. Provision for removal should be considered
in the design phase.
8. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
8.1 Introduction
The majority of structural analyses are based on the linear theory of elasticity for total system
behaviour. Dynamic analysis is performed for the system behaviour under wave-attack if the
natural period exceeds 3 seconds. Many elements can exhibit local dynamic behaviour, e.g.
compressor foundations, flare-stacks, crane-pedestals, slender jacket members, conductors.
8.2 In-place Phase
Three types of analysis are performed:
Fatigue assessment.
Accidental.
All these analyses are performed on the complete and intact structure. Assessments at
damaged structures, e.g. with one member deleted, and assessments of collision situations
are occasionally performed.
The load capacity over the projected ground area varies from approximately 55 to 85
kN/sq.m.
Page 23 of 32
Load-out
Sea transport
Page 24 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
7.5.4 Shearlegs
Load-out by shearlegs is attractive for small jackets built on the quay. Smaller decks (up to 10
- 12 MN) can be loaded out on the decklegs pre-positioned on the barge, thus allowing deck
and deckleg to be installed in one lift offshore.
7.6 Platform Removal
In recent years platform removal has become common. The mode of removal depends
strongly on the regulations of the local authorities. Provision for removal should be considered
in the design phase.
8. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
8.1 Introduction
The majority of structural analyses are based on the linear theory of elasticity for total system
behaviour. Dynamic analysis is performed for the system behaviour under wave-attack if the
natural period exceeds 3 seconds. Many elements can exhibit local dynamic behaviour, e.g.
compressor foundations, flare-stacks, crane-pedestals, slender jacket members, conductors.
8.2 In-place Phase
Three types of analysis are performed:
Fatigue assessment.
Accidental.
All these analyses are performed on the complete and intact structure. Assessments at
damaged structures, e.g. with one member deleted, and assessments of collision situations
are occasionally performed.
The load capacity over the projected ground area varies from approximately 55 to 85
kN/sq.m.
Page 23 of 32
Load-out
Sea transport
Page 24 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Upending of jackets
Lifting.
Lecture 15A.1
9. COST ASPECTS
9.1 Introduction
Fixed platforms have recently been installed in water of 410 m. depth, i.e. "Bullwinkle"
developed by Shell Oil for a Gulf of Mexico location. The jacket weighed nearly 500 MN.
The economic feasibility of an offshore project depends on many aspects: capital expenditure
(CAPEX), tax, royalties, operational expenditure (OPEX).
The maximum depth of water at platform sites in the North Sea is approximately 220 m at
present. The development of the Troll field situated in approximately 305 m deep water is
In a typical offshore field development, one third of the CAPEX is spent on the platform, one
350 m are in operation (Cerveza, Cognac). Exxon has a guyed tower platform (Lena) in
using a probabilistic approach has been developed and adopted in major offshore projects.
An option for deeper locations is to use subsea wells with flowlines to a nearby
(approximately maximum 10 km) fixed platform at a smaller water depth. Alternatively subsea
wells may be used with flexible risers to a floating production unit. Subsea wells are now
feasible for 300 - 900 m deep water. The deepest wells have been developed off Brasil in
fabrication
Page 25 of 32
Page 26 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Upending of jackets
Lifting.
Lecture 15A.1
9. COST ASPECTS
9.1 Introduction
Fixed platforms have recently been installed in water of 410 m. depth, i.e. "Bullwinkle"
developed by Shell Oil for a Gulf of Mexico location. The jacket weighed nearly 500 MN.
The economic feasibility of an offshore project depends on many aspects: capital expenditure
(CAPEX), tax, royalties, operational expenditure (OPEX).
The maximum depth of water at platform sites in the North Sea is approximately 220 m at
present. The development of the Troll field situated in approximately 305 m deep water is
In a typical offshore field development, one third of the CAPEX is spent on the platform, one
350 m are in operation (Cerveza, Cognac). Exxon has a guyed tower platform (Lena) in
using a probabilistic approach has been developed and adopted in major offshore projects.
An option for deeper locations is to use subsea wells with flowlines to a nearby
(approximately maximum 10 km) fixed platform at a smaller water depth. Alternatively subsea
wells may be used with flexible risers to a floating production unit. Subsea wells are now
feasible for 300 - 900 m deep water. The deepest wells have been developed off Brasil in
fabrication
Page 25 of 32
Page 26 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
The lecture starts with the presentation of the importance of offshore hydro-carbon
transport.
exploitation, the basic steps in the development process (from seismic exploration to
platform removal) and the introduction of the major structural concepts (jacket-based,
GBS-based, TLP, floating).
SLINGS Cables with spliced eyed at both ends, for offshore lifting, the upper end resting in
For the fixed platform concepts (jacket and GBS), the different execution phases are
briefly explained: design, fabrication and installation. Special attention is given to the
principles of topside design.
Page 27 of 32
Page 28 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
The lecture starts with the presentation of the importance of offshore hydro-carbon
transport.
exploitation, the basic steps in the development process (from seismic exploration to
platform removal) and the introduction of the major structural concepts (jacket-based,
GBS-based, TLP, floating).
SLINGS Cables with spliced eyed at both ends, for offshore lifting, the upper end resting in
For the fixed platform concepts (jacket and GBS), the different execution phases are
briefly explained: design, fabrication and installation. Special attention is given to the
principles of topside design.
Page 27 of 32
Page 28 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
TOPSIDE Topside, the compact offshore process plant, with all auxiliaries, positioned above
the waves.
The structural offshore welding code.
UP ENDING Bringing the jacket in vertical position, prior to set down on the sea bottom.
[6] DnV/Marine Operations: Standard for insurance warranty surveys in marine operations.
WEATHER WINDOW
Det norske Veritas June 1985.
A period of calm weather, defined on basis of operational limits for the offshore marine
operation.
WELLHEAD AREA Area in topside where the wellheads are positioned including the valves
[7] ABS: Rules for building and classing offshore installations, Part 1 Structures.
13. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2A: Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing fixed offshore
platforms.
[8] BV: Rules and regulations for the construction and classification of offshore platforms.
Bureau Veritas, Paris 1975.
Energy 1990.
Page 29 of 32
Page 30 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
TOPSIDE Topside, the compact offshore process plant, with all auxiliaries, positioned above
the waves.
The structural offshore welding code.
UP ENDING Bringing the jacket in vertical position, prior to set down on the sea bottom.
[6] DnV/Marine Operations: Standard for insurance warranty surveys in marine operations.
WEATHER WINDOW
Det norske Veritas June 1985.
A period of calm weather, defined on basis of operational limits for the offshore marine
operation.
WELLHEAD AREA Area in topside where the wellheads are positioned including the valves
[7] ABS: Rules for building and classing offshore installations, Part 1 Structures.
13. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2A: Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing fixed offshore
platforms.
[8] BV: Rules and regulations for the construction and classification of offshore platforms.
Bureau Veritas, Paris 1975.
Energy 1990.
Page 29 of 32
Page 30 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
10. T.A. Doody et al: Important considerations for successful fabrication of offshore
structures.
platforms.
Page 31 of 32
Page 32 of 32
Lecture 15A.1
Lecture 15A.1
10. T.A. Doody et al: Important considerations for successful fabrication of offshore
structures.
platforms.
Page 31 of 32
Page 32 of 32
Lecture 15A.2
Lecture 15A.2
In civil engineering, earthquakes are normally regarded as accidental loads (see Eurocode 8
[1]), but in offshore engineering they are treated as environmental loads. This practice is
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
followed in the two lectures dealing with loads, Lecture 15A.2 and 15A.3.
To introduce the types of loads for which a fixed steel offshore structure must be designed. To
2. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS
Environmental loads are those caused by environmental phenomena such as wind, waves,
current, tides, earthquakes, temperature, ice, sea bed movement, and marine growth. Their
PREREQUISITES
characteristic parameters, defining design load values, are determined in special studies on
the basis of available data. According to US and Norwegian regulations (or codes of practice),
the mean recurrence interval for the corresponding design event must be 100 years, while
SUMMARY
according to the British rules it should be 50 years or greater. Details of design criteria,
The categories of load for which a pile supported steel offshore platform must be designed
are introduced and then the different types of environmental loads are presented. The loads
include: wind, wave, current, earthquake, ice and snow, temperature, sea bed movement,
simplifying assumptions, required data, etc., can be found in the regulations and codes of
practice listed in [1] - [8].
2.1 Wind Loads
marine growth and tide generated loads. Loads due to wind, waves and earthquake are
discussed in more detail together with their idealizations for the various types of analyses.
Wind loads act on the portion of a platform above the water level, as well as on any
Frequent references are made to the codes of practice recommended by the American
equipment, housing, derrick, etc. located on the deck. An important parameter pertaining to
Petroleum Institute, Det Norske Veritas, the British Standards Institution and the British
wind data is the time interval over which wind speeds are averaged. For averaging intervals
less than one minute, wind speeds are classified as gusts. For averaging intervals of one
Directorate.
1. INTRODUCTION
The loads for which an offshore structure must be designed can be classified into the
following categories:
where:
1. Permanent (dead) loads.
Vh is the wind velocity at height h,
VH is the wind velocity at reference height H, typically 10m above mean water level,
1/n is 1/13 to 1/7, depending on the sea state, the distance from land and the averaging time
Whilst the design of buildings onshore is usually influenced mainly by the permanent and
operating loads, the design of offshore structures is dominated by environmental loads,
especially waves, and the loads arising in the various stages of construction and installation.
This lecture deals with environmental loads, whilst the other loadings are treated in Lecture
15A.3.
interval. It is approximately equal to 1/13 for gusts and 1/8 for sustained winds in the open
ocean.
From the design wind velocity V(m/s), the static wind force Fw(N) acting perpendicular to an
exposed area A(m2) can be computed as follows:
Fw = (1/2) V2 Cs A (2)
Page 1 of 16
Page 2 of 16
Lecture 15A.2
Lecture 15A.2
In civil engineering, earthquakes are normally regarded as accidental loads (see Eurocode 8
[1]), but in offshore engineering they are treated as environmental loads. This practice is
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
followed in the two lectures dealing with loads, Lecture 15A.2 and 15A.3.
To introduce the types of loads for which a fixed steel offshore structure must be designed. To
2. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS
Environmental loads are those caused by environmental phenomena such as wind, waves,
current, tides, earthquakes, temperature, ice, sea bed movement, and marine growth. Their
PREREQUISITES
characteristic parameters, defining design load values, are determined in special studies on
the basis of available data. According to US and Norwegian regulations (or codes of practice),
the mean recurrence interval for the corresponding design event must be 100 years, while
SUMMARY
according to the British rules it should be 50 years or greater. Details of design criteria,
The categories of load for which a pile supported steel offshore platform must be designed
are introduced and then the different types of environmental loads are presented. The loads
include: wind, wave, current, earthquake, ice and snow, temperature, sea bed movement,
simplifying assumptions, required data, etc., can be found in the regulations and codes of
practice listed in [1] - [8].
2.1 Wind Loads
marine growth and tide generated loads. Loads due to wind, waves and earthquake are
discussed in more detail together with their idealizations for the various types of analyses.
Wind loads act on the portion of a platform above the water level, as well as on any
Frequent references are made to the codes of practice recommended by the American
equipment, housing, derrick, etc. located on the deck. An important parameter pertaining to
Petroleum Institute, Det Norske Veritas, the British Standards Institution and the British
wind data is the time interval over which wind speeds are averaged. For averaging intervals
less than one minute, wind speeds are classified as gusts. For averaging intervals of one
Directorate.
1. INTRODUCTION
The loads for which an offshore structure must be designed can be classified into the
following categories:
where:
1. Permanent (dead) loads.
Vh is the wind velocity at height h,
VH is the wind velocity at reference height H, typically 10m above mean water level,
1/n is 1/13 to 1/7, depending on the sea state, the distance from land and the averaging time
Whilst the design of buildings onshore is usually influenced mainly by the permanent and
operating loads, the design of offshore structures is dominated by environmental loads,
especially waves, and the loads arising in the various stages of construction and installation.
This lecture deals with environmental loads, whilst the other loadings are treated in Lecture
15A.3.
interval. It is approximately equal to 1/13 for gusts and 1/8 for sustained winds in the open
ocean.
From the design wind velocity V(m/s), the static wind force Fw(N) acting perpendicular to an
exposed area A(m2) can be computed as follows:
Fw = (1/2) V2 Cs A (2)
Page 1 of 16
Page 2 of 16
Lecture 15A.2
Lecture 15A.2
where:
The design wave concept, where a regular wave of given height and period is defined
and the forces due to this wave are calculated using a high-order wave theory.
Cs is the shape coefficient (Cs = 1,5 for beams and sides of buildings, Cs = 0,5 for cylindrical
Usually the 100-year wave, i.e. the maximum wave with a return period of 100 years,
Shielding and solidity effects can be accounted for, in the judgment of the designer, using
appropriate coefficients.
structure. This is the case of extreme storm waves acting on shallow water structures.
For combination with wave loads, the DNV [4] and DOE-OG [7] rules recommend the most
unfavorable of the following two loadings:
Statistical analysis on the basis of a wave scatter diagram for the location of the
structure. Appropriate wave spectra are defined to perform the analysis in the
frequency domain and to generate random waves, if dynamic analyses for extreme
wave loadings are required for deepwater structures. With statistical methods, the
most probable maximum force during the lifetime of the structure is calculated using
linear wave theory. The statistical approach has to be chosen to analyze the fatigue
strength and the dynamic behavior of the structure.
b. 3-second gusts.
API-RP2A [2] distinguishes between global and local wind load effects. For the first case it
gives guideline values of mean 1-hour average wind speeds to be combined with extreme
waves and current. For the second case it gives values of extreme wind speeds to be used
Wave theories describe the kinematics of waves of water on the basis of potential theory. In
particular, they serve to calculate the particle velocities and accelerations and the dynamic
pressure as functions of the surface elevation of the waves. The waves are assumed to be
Wind loads are generally taken as static. When, however, the ratio of height to the least
long-crested, i.e. they can be described by a two-dimensional flow field, and are characterized
horizontal dimension of the wind exposed object (or structure) is greater than 5, then this
by the parameters: wave height (H), period (T) and water depth (d) as shown in Figure 1.
object (or structure) could be wind sensitive. API-RP2A requires the dynamic effects of the
wind to be taken into account in this case and the flow induced cyclic wind loads due to vortex
shedding must be investigated.
2.2 Wave Loads
The wave loading of an offshore structure is usually the most important of all environmental
loadings for which the structure must be designed. The forces on the structure are caused by
the motion of the water due to the waves which are generated by the action of the wind on the
surface of the sea. Determination of these forces requires the solution of two separate,
though interrelated problems. The first is the sea state computed using an idealization of the
wave surface profile and the wave kinematics given by an appropriate wave theory. The
second is the computation of the wave forces on individual members and on the total
structure, from the fluid motion.
Page 3 of 16
Page 4 of 16
Lecture 15A.2
Lecture 15A.2
where:
The design wave concept, where a regular wave of given height and period is defined
and the forces due to this wave are calculated using a high-order wave theory.
Cs is the shape coefficient (Cs = 1,5 for beams and sides of buildings, Cs = 0,5 for cylindrical
Usually the 100-year wave, i.e. the maximum wave with a return period of 100 years,
Shielding and solidity effects can be accounted for, in the judgment of the designer, using
appropriate coefficients.
structure. This is the case of extreme storm waves acting on shallow water structures.
For combination with wave loads, the DNV [4] and DOE-OG [7] rules recommend the most
unfavorable of the following two loadings:
Statistical analysis on the basis of a wave scatter diagram for the location of the
structure. Appropriate wave spectra are defined to perform the analysis in the
frequency domain and to generate random waves, if dynamic analyses for extreme
wave loadings are required for deepwater structures. With statistical methods, the
most probable maximum force during the lifetime of the structure is calculated using
linear wave theory. The statistical approach has to be chosen to analyze the fatigue
strength and the dynamic behavior of the structure.
b. 3-second gusts.
API-RP2A [2] distinguishes between global and local wind load effects. For the first case it
gives guideline values of mean 1-hour average wind speeds to be combined with extreme
waves and current. For the second case it gives values of extreme wind speeds to be used
Wave theories describe the kinematics of waves of water on the basis of potential theory. In
particular, they serve to calculate the particle velocities and accelerations and the dynamic
pressure as functions of the surface elevation of the waves. The waves are assumed to be
Wind loads are generally taken as static. When, however, the ratio of height to the least
long-crested, i.e. they can be described by a two-dimensional flow field, and are characterized
horizontal dimension of the wind exposed object (or structure) is greater than 5, then this
by the parameters: wave height (H), period (T) and water depth (d) as shown in Figure 1.
object (or structure) could be wind sensitive. API-RP2A requires the dynamic effects of the
wind to be taken into account in this case and the flow induced cyclic wind loads due to vortex
shedding must be investigated.
2.2 Wave Loads
The wave loading of an offshore structure is usually the most important of all environmental
loadings for which the structure must be designed. The forces on the structure are caused by
the motion of the water due to the waves which are generated by the action of the wind on the
surface of the sea. Determination of these forces requires the solution of two separate,
though interrelated problems. The first is the sea state computed using an idealization of the
wave surface profile and the wave kinematics given by an appropriate wave theory. The
second is the computation of the wave forces on individual members and on the total
structure, from the fluid motion.
Page 3 of 16
Page 4 of 16
Lecture 15A.2
Lecture 15A.2
depth and deep water conditions. Corresponding particle paths are illustrated in Figures 3 and
4. Note the strong influence of the water depth on the wave kinematics. Results from highorder wave theories can be found in the literature, e.g. see [9].
Page 5 of 16
Page 6 of 16
Lecture 15A.2
Lecture 15A.2
depth and deep water conditions. Corresponding particle paths are illustrated in Figures 3 and
4. Note the strong influence of the water depth on the wave kinematics. Results from highorder wave theories can be found in the literature, e.g. see [9].
Page 5 of 16
Page 6 of 16
Lecture 15A.2
Lecture 15A.2
where is the angle of the wave approach direction (Figure 6). A directional wave spectrum S
analysis.
Large volume bodies, termed hydrodynamic compact structures, influence the wave
field by diffraction and reflection. The forces on these bodies have to be determined
by costly numerical calculations based on diffraction theory.
0.2, where D is
..................................... (4)
Where,
The response of the structure, i.e. forces, motions, is calculated by multiplication of the wave
energy spectrum with the square of a linear transfer function. From the resulting response
spectrum the significant and the maximum expected response in a given time interval can be
easily deduced.
For long-term statistics, a wave scatter diagram for the location of the structure is needed. It
can be obtained from measurements over a long period or be deduced from weather
observations in the region (the so-called hindcast method). The scatter diagram contains the
joint probability of occurrence of pairs of significant wave height and mean wave period. For
every pair of parameters the wave spectrum is calculated by a standard formula, e.g. PiersonMoskowitz (Figure 6), yielding finally the desired response spectrum. For fatigue analysis the
are water particle acceleration normal to the cylinder, calculated with the selected wave
theory at the cylinder axis (m/s2)
is the water density (kg/m3)
D is the member diameter, including marine growth (m)
total number and amplitude of load cycles during the life-time of the structure can be derived
in this way. For structures with substantial dynamic response to the wave excitation, the
Page 7 of 16
Page 8 of 16
Lecture 15A.2
Lecture 15A.2
where is the angle of the wave approach direction (Figure 6). A directional wave spectrum S
analysis.
Large volume bodies, termed hydrodynamic compact structures, influence the wave
field by diffraction and reflection. The forces on these bodies have to be determined
by costly numerical calculations based on diffraction theory.
0.2, where D is
..................................... (4)
Where,
The response of the structure, i.e. forces, motions, is calculated by multiplication of the wave
energy spectrum with the square of a linear transfer function. From the resulting response
spectrum the significant and the maximum expected response in a given time interval can be
easily deduced.
For long-term statistics, a wave scatter diagram for the location of the structure is needed. It
can be obtained from measurements over a long period or be deduced from weather
observations in the region (the so-called hindcast method). The scatter diagram contains the
joint probability of occurrence of pairs of significant wave height and mean wave period. For
every pair of parameters the wave spectrum is calculated by a standard formula, e.g. PiersonMoskowitz (Figure 6), yielding finally the desired response spectrum. For fatigue analysis the
are water particle acceleration normal to the cylinder, calculated with the selected wave
theory at the cylinder axis (m/s2)
is the water density (kg/m3)
D is the member diameter, including marine growth (m)
total number and amplitude of load cycles during the life-time of the structure can be derived
in this way. For structures with substantial dynamic response to the wave excitation, the
Page 7 of 16
Page 8 of 16
Lecture 15A.2
Lecture 15A.2
In this form the equation is valid for fixed tubular cylinders. For the analysis of the motion
square of the velocity, this addition can greatly increase the forces on a platform. For slender
response of a structure it has to be modified to account for the motion of the cylinder [10]. The
members, cyclic loads induced by vortex shedding may also be important and should be
values of CD and CM depend on the wave theory used, surface roughness and the flow
examined.
CL Dv2
platform's life" (mean recurrence interval ~ 200 - 500 years), the structure is designed to
................................. (5)
respond elastically. For the ductility level earthquake, defined as close to the "maximum
credible earthquake" at the site, the structure is designed for inelastic response and to have
For strength level design, the seismic loading may be specified either by sets of
fluid velocity v and are related to the vortex shedding frequency. Slamming forces acting on
accelerograms (Figure 8) or by means of design response spectra (Figure 9). Use of design
the underside of horizontal members near the mean water level are impulsive and nearly
spectra has a number of advantages over time history solutions (base acceleration input). For
vertical. Lift forces can be estimated by taking CL 1,3 CD. For tubular members Cs .
this reason design response spectra are the preferable approach for strength level designs. If
the design spectral intensity, characteristic of the seismic hazard at the site, is denoted by
amax, then API-RP2A recommends using amax for the two principal horizontal directions and
There are tidal, circulation and storm generated currents. Figure 7 shows a wind and tidal
current profile typical of the Gulf of Mexico. When insufficient field measurements are
available, current velocities may be obtained from various sources, e.g. Appendix A of DNV
[4]. In platform design, the effects of current superimposed on waves are taken into account
0,5amax for the vertical direction. The DNV rules, on the other hand, recommend amax and 0,7
amax for the two horizontal directions (two different combinations) and 0,5 amax for the vertical.
The value of amax and often the spectral shapes are determined by site specific seismological
studies.
by adding the corresponding fluid velocities vectorially. Since the drag force varies with the
Page 9 of 16
Page 10 of 16
Lecture 15A.2
Lecture 15A.2
In this form the equation is valid for fixed tubular cylinders. For the analysis of the motion
square of the velocity, this addition can greatly increase the forces on a platform. For slender
response of a structure it has to be modified to account for the motion of the cylinder [10]. The
members, cyclic loads induced by vortex shedding may also be important and should be
values of CD and CM depend on the wave theory used, surface roughness and the flow
examined.
CL Dv2
platform's life" (mean recurrence interval ~ 200 - 500 years), the structure is designed to
................................. (5)
respond elastically. For the ductility level earthquake, defined as close to the "maximum
credible earthquake" at the site, the structure is designed for inelastic response and to have
For strength level design, the seismic loading may be specified either by sets of
fluid velocity v and are related to the vortex shedding frequency. Slamming forces acting on
accelerograms (Figure 8) or by means of design response spectra (Figure 9). Use of design
the underside of horizontal members near the mean water level are impulsive and nearly
spectra has a number of advantages over time history solutions (base acceleration input). For
vertical. Lift forces can be estimated by taking CL 1,3 CD. For tubular members Cs .
this reason design response spectra are the preferable approach for strength level designs. If
the design spectral intensity, characteristic of the seismic hazard at the site, is denoted by
amax, then API-RP2A recommends using amax for the two principal horizontal directions and
There are tidal, circulation and storm generated currents. Figure 7 shows a wind and tidal
current profile typical of the Gulf of Mexico. When insufficient field measurements are
available, current velocities may be obtained from various sources, e.g. Appendix A of DNV
[4]. In platform design, the effects of current superimposed on waves are taken into account
0,5amax for the vertical direction. The DNV rules, on the other hand, recommend amax and 0,7
amax for the two horizontal directions (two different combinations) and 0,5 amax for the vertical.
The value of amax and often the spectral shapes are determined by site specific seismological
studies.
by adding the corresponding fluid velocities vectorially. Since the drag force varies with the
Page 9 of 16
Page 10 of 16
Lecture 15A.2
Lecture 15A.2
which are usually the result of a site specific seismotectonic study. More detail of the analysis
of earthquakes is given in the Lectures 17: Seismic Design.
2.5 Ice and Snow Loads
Ice is a primary problem for marine structures in the arctic and sub-arctic zones. Ice formation
and expansion can generate large pressures that give rise to horizontal as well as vertical
forces. In addition, large blocks of ice driven by current, winds and waves with speeds that
can approach 0,5 to 1,0 m/s, may hit the structure and produce impact loads.
As a first approximation, statically applied, horizontal ice forces may be estimated as follows:
Fi = CifcA ......................................... (7)
Where,
A is the exposed area of structure,
fc is the compressive strength of ice,
Ci is the coefficient accounting for shape, rate of load application and other factors, with usual
values between 0,3 and 0,7.
Generally, detailed studies based on field measurements, laboratory tests and analytical work
are required to develop reliable design ice forces for a given geographical location.
In addition to these forces, ice formation and snow accumulations increase gravity and wind
loads, the latter by increasing areas exposed to the action of wind. More detailed information
on snow loads may be found in Eurocode 1 [8].
2.6 Loads due to Temperature Variations
Offshore structures can be subjected to temperature gradients which produce thermal
stresses. To take account of such stresses, extreme values of sea and air temperatures
which are likely to occur during the life of the structure must be estimated. Relevant data for
the North Sea are given in BS6235 [6]. In addition to the environmental sources, human
Designs for ductility level earthquakes will normally require inelastic analyses for which the
seismic input must be specified by sets of 3-component accelerograms, real or artificial,
representative of the extreme ground motions that could shake the platform site. The
factors can also generate thermal loads, e.g. through accidental release of cryogenic material,
which must be taken into account in design as accidental loads. The temperature of the oil
and gas produced must also be considered.
characteristics of such motions, however, may still be prescribed by means of design spectra,
Page 11 of 16
Page 12 of 16
Lecture 15A.2
Lecture 15A.2
which are usually the result of a site specific seismotectonic study. More detail of the analysis
of earthquakes is given in the Lectures 17: Seismic Design.
2.5 Ice and Snow Loads
Ice is a primary problem for marine structures in the arctic and sub-arctic zones. Ice formation
and expansion can generate large pressures that give rise to horizontal as well as vertical
forces. In addition, large blocks of ice driven by current, winds and waves with speeds that
can approach 0,5 to 1,0 m/s, may hit the structure and produce impact loads.
As a first approximation, statically applied, horizontal ice forces may be estimated as follows:
Fi = CifcA ......................................... (7)
Where,
A is the exposed area of structure,
fc is the compressive strength of ice,
Ci is the coefficient accounting for shape, rate of load application and other factors, with usual
values between 0,3 and 0,7.
Generally, detailed studies based on field measurements, laboratory tests and analytical work
are required to develop reliable design ice forces for a given geographical location.
In addition to these forces, ice formation and snow accumulations increase gravity and wind
loads, the latter by increasing areas exposed to the action of wind. More detailed information
on snow loads may be found in Eurocode 1 [8].
2.6 Loads due to Temperature Variations
Offshore structures can be subjected to temperature gradients which produce thermal
stresses. To take account of such stresses, extreme values of sea and air temperatures
which are likely to occur during the life of the structure must be estimated. Relevant data for
the North Sea are given in BS6235 [6]. In addition to the environmental sources, human
Designs for ductility level earthquakes will normally require inelastic analyses for which the
seismic input must be specified by sets of 3-component accelerograms, real or artificial,
representative of the extreme ground motions that could shake the platform site. The
factors can also generate thermal loads, e.g. through accidental release of cryogenic material,
which must be taken into account in design as accidental loads. The temperature of the oil
and gas produced must also be considered.
characteristics of such motions, however, may still be prescribed by means of design spectra,
Page 11 of 16
Page 12 of 16
Lecture 15A.2
Lecture 15A.2
Marine growth is accumulated on submerged members. Its main effect is to increase the
Movement of the sea floor can occur as a result of active geologic processes, storm wave
wave forces on the members by increasing not only exposed areas and volumes, but also the
pressures, earthquakes, pressure reduction in the producing reservoir, etc. The loads
drag coefficient due to higher surface roughness. In addition, it increases the unit mass of the
generated by such movements affect, not only the design of the piles, but the jacket as well.
member, resulting in higher gravity loads and in lower member frequencies. Depending upon
geographic location, the thickness of marine growth can reach 0,3m or more. It is accounted
for in design through appropriate increases in the diameters and masses of the submerged
members.
3. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Environmental loads form a major category of loads which control many aspects of
platform design.
2.8 Tides
Tides affect the wave and current loads indirectly, i.e. through the variation of the level of the
sea surface. The tides are classified as: (a) astronomical tides - caused essentially from the
gravitational pull of the moon and the sun and (b) storm surges - caused by the combined
action of wind and barometric pressure differentials during a storm. The combined effect of
The main environmental loads are due to wind, waves, current, earthquakes, ice and
Widely accepted rules of practice, listed as [1] - [13], provide guideline values for
most environmental loads.
the two types of tide is called the storm tide. Tide dependent water levels and the associated
definitions, as used in platform design, are shown in Figure 10. The astronomical tide range
depends on the geographic location and the phase of the moon. Its maximum, the spring tide,
The definition of certain environmental loads depends upon the type of analysis used
occurs at new moon. The range varies from centimeters to several meters and may be
in the design.
obtained from special maps. Storm surges depend upon the return period considered and
their range is on the order of 1,0 to 3,0m. When designing a platform, extreme storm waves
are superimposed on the still water level (see Figure 10), while for design considerations such
as levels for boat landing places, barge fenders, upper limits of marine growth, etc., the daily
variations of the astronomical tide are used.
4. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 8: "Structures in Seismic Regions - Design", CEN (in preparation).
[2] API-RP2A, "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
Offshore Platforms", American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 18th ed., 1989.
[3] OCS, "Requirements for Verifying the Structural Integrity of OCS Platforms"., United
States Geologic Survey, National Centre, Reston, Virginia, 1980.
[4] DNV, "Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore Structures", Det
Norske Veritas, Oslo, 1977 (with corrections 1982).
[5] NPD, "Regulation for Structural Design of Load-bearing Structures Intended for
Exploitation of Petroleum Resources", Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, 1985.
[6] BS6235, "Code of Practice for Fixed Offshore Structures", British Standards Institution,
London, 1982.
[7] DOE-OG, "Offshore Installation: Guidance on Design and Construction", U.K., Dept. of
Energy, London 1985.
Page 13 of 16
Page 14 of 16
Lecture 15A.2
Lecture 15A.2
Marine growth is accumulated on submerged members. Its main effect is to increase the
Movement of the sea floor can occur as a result of active geologic processes, storm wave
wave forces on the members by increasing not only exposed areas and volumes, but also the
pressures, earthquakes, pressure reduction in the producing reservoir, etc. The loads
drag coefficient due to higher surface roughness. In addition, it increases the unit mass of the
generated by such movements affect, not only the design of the piles, but the jacket as well.
member, resulting in higher gravity loads and in lower member frequencies. Depending upon
geographic location, the thickness of marine growth can reach 0,3m or more. It is accounted
for in design through appropriate increases in the diameters and masses of the submerged
members.
3. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Environmental loads form a major category of loads which control many aspects of
platform design.
2.8 Tides
Tides affect the wave and current loads indirectly, i.e. through the variation of the level of the
sea surface. The tides are classified as: (a) astronomical tides - caused essentially from the
gravitational pull of the moon and the sun and (b) storm surges - caused by the combined
action of wind and barometric pressure differentials during a storm. The combined effect of
The main environmental loads are due to wind, waves, current, earthquakes, ice and
Widely accepted rules of practice, listed as [1] - [13], provide guideline values for
most environmental loads.
the two types of tide is called the storm tide. Tide dependent water levels and the associated
definitions, as used in platform design, are shown in Figure 10. The astronomical tide range
depends on the geographic location and the phase of the moon. Its maximum, the spring tide,
The definition of certain environmental loads depends upon the type of analysis used
occurs at new moon. The range varies from centimeters to several meters and may be
in the design.
obtained from special maps. Storm surges depend upon the return period considered and
their range is on the order of 1,0 to 3,0m. When designing a platform, extreme storm waves
are superimposed on the still water level (see Figure 10), while for design considerations such
as levels for boat landing places, barge fenders, upper limits of marine growth, etc., the daily
variations of the astronomical tide are used.
4. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 8: "Structures in Seismic Regions - Design", CEN (in preparation).
[2] API-RP2A, "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
Offshore Platforms", American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 18th ed., 1989.
[3] OCS, "Requirements for Verifying the Structural Integrity of OCS Platforms"., United
States Geologic Survey, National Centre, Reston, Virginia, 1980.
[4] DNV, "Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore Structures", Det
Norske Veritas, Oslo, 1977 (with corrections 1982).
[5] NPD, "Regulation for Structural Design of Load-bearing Structures Intended for
Exploitation of Petroleum Resources", Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, 1985.
[6] BS6235, "Code of Practice for Fixed Offshore Structures", British Standards Institution,
London, 1982.
[7] DOE-OG, "Offshore Installation: Guidance on Design and Construction", U.K., Dept. of
Energy, London 1985.
Page 13 of 16
Page 14 of 16
Lecture 15A.2
Lecture 15A.2
[8] Eurocode 1: "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures", CEN (in preparation).
[9] Clauss, G. T. et al: "Offshore Structures, Vol 1 - Conceptual Design and Hydromechanics",
Wave celerity c =
co =
c=
cgr =
cgr =
Lo =
L=
ko =
kd tanh kd =
Circular frequency =
Wave length L =
[13] Gerwick, B.C. Jr., "Construction of Offshore Structures", John Wiley, New York, 1986.
Wave number k =
Deep water
d/L 0,5
Velocity potential
Surface elevation z
a cos
a cos
ga ekz cos
-a ekz sin
vertical
a ekz cos
Particle trajectories
Circular orbits
Elliptical orbits
a ekz cos
horizontal u =
vertical w =
a ekz sin
vertical w' =
-a 2 ekz cos
Page 15 of 16
Page 16 of 16
Lecture 15A.2
Lecture 15A.2
[8] Eurocode 1: "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures", CEN (in preparation).
[9] Clauss, G. T. et al: "Offshore Structures, Vol 1 - Conceptual Design and Hydromechanics",
Wave celerity c =
co =
c=
cgr =
cgr =
Lo =
L=
ko =
kd tanh kd =
Circular frequency =
Wave length L =
[13] Gerwick, B.C. Jr., "Construction of Offshore Structures", John Wiley, New York, 1986.
Wave number k =
Deep water
d/L 0,5
Velocity potential
Surface elevation z
a cos
a cos
ga ekz cos
-a ekz sin
vertical
a ekz cos
Particle trajectories
Circular orbits
Elliptical orbits
a ekz cos
horizontal u =
vertical w =
a ekz sin
vertical w' =
-a 2 ekz cos
Page 15 of 16
Page 16 of 16
Lecture 15A.3
Lecture 15A.3
Sealed tubular members must be designed for the worst condition when flooded or non-
flooded.
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present and briefly describe all loads, except environmental loads, and the load
combinations for which a fixed offshore structure must be designed.
Operating loads arise from the operations on the platform and include the weight of all nonpermanent equipment or material, as well as forces generated during operation of equipment.
PREREQUISITES
a. The weight of all non-permanent equipment (e.g. drilling, production), facilities (e.g. living
quarters, furniture, life support systems, heliport, etc), consumable supplies, liquids, etc.
SUMMARY
b. Forces generated during operations, e.g. drilling, vessel mooring, helicopter landing, crane
The various categories of loads, except environmental, for which a pile-supported steel
operations, etc.
offshore platform must be designed are presented. These categories include permanent
(dead) loads, operating (live) loads, loads generated during fabrication and installation (due to
The necessary data for computation of all operating loads are provided by the operator and
lifts, loadout, transportation, launching and upending) and accidental loads. In addition, the
the equipment manufacturers. The data need to be critically evaluated by the designer. An
different load combinations for all types of loads, including environmental, as required (or
example of detailed live load specification is given in Table 1 where the values in the first and
second columns are for design of the portions of the structure directly affected by the loads
and the reduced values in the last column are for the structure as a whole. In the absence of
such data, the following values are recommended in BS6235 [1]:
The major categories of environmental loads are not included. They are dealt with in Lecture
15A.2.
where,
is the specific weight of stored materials, not to be taken less than 6,87KN/m3,
Forces generated during operations are often dynamic or impulsive in nature and must be
treated as such. For example, according to the BS6235 rules, two types of helicopter landing
should be considered, heavy and emergency landing. The impact load in the first case is to
be taken as 1,5 times the maximum take-off weight, while in the second case this factor
becomes 2,5. In addition, a horizontal load applied at the points of impact and taken equal to
c. Hydrostatic forces on the various members below the waterline. These forces include
half the maximum take-off weight must be considered. Loads from rotating machinery, drilling
equipment, etc. may normally be treated as harmonic forces. For vessel mooring, design
Page 1 of 13
Page 2 of 13
Lecture 15A.3
Lecture 15A.3
Sealed tubular members must be designed for the worst condition when flooded or non-
flooded.
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present and briefly describe all loads, except environmental loads, and the load
combinations for which a fixed offshore structure must be designed.
Operating loads arise from the operations on the platform and include the weight of all nonpermanent equipment or material, as well as forces generated during operation of equipment.
PREREQUISITES
a. The weight of all non-permanent equipment (e.g. drilling, production), facilities (e.g. living
quarters, furniture, life support systems, heliport, etc), consumable supplies, liquids, etc.
SUMMARY
b. Forces generated during operations, e.g. drilling, vessel mooring, helicopter landing, crane
The various categories of loads, except environmental, for which a pile-supported steel
operations, etc.
offshore platform must be designed are presented. These categories include permanent
(dead) loads, operating (live) loads, loads generated during fabrication and installation (due to
The necessary data for computation of all operating loads are provided by the operator and
lifts, loadout, transportation, launching and upending) and accidental loads. In addition, the
the equipment manufacturers. The data need to be critically evaluated by the designer. An
different load combinations for all types of loads, including environmental, as required (or
example of detailed live load specification is given in Table 1 where the values in the first and
second columns are for design of the portions of the structure directly affected by the loads
and the reduced values in the last column are for the structure as a whole. In the absence of
such data, the following values are recommended in BS6235 [1]:
The major categories of environmental loads are not included. They are dealt with in Lecture
15A.2.
where,
is the specific weight of stored materials, not to be taken less than 6,87KN/m3,
Forces generated during operations are often dynamic or impulsive in nature and must be
treated as such. For example, according to the BS6235 rules, two types of helicopter landing
should be considered, heavy and emergency landing. The impact load in the first case is to
be taken as 1,5 times the maximum take-off weight, while in the second case this factor
becomes 2,5. In addition, a horizontal load applied at the points of impact and taken equal to
c. Hydrostatic forces on the various members below the waterline. These forces include
half the maximum take-off weight must be considered. Loads from rotating machinery, drilling
equipment, etc. may normally be treated as harmonic forces. For vessel mooring, design
Page 1 of 13
Page 2 of 13
Lecture 15A.3
Lecture 15A.3
forces are computed for the largest ship likely to approach at operational speeds. According
to BS6235, the minimum impact to be considered is of a vessel of 2500 tonnes at 0,5 m/s.
3. FABRICATION AND INSTALLATION LOADS
These loads are temporary and arise during fabrication and installation of the platform or its
components. During fabrication, erection lifts of various structural components generate lifting
forces, while in the installation phase forces are generated during platform loadout,
transportation to the site, launching and upending, as well as during lifts related to installation.
According to the DNV rules [2], the return period for computing design environmental
conditions for installation as well as fabrication should normally be three times the duration of
the corresponding phase. API-RP2A, on the other hand [3], leaves this design return period
up to the owner, while the BS6235 rules [1] recommend a minimum recurrence interval of 10
years for the design environmental loads associated with transportation of the structure to the
offshore site.
3.1 Lifting Forces
Lifting forces are functions of the weight of the structural component being lifted, the number
and location of lifting eyes used for the lift, the angle between each sling and the vertical axis
and the conditions under which the lift is performed (Figure 1). All members and connections
of a lifted component must be designed for the forces resulting from static equilibrium of the
lifted weight and the sling tensions. Moreover, API-RP2A recommends that in order to
compensate for any side movements, lifting eyes and the connections to the supporting
structural members should be designed for the combined action of the static sling load and a
horizontal force equal to 5% this load, applied perpendicular to the padeye at the centre of the
pin hole. All these design forces are applied as static loads if the lifts are performed in the
fabrication yard. If, however, the lifting derrick or the structure to be lifted is on a floating
vessel, then dynamic load factors should be applied to the static lifting forces. In particular, for
lifts made offshore API-RP2A recommends two minimum values of dynamic load factors: 2,0
and 1,35. The first is for designing the padeyes as well as all members and their end
These are forces generated when the jacket is loaded from the fabrication yard onto the
connections framing the joint where the padeye is attached, while the second is for all other
barge. If the loadout is carried out by direct lift, then, unless the lifting arrangement is different
members transmitting lifting forces. For loadout at sheltered locations, the corresponding
from that to be used for installation, lifting forces need not be computed, because lifting in the
minimum load factors for the two groups of structural components become, according to API-
open sea creates a more severe loading condition which requires higher dynamic load
factors. If loadout is done by skidding the structure onto the barge, a number of static loading
conditions must be considered, with the jacket supported on its side. Such loading conditions
arise from the different positions of the jacket during the loadout phases, (as shown in Figure
2), from movement of the barge due to tidal fluctuations, marine traffic or change of draft, and
from possible support settlements. Since movement of the jacket is slow, all loading
Page 3 of 13
Page 4 of 13
Lecture 15A.3
Lecture 15A.3
forces are computed for the largest ship likely to approach at operational speeds. According
to BS6235, the minimum impact to be considered is of a vessel of 2500 tonnes at 0,5 m/s.
3. FABRICATION AND INSTALLATION LOADS
These loads are temporary and arise during fabrication and installation of the platform or its
components. During fabrication, erection lifts of various structural components generate lifting
forces, while in the installation phase forces are generated during platform loadout,
transportation to the site, launching and upending, as well as during lifts related to installation.
According to the DNV rules [2], the return period for computing design environmental
conditions for installation as well as fabrication should normally be three times the duration of
the corresponding phase. API-RP2A, on the other hand [3], leaves this design return period
up to the owner, while the BS6235 rules [1] recommend a minimum recurrence interval of 10
years for the design environmental loads associated with transportation of the structure to the
offshore site.
3.1 Lifting Forces
Lifting forces are functions of the weight of the structural component being lifted, the number
and location of lifting eyes used for the lift, the angle between each sling and the vertical axis
and the conditions under which the lift is performed (Figure 1). All members and connections
of a lifted component must be designed for the forces resulting from static equilibrium of the
lifted weight and the sling tensions. Moreover, API-RP2A recommends that in order to
compensate for any side movements, lifting eyes and the connections to the supporting
structural members should be designed for the combined action of the static sling load and a
horizontal force equal to 5% this load, applied perpendicular to the padeye at the centre of the
pin hole. All these design forces are applied as static loads if the lifts are performed in the
fabrication yard. If, however, the lifting derrick or the structure to be lifted is on a floating
vessel, then dynamic load factors should be applied to the static lifting forces. In particular, for
lifts made offshore API-RP2A recommends two minimum values of dynamic load factors: 2,0
and 1,35. The first is for designing the padeyes as well as all members and their end
These are forces generated when the jacket is loaded from the fabrication yard onto the
connections framing the joint where the padeye is attached, while the second is for all other
barge. If the loadout is carried out by direct lift, then, unless the lifting arrangement is different
members transmitting lifting forces. For loadout at sheltered locations, the corresponding
from that to be used for installation, lifting forces need not be computed, because lifting in the
minimum load factors for the two groups of structural components become, according to API-
open sea creates a more severe loading condition which requires higher dynamic load
factors. If loadout is done by skidding the structure onto the barge, a number of static loading
conditions must be considered, with the jacket supported on its side. Such loading conditions
arise from the different positions of the jacket during the loadout phases, (as shown in Figure
2), from movement of the barge due to tidal fluctuations, marine traffic or change of draft, and
from possible support settlements. Since movement of the jacket is slow, all loading
Page 3 of 13
Page 4 of 13
Lecture 15A.3
Lecture 15A.3
conditions can be taken as static. Typical values of friction coefficients for calculation of
conditions of the structure (by barge or by buoyancy) and also on the environmental
conditions (waves, winds and currents) that are encountered during transportation. The types
of motion that a floating structure may experience are shown schematically in Figure 3.
In order to minimize the associated risks and secure safe transport from the fabrication yard
to the platform site, it is important to plan the operation carefully by considering, according to
API-RP2A [3], the following:
1. Previous experience along the tow route
2. Exposure time and reliability of predicted "weather windows"
3. Accessibility of safe havens
4. Seasonal weather system
5. Appropriate return period for determining design wind, wave and current conditions,
taking into account characteristics of the tow such as size, structure, sensitivity and
These forces are generated when platform components (jacket, deck) are transported
cost.
offshore on barges or self-floating. They depend upon the weight, geometry and support
Page 5 of 13
Page 6 of 13
Lecture 15A.3
Lecture 15A.3
conditions can be taken as static. Typical values of friction coefficients for calculation of
conditions of the structure (by barge or by buoyancy) and also on the environmental
conditions (waves, winds and currents) that are encountered during transportation. The types
of motion that a floating structure may experience are shown schematically in Figure 3.
In order to minimize the associated risks and secure safe transport from the fabrication yard
to the platform site, it is important to plan the operation carefully by considering, according to
API-RP2A [3], the following:
1. Previous experience along the tow route
2. Exposure time and reliability of predicted "weather windows"
3. Accessibility of safe havens
4. Seasonal weather system
5. Appropriate return period for determining design wind, wave and current conditions,
taking into account characteristics of the tow such as size, structure, sensitivity and
These forces are generated when platform components (jacket, deck) are transported
cost.
offshore on barges or self-floating. They depend upon the weight, geometry and support
Page 5 of 13
Page 6 of 13
Lecture 15A.3
Lecture 15A.3
Transportation forces are generated by the motion of the tow, i.e. the structure and supporting
barge. They are determined from the design winds, waves and currents. If the structure is
self-floating, the loads can be calculated directly. According to API-RP2A [3], towing analyses
These forces are generated during the launch of a jacket from the barge into the sea and
must be based on the results of model basin tests or appropriate analytical methods and must
during the subsequent upending into its proper vertical position to rest on the seabed. A
loads may be computed from a rigid body analysis of the tow by combining roll and pitch with
heave motions, when the size of the tow, magnitude of the sea state and experience make
such assumptions reasonable. For open sea conditions, the following may be considered as
typical design values:
1. Single - amplitude roll: 20
2. Single - amplitude pitch: 10
3. Period of roll or pitch: 10 second
4. Heave acceleration: 0,2 g
When transporting a large jacket by barge, stability against capsizing is a primary design
consideration because of the high centre of gravity of the jacket. Moreover, the relative
stiffness of jacket and barge may need to be taken into account together with the wave
slamming forces that could result during a heavy roll motion of the tow (Figure 4) when
structural analyses are carried out for designing the tie-down braces and the jacket members
affected by the induced loads. Special computer programs are available to compute the
transportation loads in the structure-barge system and the resulting stresses for any specified
environmental condition.
Page 7 of 13
Page 8 of 13
Lecture 15A.3
Lecture 15A.3
Transportation forces are generated by the motion of the tow, i.e. the structure and supporting
barge. They are determined from the design winds, waves and currents. If the structure is
self-floating, the loads can be calculated directly. According to API-RP2A [3], towing analyses
These forces are generated during the launch of a jacket from the barge into the sea and
must be based on the results of model basin tests or appropriate analytical methods and must
during the subsequent upending into its proper vertical position to rest on the seabed. A
loads may be computed from a rigid body analysis of the tow by combining roll and pitch with
heave motions, when the size of the tow, magnitude of the sea state and experience make
such assumptions reasonable. For open sea conditions, the following may be considered as
typical design values:
1. Single - amplitude roll: 20
2. Single - amplitude pitch: 10
3. Period of roll or pitch: 10 second
4. Heave acceleration: 0,2 g
When transporting a large jacket by barge, stability against capsizing is a primary design
consideration because of the high centre of gravity of the jacket. Moreover, the relative
stiffness of jacket and barge may need to be taken into account together with the wave
slamming forces that could result during a heavy roll motion of the tow (Figure 4) when
structural analyses are carried out for designing the tie-down braces and the jacket members
affected by the induced loads. Special computer programs are available to compute the
transportation loads in the structure-barge system and the resulting stresses for any specified
environmental condition.
Page 7 of 13
Page 8 of 13
Lecture 15A.3
Lecture 15A.3
variable hydrostatic forces arise which have to be considered at all members affected.
The DNV rules [2] permit allowable stress design but recommend the semi-probabilistic limit
Buoyancy calculations are required for every stage of the operation to ensure fully controlled,
state design method, which the NPD rules also require [4]. BS6235 permits both methods but
stable motion. Computer programs are available to perform the stress analyses required for
the design equations it gives are for the allowable stress method [1]. API-RP2A is very
launching and upending and also to portray the whole operation graphically.
specific in recommending not to apply limit state methods. According to the DNV and the NPD
rules for limit state design, four limit states must be checked:
4. ACCIDENTAL LOADS
1. Ultimate limit state
According to the DNV rules [2], accidental loads are loads, ill-defined with respect to intensity
and frequency, which may occur as a result of accident or exceptional circumstances.
For this limit state the following two loading combinations must be used:
Accidental loads are also specified as a separate category in the NPD regulations [4], but not
Ordinary: 1,3 P + 1,3 L + 1,0 D + 0,7 E, and
in API-RP2A [3], BS6235 [1] or the DOE-OG rules [5]. Examples of accidental loads are loads
due to collision with vessels, fire or explosion, dropped objects, and unintended flooding of
buoyancy tanks. Special measures are normally taken to reduce the risk from accidental
loads. For example, protection of wellheads or other critical equipment from a dropped object
where P, L, D and E stand for Permanent (dead), Operating (live), Deformation (e.g.,
can be provided by specially designed, impact resistant covers. According to the NPD
regulations [4], an accidental load can be disregarded if its annual probability of occurrence is
controlled dead and live loads during fabrication and installation, the load factor 1,3
less than 10-4. This number is meant as an order of magnitude estimate and is extremely
may be reduced to 1,2. Furthermore, for structures that are unmanned during storm
conditions and which are not used for storage of oil and gas, the 1,3 load factor for
design.
5. LOAD COMBINATIONS
The load combinations used for designing fixed offshore structures depend upon the design
method used, i.e. whether limit state or allowable stress design is employed. The load
combinations recommended for use with allowable stress procedures are:
a. Dead loads plus operating environmental loads plus maximum live loads, appropriate
Dead loads plus extreme (design) environmental loads plus maximum live loads,
appropriate for combining with extreme conditions.
d. Dead loads plus extreme (design) environmental loads plus minimum live loads,
appropriate for combining with extreme conditions.
Moreover, environmental loads, with the exception of earthquake loads, should be combined
in a manner consistent with their joint probability of occurrence during the loading condition
considered. Earthquake loads, if applicable, are to be imposed as a separate environmental
load, i.e., not to be combined with waves, wind, etc. Operating environmental conditions are
defined as representative of severe but not necessarily limiting conditions that, if exceeded,
would require cessation of platform operations.
Page 9 of 13
Widely accepted rules of practice, listed in the references, are usually followed for
and live loads, fabrication and installation loads as well as accidental loads.
specifying such loads.
Page 10 of 13
Lecture 15A.3
Lecture 15A.3
variable hydrostatic forces arise which have to be considered at all members affected.
The DNV rules [2] permit allowable stress design but recommend the semi-probabilistic limit
Buoyancy calculations are required for every stage of the operation to ensure fully controlled,
state design method, which the NPD rules also require [4]. BS6235 permits both methods but
stable motion. Computer programs are available to perform the stress analyses required for
the design equations it gives are for the allowable stress method [1]. API-RP2A is very
launching and upending and also to portray the whole operation graphically.
specific in recommending not to apply limit state methods. According to the DNV and the NPD
rules for limit state design, four limit states must be checked:
4. ACCIDENTAL LOADS
1. Ultimate limit state
According to the DNV rules [2], accidental loads are loads, ill-defined with respect to intensity
and frequency, which may occur as a result of accident or exceptional circumstances.
For this limit state the following two loading combinations must be used:
Accidental loads are also specified as a separate category in the NPD regulations [4], but not
Ordinary: 1,3 P + 1,3 L + 1,0 D + 0,7 E, and
in API-RP2A [3], BS6235 [1] or the DOE-OG rules [5]. Examples of accidental loads are loads
due to collision with vessels, fire or explosion, dropped objects, and unintended flooding of
buoyancy tanks. Special measures are normally taken to reduce the risk from accidental
loads. For example, protection of wellheads or other critical equipment from a dropped object
where P, L, D and E stand for Permanent (dead), Operating (live), Deformation (e.g.,
can be provided by specially designed, impact resistant covers. According to the NPD
regulations [4], an accidental load can be disregarded if its annual probability of occurrence is
controlled dead and live loads during fabrication and installation, the load factor 1,3
less than 10-4. This number is meant as an order of magnitude estimate and is extremely
may be reduced to 1,2. Furthermore, for structures that are unmanned during storm
conditions and which are not used for storage of oil and gas, the 1,3 load factor for
design.
5. LOAD COMBINATIONS
The load combinations used for designing fixed offshore structures depend upon the design
method used, i.e. whether limit state or allowable stress design is employed. The load
combinations recommended for use with allowable stress procedures are:
a. Dead loads plus operating environmental loads plus maximum live loads, appropriate
Dead loads plus extreme (design) environmental loads plus maximum live loads,
appropriate for combining with extreme conditions.
d. Dead loads plus extreme (design) environmental loads plus minimum live loads,
appropriate for combining with extreme conditions.
Moreover, environmental loads, with the exception of earthquake loads, should be combined
in a manner consistent with their joint probability of occurrence during the loading condition
considered. Earthquake loads, if applicable, are to be imposed as a separate environmental
load, i.e., not to be combined with waves, wind, etc. Operating environmental conditions are
defined as representative of severe but not necessarily limiting conditions that, if exceeded,
would require cessation of platform operations.
Page 9 of 13
Widely accepted rules of practice, listed in the references, are usually followed for
and live loads, fabrication and installation loads as well as accidental loads.
specifying such loads.
Page 10 of 13
Lecture 15A.3
Lecture 15A.3
The type and magnitude of fabrication, transportation and installation loads depend
upon the methods and sequences used for the corresponding phases.
Dynamic and impact effects are normally taken into account by means of appropriate
dynamic load factors.
Accidental loads are not well defined with respect to intensity and probability of
occurrence. They will typically require special protective measures.
Load combinations and load factors depend upon the design method to be used. APIRP2A is based on allowable stress design and recommends against limit state
design, BSI favours allowable stress design, while DNV and NPD recommend limit
state design.
Zone considered
Other components
(3)
5 (1)
5 (1)
2.5
5 (1)
5 (1)
2.5
2.5
Module roofing
1.5
Emergency exits
18
12
8 (2)
4 (2)
Delivery zone
10
10
Non-attributed area
7. REFERENCES
[1] BS6235, "Code of Practice for Fixed Offshore Structures", British Standards Institution,
London, 1982.
Flooring
and joists
[2] "Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore Structures", Det Norske
Veritas (DNV), Oslo, 1977 (with corrections 1982).
[3] API-RP2A, "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
Offshore Platforms", American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 18th ed., 1989.
STORAGE
[4] "Regulation for Structural Design of Load-bearing Structures Intended for Exploitation of
Petroleum Resources", Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD), 1985.
[5] DOE-OG, "Offshore Installation: Guidance on Design and Construction", U.K. Department
of Energy, London 1985.
8. ADDITIONAL READING
1. OCS, "Requirements for Verifying the Structural Integrity of OCS Platforms"., United
(1) Accumulated with a point load equal to the weight of the heaviest part likely to be
removed, with a minimum value of 5 kN. Point loads are assumed as being applied to a 0,3m
0,3m surface.
1981.
3. Graff, W.G., "Introduction to Offshore Structures", Gulf Publishing Co., Houston,
1981.
4. Gerwick, B.C. Jr., "Construction of Offshore Structures", John Wiley, New York, 1986.
Page 11 of 13
Page 12 of 13
Lecture 15A.3
Lecture 15A.3
The type and magnitude of fabrication, transportation and installation loads depend
upon the methods and sequences used for the corresponding phases.
Dynamic and impact effects are normally taken into account by means of appropriate
dynamic load factors.
Accidental loads are not well defined with respect to intensity and probability of
occurrence. They will typically require special protective measures.
Load combinations and load factors depend upon the design method to be used. APIRP2A is based on allowable stress design and recommends against limit state
design, BSI favours allowable stress design, while DNV and NPD recommend limit
state design.
Zone considered
Other components
(3)
5 (1)
5 (1)
2.5
5 (1)
5 (1)
2.5
2.5
Module roofing
1.5
Emergency exits
18
12
8 (2)
4 (2)
Delivery zone
10
10
Non-attributed area
7. REFERENCES
[1] BS6235, "Code of Practice for Fixed Offshore Structures", British Standards Institution,
London, 1982.
Flooring
and joists
[2] "Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore Structures", Det Norske
Veritas (DNV), Oslo, 1977 (with corrections 1982).
[3] API-RP2A, "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
Offshore Platforms", American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 18th ed., 1989.
STORAGE
[4] "Regulation for Structural Design of Load-bearing Structures Intended for Exploitation of
Petroleum Resources", Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD), 1985.
[5] DOE-OG, "Offshore Installation: Guidance on Design and Construction", U.K. Department
of Energy, London 1985.
8. ADDITIONAL READING
1. OCS, "Requirements for Verifying the Structural Integrity of OCS Platforms"., United
(1) Accumulated with a point load equal to the weight of the heaviest part likely to be
removed, with a minimum value of 5 kN. Point loads are assumed as being applied to a 0,3m
0,3m surface.
1981.
3. Graff, W.G., "Introduction to Offshore Structures", Gulf Publishing Co., Houston,
1981.
4. Gerwick, B.C. Jr., "Construction of Offshore Structures", John Wiley, New York, 1986.
Page 11 of 13
Page 12 of 13
Lecture 15A.3
PHASES
LOAD
TYPE
Progressive Collapse
Service
Fatigue
Serviceability
Ultimate
ability
Progressive Collapse
Fatigue
Ultimate
Abnormal
Damage
Abnormal
effects
condition
effects
DEAD
EXPECTED VALUE
LIVE
SPECIFIED VALUE
DEFORM
ATION
Depen
dent on
ENVIRON operati
MENTAL
Damage condition
onal
require
Annual
Expect
Value
ed load
dependent on
history
measures taken
Expect
Annual
ed load
exceedance
history
probability 10
exceedanc
e
-2
probability
10-4
ments
Annual
ACCIDEN
TAL
Dependent on
NOT APPLICABLE
operational
requirements
exceedanc
NOT APPLICABLE
NOT APPLICABLE
probability
10-4
Page 13 of 13
Lecture 15A.3
PHASES
LOAD
TYPE
Progressive Collapse
Service
Fatigue
Serviceability
Ultimate
ability
Progressive Collapse
Fatigue
Ultimate
Abnormal
Damage
Abnormal
effects
condition
effects
DEAD
EXPECTED VALUE
LIVE
SPECIFIED VALUE
DEFORM
ATION
Depen
dent on
ENVIRON operati
MENTAL
Damage condition
onal
require
Annual
Expect
Value
ed load
dependent on
history
measures taken
Expect
Annual
ed load
exceedance
history
probability 10
exceedanc
e
-2
probability
10-4
ments
Annual
ACCIDEN
TAL
Dependent on
NOT APPLICABLE
operational
requirements
exceedanc
NOT APPLICABLE
NOT APPLICABLE
probability
10-4
Page 13 of 13
Lecture 15A.4
Lecture 15A.4
2. ANALYTICAL MODEL
Analysis I
The analytical models used in offshore engineering are in some respects similar to those
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
adopted for other types of steel structures. Only the salient features of offshore models are
presented here.
PREREQUISITES
The same model is used throughout the analysis process with only minor adjustments being
made to suit the specific conditions, e.g. at supports in particular, relating to each analysis.
structures (jackets, bridges, flare booms) and lattice trusses (modules, decks).
RELATED LECTURES
2.1.1 Joints
Each member is normally rigidly fixed at its ends to other elements in the model.
SUMMARY
If more accuracy is required, particularly for the assessment of natural vibration modes, local
flexibility of the connections may be represented by a joint stiffness matrix.
Analytical models used in offshore engineering are briefly described. Acceptance criteria for
the verification of offshore structures are presented.
2.1.2 Members
Simple rules for preliminary member sizing are given and procedures for static in-place and
hydrodynamic coefficients, e.g. relating to drag, inertia, and marine growth, to allow wave
forces to be automatically generated.
1. ANALYTICAL MODEL
2.2 Plate Models
The analysis of an offshore structure is an extensive task, embracing consideration of the
different stages, i.e. execution, installation, and in-service stages, during its life. Many
Integrated decks and hulls of floating platforms involving large bulkheads are described by
plate elements. The characteristics assumed for the plate elements depend on the principal
state of stress which they are subjected to. Membrane stresses are taken when the element
This lecture and Lecture 15A.5 are purposely limited to presenting an overview of available
is subjected merely to axial load and shear. Plate stresses are adopted when bending and
analysis procedures and providing benchmarks for the reader to appreciate the validity of his
assumptions and results. They primarily address jackets, which are more unusual structures
compared to decks and modules, and which more closely resemble onshore petro-chemical
3. ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
plants.
3.1 Code Checks
The verification of an element consists of comparing its characteristic resistance(s) to a
design force or stress. It includes:
Page 1 of 14
Page 2 of 14
Lecture 15A.4
Lecture 15A.4
2. ANALYTICAL MODEL
Analysis I
The analytical models used in offshore engineering are in some respects similar to those
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
adopted for other types of steel structures. Only the salient features of offshore models are
presented here.
PREREQUISITES
The same model is used throughout the analysis process with only minor adjustments being
made to suit the specific conditions, e.g. at supports in particular, relating to each analysis.
structures (jackets, bridges, flare booms) and lattice trusses (modules, decks).
RELATED LECTURES
2.1.1 Joints
Each member is normally rigidly fixed at its ends to other elements in the model.
SUMMARY
If more accuracy is required, particularly for the assessment of natural vibration modes, local
flexibility of the connections may be represented by a joint stiffness matrix.
Analytical models used in offshore engineering are briefly described. Acceptance criteria for
the verification of offshore structures are presented.
2.1.2 Members
Simple rules for preliminary member sizing are given and procedures for static in-place and
hydrodynamic coefficients, e.g. relating to drag, inertia, and marine growth, to allow wave
forces to be automatically generated.
1. ANALYTICAL MODEL
2.2 Plate Models
The analysis of an offshore structure is an extensive task, embracing consideration of the
different stages, i.e. execution, installation, and in-service stages, during its life. Many
Integrated decks and hulls of floating platforms involving large bulkheads are described by
plate elements. The characteristics assumed for the plate elements depend on the principal
state of stress which they are subjected to. Membrane stresses are taken when the element
This lecture and Lecture 15A.5 are purposely limited to presenting an overview of available
is subjected merely to axial load and shear. Plate stresses are adopted when bending and
analysis procedures and providing benchmarks for the reader to appreciate the validity of his
assumptions and results. They primarily address jackets, which are more unusual structures
compared to decks and modules, and which more closely resemble onshore petro-chemical
3. ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
plants.
3.1 Code Checks
The verification of an element consists of comparing its characteristic resistance(s) to a
design force or stress. It includes:
Page 1 of 14
Page 2 of 14
Lecture 15A.4
Lecture 15A.4
a strength check, where the characteristic resistance is related to the yield strength of
Partial factors are applied to the loads and to the characteristic resistance of the element,
the element,
reflecting the amount of confidence placed in the design value of each parameter and the
An element (member or plate) is checked at typical sections (at least both ends and midspan)
against resistance and buckling. This verification also includes the effect of water pressure for
deepwater structures.
reserve.
Tubular joints are checked against punching under various load patterns. These checks may
indicate the need for local reinforcement of the chord using overthickness or internal ringstiffeners.
Elements should also be verified against fatigue, corrosion, temperature or durability
wherever relevant.
reflects the ability of the structure to resist collapse under accidental or abnormal conditions.
corresponds to criteria for normal use or durability (often specified by the plant operator).
The loads remain unfactored and a unique coefficient is applied to the characteristic
resistance to obtain an allowable stress as follows:
Condition
Axial
Strong axis
Weak axis
bending
bending
Normal
0,60
0,66
0,75
Extreme
0,80
0,88
1,00
Load Categories
Limit State
P
ULS (normal)
1,3
1,3
1,0
0,7
0,0
ULS (extreme)
1,0
1,0
1,0
1,3
0,0
FLS
0,0
0,0
0,0
1,0
0,0
PLS (accidental)
1,0
1,0
1,0
1,0
1,0
PLS (post-damage)
1,0
1,0
1,0
1,0
0,0
SLS
1,0
1,0
1,0
1,0
0,0
Page 3 of 14
Page 4 of 14
Lecture 15A.4
Lecture 15A.4
a strength check, where the characteristic resistance is related to the yield strength of
Partial factors are applied to the loads and to the characteristic resistance of the element,
the element,
reflecting the amount of confidence placed in the design value of each parameter and the
An element (member or plate) is checked at typical sections (at least both ends and midspan)
against resistance and buckling. This verification also includes the effect of water pressure for
deepwater structures.
reserve.
Tubular joints are checked against punching under various load patterns. These checks may
indicate the need for local reinforcement of the chord using overthickness or internal ringstiffeners.
Elements should also be verified against fatigue, corrosion, temperature or durability
wherever relevant.
reflects the ability of the structure to resist collapse under accidental or abnormal conditions.
corresponds to criteria for normal use or durability (often specified by the plant operator).
The loads remain unfactored and a unique coefficient is applied to the characteristic
resistance to obtain an allowable stress as follows:
Condition
Axial
Strong axis
Weak axis
bending
bending
Normal
0,60
0,66
0,75
Extreme
0,80
0,88
1,00
Load Categories
Limit State
P
ULS (normal)
1,3
1,3
1,0
0,7
0,0
ULS (extreme)
1,0
1,0
1,0
1,3
0,0
FLS
0,0
0,0
0,0
1,0
0,0
PLS (accidental)
1,0
1,0
1,0
1,0
1,0
PLS (post-damage)
1,0
1,0
1,0
1,0
0,0
SLS
1,0
1,0
1,0
1,0
0,0
Page 3 of 14
Page 4 of 14
Lecture 15A.4
Lecture 15A.4
P are permanent loads (structural weight, dry equipments, ballast, hydrostatic pressure).
In-Place
P+L
(extreme)
actual
ULS
year wave
SLS
In-Place
P+L
(exceptional)
actual
PLS
year wave
Earthquake
P+L
10-2 quake
ULS
Rare
P+L
10-4 quake
PLS
Earthquake
The material partial factors for steel is normally taken equal to 1,15 for ULS and 1,00 for PLS
and SLS design.
3.3.3 Classification of Design Conditions
Guidance for classifying typical conditions into typical limit states is given in the following
table:
Explosion
P+L
blast
PLS
Fire
P+L
fire
PLS
Dropped
P+L
drill collar
PLS
P+L
boat impact
PLS
Object
Loadings
Condition
P/L
Construction
Load-Out
Design
D
Criterion
ULS,SLS
reduced wind
support
Boat
Collision
Damaged
P + reduced L
reduced wave
Structure
PLS
& wind
ULS
disp
4. PRELIMINARY MEMBER SIZING
Transport
transport wind
ULS
The analysis of a structure is an iterative process which requires progressive adjustment of
and wave
the member sizes with respect to the forces they transmit, until a safe and economical design
Tow-out
flooded compart
PLS
is achieved.
(accidental)
It is therefore of the utmost importance to start the main analysis from a model which is close
Launch
ULS
Lifting
ULS
The simple rules given below provide an easy way of selecting realistic sizes for the main
In-Place
P+L
elements of offshore structures in moderate water depth (up to 80m) where dynamic effects
(normal)
actual
ULS,SLS
are negligible.
snow
Page 5 of 14
Page 6 of 14
Lecture 15A.4
Lecture 15A.4
P are permanent loads (structural weight, dry equipments, ballast, hydrostatic pressure).
In-Place
P+L
(extreme)
actual
ULS
year wave
SLS
In-Place
P+L
(exceptional)
actual
PLS
year wave
Earthquake
P+L
10-2 quake
ULS
Rare
P+L
10-4 quake
PLS
Earthquake
The material partial factors for steel is normally taken equal to 1,15 for ULS and 1,00 for PLS
and SLS design.
3.3.3 Classification of Design Conditions
Guidance for classifying typical conditions into typical limit states is given in the following
table:
Explosion
P+L
blast
PLS
Fire
P+L
fire
PLS
Dropped
P+L
drill collar
PLS
P+L
boat impact
PLS
Object
Loadings
Condition
P/L
Construction
Load-Out
Design
D
Criterion
ULS,SLS
reduced wind
support
Boat
Collision
Damaged
P + reduced L
reduced wave
Structure
PLS
& wind
ULS
disp
4. PRELIMINARY MEMBER SIZING
Transport
transport wind
ULS
The analysis of a structure is an iterative process which requires progressive adjustment of
and wave
the member sizes with respect to the forces they transmit, until a safe and economical design
Tow-out
flooded compart
PLS
is achieved.
(accidental)
It is therefore of the utmost importance to start the main analysis from a model which is close
Launch
ULS
Lifting
ULS
The simple rules given below provide an easy way of selecting realistic sizes for the main
In-Place
P+L
elements of offshore structures in moderate water depth (up to 80m) where dynamic effects
(normal)
actual
ULS,SLS
are negligible.
snow
Page 5 of 14
Page 6 of 14
Lecture 15A.4
Lecture 15A.4
calculate the vertical resultant (dead weight, live loads, buoyancy), the overall shear
The static in-place analysis is the basic and generally the simplest of all analyses. The
structure is modelled as it stands during its operational life, and subjected to pseudo-static
assuming that the jacket behaves as a rigid body, derive the maximum axial and
loads.
select a pile diameter in accordance with the expected leg diameter and the capacity
This analysis is always carried at the very early stage of the project, often from a simplified
derive the penetration from the shaft friction and tip bearing diagrams.
assuming an equivalent soil subgrade modulus and full fixity at the base of the jacket,
calculate the maximum moment in the pile and derive its wall thickness.
The main model should account for eccentricities and local reinforcements at the joints.
determine the effective length from the degree of fixity of the leg into the deck
(depending upon the height of the cellar deck).
Typical models for North Sea jackets may feature over 800 nodes and 4000 members.
5.1.2 Appurtenances
calculate the moment caused by wind loads on topsides and derive the appropriate
thickness.
select the diameter in order to obtain a span/diameter ratio between 30 and 40.
calculate the axial force in the brace from the overall shear and the local bending
caused by the wave assuming partial or total end restraint.
derive the thickness such that the diameter/thickness ratio lies between 20 and 70
and eliminate any hydrostatic buckle tendency by imposing D/t<170/3 H (H is the
Since their behaviour is non-linear, foundations are often analysed separately from the
structural model.
They are represented by an equivalent load-dependent secant stiffness matrix; coefficients
are determined by an iterative process where the forces and displacements at the common
derive the plate thickness from formulae accounting for local plastification under the
This matrix may need to be adjusted to the mean reaction corresponding to each loading
determine by straight beam formulae the sizes of the main girders under "blanket" live
condition.
5.2 Loadings
This Section is a reminder of the main types of loads, which are described in more detail in
Lectures 15A.2 and 15A.3.
Page 7 of 14
Page 8 of 14
Lecture 15A.4
Lecture 15A.4
calculate the vertical resultant (dead weight, live loads, buoyancy), the overall shear
The static in-place analysis is the basic and generally the simplest of all analyses. The
structure is modelled as it stands during its operational life, and subjected to pseudo-static
assuming that the jacket behaves as a rigid body, derive the maximum axial and
loads.
select a pile diameter in accordance with the expected leg diameter and the capacity
This analysis is always carried at the very early stage of the project, often from a simplified
derive the penetration from the shaft friction and tip bearing diagrams.
assuming an equivalent soil subgrade modulus and full fixity at the base of the jacket,
calculate the maximum moment in the pile and derive its wall thickness.
The main model should account for eccentricities and local reinforcements at the joints.
determine the effective length from the degree of fixity of the leg into the deck
(depending upon the height of the cellar deck).
Typical models for North Sea jackets may feature over 800 nodes and 4000 members.
5.1.2 Appurtenances
calculate the moment caused by wind loads on topsides and derive the appropriate
thickness.
select the diameter in order to obtain a span/diameter ratio between 30 and 40.
calculate the axial force in the brace from the overall shear and the local bending
caused by the wave assuming partial or total end restraint.
derive the thickness such that the diameter/thickness ratio lies between 20 and 70
and eliminate any hydrostatic buckle tendency by imposing D/t<170/3 H (H is the
Since their behaviour is non-linear, foundations are often analysed separately from the
structural model.
They are represented by an equivalent load-dependent secant stiffness matrix; coefficients
are determined by an iterative process where the forces and displacements at the common
derive the plate thickness from formulae accounting for local plastification under the
This matrix may need to be adjusted to the mean reaction corresponding to each loading
determine by straight beam formulae the sizes of the main girders under "blanket" live
condition.
5.2 Loadings
This Section is a reminder of the main types of loads, which are described in more detail in
Lectures 15A.2 and 15A.3.
Page 7 of 14
Page 8 of 14
Lecture 15A.4
Lecture 15A.4
Depending on the area of structure under scrutiny, live loads must be positioned to produce
Where,
the most severe configuration (compression or tension); this may occur for instance when
positioning the drilling rig.
Environmental loads consist of wave, current and wind loads assumed to act simultaneously
X, X', X'' are the displacement, velocity and acceleration vectors (function
In general eight wave incidences are selected; for each the position of the crest relative to the
platform must be established such that the maximum overturning moment and/or shear are
produced at the mudline.
of time).
P(t) is the time dependent force vector; in the most general case it may depend on
the displacements of the structure also (i.e. relative motion of the structure with
The static in-place analysis is performed under different conditions where the loads are
approximated by their pseudo-static equivalent.
The basic loads relevant to a given condition are multiplied by the appropriate load factors
and combined to produce the most severe effect in each individual element of the structure.
6.2.1 Mass
The mass matrix represents the distribution of masses over the structure.
Masses include that of the structure itself, the appurtenances, liquids trapped in legs or tanks,
the added mass of water (mass of water displaced by the member and determined from
6. DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
A dynamic analysis is normally mandatory for every offshore structure, but can be restricted
to the main modes in the case of stiff structures.
Masses are generally lumped at discrete points of the model. The mass matrix consequently
becomes diagonal but local modes of vibration of single members are ignored (these modes
may be important for certain members subjected to an earthquake). The selection of lumping
system can be condensed to a few freedoms while still retaining its basic energy distribution.
6.2.2 Damping
Damping is the most difficult to estimate among all parameters governing the dynamic
response of a structure.
Page 9 of 14
Page 10 of 14
Lecture 15A.4
Lecture 15A.4
Depending on the area of structure under scrutiny, live loads must be positioned to produce
Where,
the most severe configuration (compression or tension); this may occur for instance when
positioning the drilling rig.
Environmental loads consist of wave, current and wind loads assumed to act simultaneously
X, X', X'' are the displacement, velocity and acceleration vectors (function
In general eight wave incidences are selected; for each the position of the crest relative to the
platform must be established such that the maximum overturning moment and/or shear are
produced at the mudline.
of time).
P(t) is the time dependent force vector; in the most general case it may depend on
the displacements of the structure also (i.e. relative motion of the structure with
The static in-place analysis is performed under different conditions where the loads are
approximated by their pseudo-static equivalent.
The basic loads relevant to a given condition are multiplied by the appropriate load factors
and combined to produce the most severe effect in each individual element of the structure.
6.2.1 Mass
The mass matrix represents the distribution of masses over the structure.
Masses include that of the structure itself, the appurtenances, liquids trapped in legs or tanks,
the added mass of water (mass of water displaced by the member and determined from
6. DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
A dynamic analysis is normally mandatory for every offshore structure, but can be restricted
to the main modes in the case of stiff structures.
Masses are generally lumped at discrete points of the model. The mass matrix consequently
becomes diagonal but local modes of vibration of single members are ignored (these modes
may be important for certain members subjected to an earthquake). The selection of lumping
system can be condensed to a few freedoms while still retaining its basic energy distribution.
6.2.2 Damping
Damping is the most difficult to estimate among all parameters governing the dynamic
response of a structure.
Page 9 of 14
Page 10 of 14
Lecture 15A.4
Lecture 15A.4
For rigid structures having a fundamental vibration period well below the range of wave
periods (typically less than 3 s), the dynamic behavior is simply accounted for by multiplying
Structural Damping
Structural damping is associated with the loss of energy by internal friction in the material.
DAF =
It increases with the order of the mode, being roughly proportional to the strain energy
involved in each.
where = TN/T is the ratio of the period of the structure to the wave period.
Hydrodynamic Damping
Damping provided by the water surrounding the structure is commonly added to the former,
but may alternatively be accounted as part of the forcing function when vibrations are close to
resonance (vortex-shedding in particular).
Viscous damping represents the most common and simple form of damping. It may have one
of the following representations:
modal damping: a specific damping ratio expressing the percentage to critical
associated with each mode (typically = 0,5% structural; = 1,5% hydrodynamic)
system.
This method is only applicable if:
Representation of Damping
A convenient technique consists of uncoupling the equations through the normal modes of the
The total response is obtained by summing the responses of the individual single-degree-offreedom oscillators associated to each normal mode of the structure.
This method offers the advantage that the eigen modes provide substantial insight into the
problem, and can be re-used for as many subsequent response calculations as needed at
later stages.
It may however prove time-consuming when a large number of modes are required to
6.2.3 Stiffness
The stiffness matrix is in all aspects similar to the one used in static analyses.
The first step in a dynamic analysis consists of determining the principal natural vibration
Such analysis is most appropriate for evaluating the steady-state response of a system
subjected to cyclic loadings, as the transient part of the response vanishes rapidly under the
KX = MX
effect of damping.
The loading function is developed in Fourier series up to an order :
Page 11 of 14
Page 12 of 14
Lecture 15A.4
Lecture 15A.4
For rigid structures having a fundamental vibration period well below the range of wave
periods (typically less than 3 s), the dynamic behavior is simply accounted for by multiplying
Structural Damping
Structural damping is associated with the loss of energy by internal friction in the material.
DAF =
It increases with the order of the mode, being roughly proportional to the strain energy
involved in each.
where = TN/T is the ratio of the period of the structure to the wave period.
Hydrodynamic Damping
Damping provided by the water surrounding the structure is commonly added to the former,
but may alternatively be accounted as part of the forcing function when vibrations are close to
resonance (vortex-shedding in particular).
Viscous damping represents the most common and simple form of damping. It may have one
of the following representations:
modal damping: a specific damping ratio expressing the percentage to critical
associated with each mode (typically = 0,5% structural; = 1,5% hydrodynamic)
system.
This method is only applicable if:
Representation of Damping
A convenient technique consists of uncoupling the equations through the normal modes of the
The total response is obtained by summing the responses of the individual single-degree-offreedom oscillators associated to each normal mode of the structure.
This method offers the advantage that the eigen modes provide substantial insight into the
problem, and can be re-used for as many subsequent response calculations as needed at
later stages.
It may however prove time-consuming when a large number of modes are required to
6.2.3 Stiffness
The stiffness matrix is in all aspects similar to the one used in static analyses.
The first step in a dynamic analysis consists of determining the principal natural vibration
Such analysis is most appropriate for evaluating the steady-state response of a system
subjected to cyclic loadings, as the transient part of the response vanishes rapidly under the
KX = MX
effect of damping.
The loading function is developed in Fourier series up to an order :
Page 11 of 14
Page 12 of 14
Lecture 15A.4
Lecture 15A.4
interval.
p(t) =
The plot of the amplitudes pj versus the circular frequencies j is called the amplitude power
spectra of the loading. Usually, significant values of pj only occur within a narrow range of
frequencies and the analysis can be restricted to it.
The relationship between response and force vectors is expressed by the transfer matrix H,
such as:
H = [-M
The dynamic equilibrium at an instant is governed by the same type of equations, where all
matrices (mass, damping, stiffness, load) are simultaneously dependent on the time and
structural response as well.
All available integration techniques are characterized by their stability (i.e. the tendency for
uncontrolled divergence of amplitude to occur with increasing time steps). Unconditionally
stable methods are always to be preferred (for instance Newmark-beta with = 1/4 or Wilson-
+ i x C + K]
7. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Hj,k =
The analytical models used in offshore engineering are in some respects similar to
those used for other types of steel structures. The same model is used throughout the
analysis process.
Static in-plane analysis is always carried out at the early stage of a project to size the
The fast Fourier transform (FFT) is the most efficient algorithm associated with this kind of
main elements of the structure. A dynamic analysis is normally mandatory for every
analysis.
offshore structure.
Page 14 of 14
Lecture 15A.4
Lecture 15A.4
interval.
p(t) =
The plot of the amplitudes pj versus the circular frequencies j is called the amplitude power
spectra of the loading. Usually, significant values of pj only occur within a narrow range of
frequencies and the analysis can be restricted to it.
The relationship between response and force vectors is expressed by the transfer matrix H,
such as:
H = [-M
The dynamic equilibrium at an instant is governed by the same type of equations, where all
matrices (mass, damping, stiffness, load) are simultaneously dependent on the time and
structural response as well.
All available integration techniques are characterized by their stability (i.e. the tendency for
uncontrolled divergence of amplitude to occur with increasing time steps). Unconditionally
stable methods are always to be preferred (for instance Newmark-beta with = 1/4 or Wilson-
+ i x C + K]
7. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Hj,k =
The analytical models used in offshore engineering are in some respects similar to
those used for other types of steel structures. The same model is used throughout the
analysis process.
Static in-plane analysis is always carried out at the early stage of a project to size the
The fast Fourier transform (FFT) is the most efficient algorithm associated with this kind of
main elements of the structure. A dynamic analysis is normally mandatory for every
analysis.
offshore structure.
Page 14 of 14
Lecture 15A.5
Lecture 15A.5
1.1.1 Structural Model
Analysis II
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present the analysis procedures for offshore structures relating to fatigue, abnormal and
accident conditions, load-out and transportation, installation and local design.
PREREQUISITES
Modal analysis may be used instead; it offers computational efficiency, but may also overlook
important local response modes, particularly near the waterline where direct wave action
causes high out-of-plane bending (see Section 5.2). The mode - acceleration method may
Lecture 15A.2: Loads I: Introduction and Environmental Loads
RELATED LECTURES
A very large number of computer runs may be necessary to evaluate the stress range at the
joints. The wave is repeatedly generated for:
SUMMARY
different blocks of wave heights (typically from 2 to 28m in steps of 2m), each
associated with a characteristic wave and zero-upcrossing period.
Methods of fatigue analysis are described including the fatigue model (structural,
hydrodynamic loading, and joint stress models) and the methods of fatigue damage
different phases to determine the stress range for a given wave at each joint.
assessment.
Abnormal and accidental conditions are considered relating to earthquake, impact and
Nominal joint stresses are calculated for eight points around the circumference of the brace.
progressive collapse.
The maximum local (hot spot) stress is obtained by multiplying the former by a stress
Analyses required for load-out and transportation and for installation are outlined. Local
analysis for specific parts of the structure which are better treated by dedicated models
concentration factor (SCF) given by parametric formulae which are functions of the joint
geometry and the load pattern (balanced/unbalanced).
1. FATIGUE ANALYSIS
The fatigue failure of joints in offshore structures primarily depends on the stress ranges and
A fatigue analysis is performed for those structures sensitive to the action of cyclic loadings
such as:
The number of cycles to failure Ni corresponds to a stress range. The effect of the constant
stresses, mainly welding residual stresses, is implicitly accounted for in this formulation.
Page 1 of 16
Page 2 of 16
Lecture 15A.5
Lecture 15A.5
1.1.1 Structural Model
Analysis II
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present the analysis procedures for offshore structures relating to fatigue, abnormal and
accident conditions, load-out and transportation, installation and local design.
PREREQUISITES
Modal analysis may be used instead; it offers computational efficiency, but may also overlook
important local response modes, particularly near the waterline where direct wave action
causes high out-of-plane bending (see Section 5.2). The mode - acceleration method may
Lecture 15A.2: Loads I: Introduction and Environmental Loads
RELATED LECTURES
A very large number of computer runs may be necessary to evaluate the stress range at the
joints. The wave is repeatedly generated for:
SUMMARY
different blocks of wave heights (typically from 2 to 28m in steps of 2m), each
associated with a characteristic wave and zero-upcrossing period.
Methods of fatigue analysis are described including the fatigue model (structural,
hydrodynamic loading, and joint stress models) and the methods of fatigue damage
different phases to determine the stress range for a given wave at each joint.
assessment.
Abnormal and accidental conditions are considered relating to earthquake, impact and
Nominal joint stresses are calculated for eight points around the circumference of the brace.
progressive collapse.
The maximum local (hot spot) stress is obtained by multiplying the former by a stress
Analyses required for load-out and transportation and for installation are outlined. Local
analysis for specific parts of the structure which are better treated by dedicated models
concentration factor (SCF) given by parametric formulae which are functions of the joint
geometry and the load pattern (balanced/unbalanced).
1. FATIGUE ANALYSIS
The fatigue failure of joints in offshore structures primarily depends on the stress ranges and
A fatigue analysis is performed for those structures sensitive to the action of cyclic loadings
such as:
The number of cycles to failure Ni corresponds to a stress range. The effect of the constant
stresses, mainly welding residual stresses, is implicitly accounted for in this formulation.
Page 1 of 16
Page 2 of 16
Lecture 15A.5
Lecture 15A.5
This problem is overcome by using a scatter diagram, in which the joint occurrence of wave
height and period is quantified. Wave directionality may also be accounted for. Eventually the
D=
the frequency spectrum constructed from the significant wave heights and mean zerocrossing periods.
1,0 above,
0,1 within,
the directionality function derived from the mean direction and associated spreading
function.
This approach requires that the physical process be approximately linear (or properly
1.1.5 Closed Form Expression
linearized) and stationary. Transfer functions TF are determined from time-domain analyses
involving various wave heights, each with different period and incidence:
D=
The response has normally a narrow-banded spectrum and can be described by a Rayleigh
distribution.
where
Tz =
The significant stress range is readily obtained for each sea state as:
sig =
where S(,) is the directional wave energy spectrum.
explicitly.
1.4 Wind Fatigue
A minimum of four regular waves described in terms of height and associated period are
considered for each heading angle.
The fatigue damage caused by the fluctuating part of wind (gusts) on slender structures like
flare booms and bridges is usually predicted by spectral methods.
Waves of a given height are not characterized by a unique frequency, but rather by a range of
frequencies. If this range corresponds to a peak in the structural response, the fatigue life
The main feature of such analysis is the introduction of coherence functions accounting for
Page 3 of 16
Page 4 of 16
Lecture 15A.5
Lecture 15A.5
This problem is overcome by using a scatter diagram, in which the joint occurrence of wave
height and period is quantified. Wave directionality may also be accounted for. Eventually the
D=
the frequency spectrum constructed from the significant wave heights and mean zerocrossing periods.
1,0 above,
0,1 within,
the directionality function derived from the mean direction and associated spreading
function.
This approach requires that the physical process be approximately linear (or properly
1.1.5 Closed Form Expression
linearized) and stationary. Transfer functions TF are determined from time-domain analyses
involving various wave heights, each with different period and incidence:
D=
The response has normally a narrow-banded spectrum and can be described by a Rayleigh
distribution.
where
Tz =
The significant stress range is readily obtained for each sea state as:
sig =
where S(,) is the directional wave energy spectrum.
explicitly.
1.4 Wind Fatigue
A minimum of four regular waves described in terms of height and associated period are
considered for each heading angle.
The fatigue damage caused by the fluctuating part of wind (gusts) on slender structures like
flare booms and bridges is usually predicted by spectral methods.
Waves of a given height are not characterized by a unique frequency, but rather by a range of
frequencies. If this range corresponds to a peak in the structural response, the fatigue life
The main feature of such analysis is the introduction of coherence functions accounting for
Page 3 of 16
Page 4 of 16
Lecture 15A.5
Lecture 15A.5
Within a specific range of fluid velocities, eddies are shed at a frequency close to the resonant
Earthquake analyses can be carried out according to the general methods presented in
Lecture 15A.4.
This phenomenon involves forced displacements, which can be determined by models such
However their distinctive feature is that they represent essentially a base motion problem and
that the seismic loads are therefore dependent on the dynamic characteristics of the
structure.
mode response and forms a response spectrum curve characteristic of the input motion. This
spectrum is the result of time-histories of a SDOF system for different natural periods of
Typically all events with a probability level less than the 10-4 threshold are disregarded.
Direct time integration can be used instead for specific accelerograms adapted to the site.
2.2 Impact
2.1.1 Model
The analysis of impact loads on structures is carried out locally using simple plastic models
[2].
foundations: the near field (i.e. the soil mass in the direct vicinity of the structure) shall
accurately represent load-deflection behaviour. As a general rule the lateral
foundation behaviour is essentially controlled by horizontal ground motions of shallow
soil layers.
modal damping (in general taken as 5% and 7% of critical for ULS and PLS analyses
respectively).
When a wellhead protection cover is hit by a drill collar, or a tube (jacket leg, fender) is
crushed by a supply boat, two load/deformation mechanisms occur simultaneously:
The seismic forces in a structure are highly dependent on its dynamic characteristics. Design
recommendations are given by API to determine an efficient geometry. The recommendations
call for:
Page 5 of 16
equivalent static overpressure and plastic deformation of plates for blast analysis.
Page 6 of 16
Lecture 15A.5
Lecture 15A.5
Within a specific range of fluid velocities, eddies are shed at a frequency close to the resonant
Earthquake analyses can be carried out according to the general methods presented in
Lecture 15A.4.
This phenomenon involves forced displacements, which can be determined by models such
However their distinctive feature is that they represent essentially a base motion problem and
that the seismic loads are therefore dependent on the dynamic characteristics of the
structure.
mode response and forms a response spectrum curve characteristic of the input motion. This
spectrum is the result of time-histories of a SDOF system for different natural periods of
Typically all events with a probability level less than the 10-4 threshold are disregarded.
Direct time integration can be used instead for specific accelerograms adapted to the site.
2.2 Impact
2.1.1 Model
The analysis of impact loads on structures is carried out locally using simple plastic models
[2].
foundations: the near field (i.e. the soil mass in the direct vicinity of the structure) shall
accurately represent load-deflection behaviour. As a general rule the lateral
foundation behaviour is essentially controlled by horizontal ground motions of shallow
soil layers.
modal damping (in general taken as 5% and 7% of critical for ULS and PLS analyses
respectively).
When a wellhead protection cover is hit by a drill collar, or a tube (jacket leg, fender) is
crushed by a supply boat, two load/deformation mechanisms occur simultaneously:
The seismic forces in a structure are highly dependent on its dynamic characteristics. Design
recommendations are given by API to determine an efficient geometry. The recommendations
call for:
Page 5 of 16
equivalent static overpressure and plastic deformation of plates for blast analysis.
Page 6 of 16
Lecture 15A.5
Lecture 15A.5
the reduction of material strength and elastic modulus under temperature increase.
As the reaction on each trailer can be kept constant, analysis of load-out by trailers only
requires a single step to determine the optimal distribution of trailers.
In the aftermath of recent mishaps however, more accurate analyses may become
mandatory, based on a better understanding of the pressure-time histories and the effective
3.2 Transportation
Dry-transported decks and modules may be simply represented by their mass and moments
of inertia.
In this analysis, the damaged elements are removed from the model. Their residual strength
This analysis shall provide the linear and angular accelerations and displacements of the
may be represented by forces applied at the boundary nodes with the intact structure.
structure to be entered in the structural model as inertia forces, and also the partition and
intensity of buoyancy and slamming forces.
The most severe configuration during skidding occurs when the part of the structure is
The model therefore represents the jacket and the barge as two structures coupled together
cantilevering out:
The analysis should also investigate the possibility of high local reactions being the result of
settlement of the skidway or errors in the ballasting procedure.
3.1.2 Load-Out by Trailers
Page 7 of 16
Page 8 of 16
Lecture 15A.5
Lecture 15A.5
the reduction of material strength and elastic modulus under temperature increase.
As the reaction on each trailer can be kept constant, analysis of load-out by trailers only
requires a single step to determine the optimal distribution of trailers.
In the aftermath of recent mishaps however, more accurate analyses may become
mandatory, based on a better understanding of the pressure-time histories and the effective
3.2 Transportation
Dry-transported decks and modules may be simply represented by their mass and moments
of inertia.
In this analysis, the damaged elements are removed from the model. Their residual strength
This analysis shall provide the linear and angular accelerations and displacements of the
may be represented by forces applied at the boundary nodes with the intact structure.
structure to be entered in the structural model as inertia forces, and also the partition and
intensity of buoyancy and slamming forces.
The most severe configuration during skidding occurs when the part of the structure is
The model therefore represents the jacket and the barge as two structures coupled together
cantilevering out:
The analysis should also investigate the possibility of high local reactions being the result of
settlement of the skidway or errors in the ballasting procedure.
3.1.2 Load-Out by Trailers
Page 7 of 16
Page 8 of 16
Lecture 15A.5
Lecture 15A.5
4. INSTALLATION
4.1 Launching
The condition where the jacket may for a while stand unpiled on the seafloor is analysed for
the design installation wave.
The piles are checked during driving for the dynamic stresses caused by the impact wave of
the hammer blow. The maximum cantilevered (stick-up) length of pile must be established for
the self-weight of the pile and hammer combined, accounting for first and second order
moments arising from the pile batter. Hydrodynamic actions are added for underwater driving.
The maximum reaction on the rocker arm is normally obtained when the jacket just starts
rotating about the rocker hinge.
4.6 Lifting
4.6.1 Model
The structural model is in all aspects identical to the one used for the transportation analysis,
The model used for the lift analysis of a structure consists of the in-place model plus the
The rocker arm is also represented as a vertical beam hinged approximately at midspan.
For single lifts the slings converge towards the hook joint, which is the sole vertical support in
Interface loads obtained by the rigid body analysis are input at boundary conditions on the
the model and shall be located exactly on the vertical through the centre of gracity (CoG) of
launch legs. All interface members must remain in compression, otherwise they are
the model.
soft horizontal springs at the padeyes. The force and elongation in these springs should
always remain small.
No dedicated structural analysis is required for this phase, which is essentially a naval
architecture problem.
Different factors are applied to the basic sling forces to account for specific effects during
lifting operations.
4.3 Docking
Docking of a jacket onto a pre-installed template requires guides to be analysed for local
impact. The same requirement applied for bumpers to aid the installation of modules.
Page 9 of 16
Page 10 of 16
Lecture 15A.5
Lecture 15A.5
4. INSTALLATION
4.1 Launching
The condition where the jacket may for a while stand unpiled on the seafloor is analysed for
the design installation wave.
The piles are checked during driving for the dynamic stresses caused by the impact wave of
the hammer blow. The maximum cantilevered (stick-up) length of pile must be established for
the self-weight of the pile and hammer combined, accounting for first and second order
moments arising from the pile batter. Hydrodynamic actions are added for underwater driving.
The maximum reaction on the rocker arm is normally obtained when the jacket just starts
rotating about the rocker hinge.
4.6 Lifting
4.6.1 Model
The structural model is in all aspects identical to the one used for the transportation analysis,
The model used for the lift analysis of a structure consists of the in-place model plus the
The rocker arm is also represented as a vertical beam hinged approximately at midspan.
For single lifts the slings converge towards the hook joint, which is the sole vertical support in
Interface loads obtained by the rigid body analysis are input at boundary conditions on the
the model and shall be located exactly on the vertical through the centre of gracity (CoG) of
launch legs. All interface members must remain in compression, otherwise they are
the model.
soft horizontal springs at the padeyes. The force and elongation in these springs should
always remain small.
No dedicated structural analysis is required for this phase, which is essentially a naval
architecture problem.
Different factors are applied to the basic sling forces to account for specific effects during
lifting operations.
4.3 Docking
Docking of a jacket onto a pre-installed template requires guides to be analysed for local
impact. The same requirement applied for bumpers to aid the installation of modules.
Page 9 of 16
Page 10 of 16
Lecture 15A.5
Lecture 15A.5
This factor represents the effect of fabrication tolerances and lack-of-fit of the slings on the
Local analyses address specific parts of the structure which are better treated by dedicated
The list of analyses below is not exhaustive and more information can be found in [1-24]
This factor accounts for global dynamic effects normally experienced during lifting operations.
Lifted Weight W
up to 100 t
100 t to 1000t
(tonnes)
DAF offshore
DAF inshore
1,30
1,15
1,20
1,10
Underwater pile/sleeve connection is usually achieved by grouting the annulus between the
1000 t to
more than
2500t
2500 t
1,15
1,10
1,05
1,05
about a horizontal axis and by the longitudinal deviation of the hooks from their theoretical
and 3
tilt
Horizontal members (conductor guide frames in particular) located within the splash zone (+/5m on either side of the mean-sea-level approximately) shall be analysed for fatigue caused
by repeated wave slamming.
A slamming coefficient Cs=3,5 is often selected.
This factor accounts for the rotation of the lifted object about a vertical axis (equal to 1,05
typically).
Typical straightened nodes (ring-stiffened nodes, bottle legs nodes with diaphragms) are
analysed by finite-elements models, from which parametric envelope formulae are drawn and
applied to all nodes representative of the same class.
the fatigue damage in the shear plates and the attachment welds to the main jacket
This factor accounts for additional sling loading caused by the rotation of the lifted object
accumulated during pile driving and throughout the life of the platform.
5.4 Appurtenances
5.4.1 Risers, Caissons & J-Tubes
Static In-Place and Fatigue
Risers, caissons and J-tubes are verified either by structural or piping programs for the action
1,15 for all members transferring the load to the lifting points.
of environmental forces, internal pressure and temperature. Particular attention is paid to the
Page 11 of 16
Page 12 of 16
Lecture 15A.5
Lecture 15A.5
This factor represents the effect of fabrication tolerances and lack-of-fit of the slings on the
Local analyses address specific parts of the structure which are better treated by dedicated
The list of analyses below is not exhaustive and more information can be found in [1-24]
This factor accounts for global dynamic effects normally experienced during lifting operations.
Lifted Weight W
up to 100 t
100 t to 1000t
(tonnes)
DAF offshore
DAF inshore
1,30
1,15
1,20
1,10
Underwater pile/sleeve connection is usually achieved by grouting the annulus between the
1000 t to
more than
2500t
2500 t
1,15
1,10
1,05
1,05
about a horizontal axis and by the longitudinal deviation of the hooks from their theoretical
and 3
tilt
Horizontal members (conductor guide frames in particular) located within the splash zone (+/5m on either side of the mean-sea-level approximately) shall be analysed for fatigue caused
by repeated wave slamming.
A slamming coefficient Cs=3,5 is often selected.
This factor accounts for the rotation of the lifted object about a vertical axis (equal to 1,05
typically).
Typical straightened nodes (ring-stiffened nodes, bottle legs nodes with diaphragms) are
analysed by finite-elements models, from which parametric envelope formulae are drawn and
applied to all nodes representative of the same class.
the fatigue damage in the shear plates and the attachment welds to the main jacket
This factor accounts for additional sling loading caused by the rotation of the lifted object
accumulated during pile driving and throughout the life of the platform.
5.4 Appurtenances
5.4.1 Risers, Caissons & J-Tubes
Static In-Place and Fatigue
Risers, caissons and J-tubes are verified either by structural or piping programs for the action
1,15 for all members transferring the load to the lifting points.
of environmental forces, internal pressure and temperature. Particular attention is paid to the
Page 11 of 16
Page 12 of 16
Lecture 15A.5
Lecture 15A.5
bends not always satisfactorily represented by structural programs and the location of the
6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
With the trend to ever deeper and more slender offshore structures in yet harsher
A fatigue analysis is also performed to assess the fatigue damage to the clamps and the
There is a risk for the Engineer having increasingly to rely on the sole results of
computer analyses at the expense of sound design practice.
Pull-In
J-tubes are empty ducts continuously guiding a post-installed riser pulled inside. They are
verified by empirical plastic models against the forces generated during pull-in by the friction
check the interfaces between the different analyses and ensure the consistency of the
of the cable and the deformation of the pull head, see [22].
input/output.
5.4.2 Conductors
verify the validity of the data resulting from a complex analysis against a simplified model,
Conductors are analysed in-place as beam columns on discrete simple supports, these being
provided by the horizontal framing of the jacket (typically 20 to 25 m span).
The installation sequence of the different casings must be considered to assess the
analysis.
distribution of stresses in the different tubes forming the overall composite section.
7. REFERENCES
Also the portion of compression force in the conductor caused by the hanging casings is
[1] Skop R.A. & Griffin O.M., An Heuristic Model for Determining Flow-Induced Vibrations of
regarded as an internal force (similar to prestressing) which therefore does not induce any
buckling tendency, see [23].
5.5 Helidecks
[3] API-RP2A, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
Offshore Platforms/18th edition, September1989.
[4] DnV, Rules for the Classification of Fixed Offshore Structures, September 1989.
analysed elastically.
[5] DnV, Standard for Insurance Warranty Surveys in Marine Operations, June 1985.
[6] NPD, Regulation for Structural Design of Loadbearing Structures Intended for Exploitation
Analyses of flare booms particularly consider:
variable positions during installation (horizontal pick-up from the barge, lift upright).
reduced material characteristics due to high temperature in the vicinity of the tip
[7] DoE, Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design and Construction/London, April 1984.
during operation.
[8] McClelland B. & Reifel M.D., Planning and Design of Fixed Offshore Platforms/Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1986.
Page 13 of 16
Page 14 of 16
Lecture 15A.5
Lecture 15A.5
bends not always satisfactorily represented by structural programs and the location of the
6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
With the trend to ever deeper and more slender offshore structures in yet harsher
A fatigue analysis is also performed to assess the fatigue damage to the clamps and the
There is a risk for the Engineer having increasingly to rely on the sole results of
computer analyses at the expense of sound design practice.
Pull-In
J-tubes are empty ducts continuously guiding a post-installed riser pulled inside. They are
verified by empirical plastic models against the forces generated during pull-in by the friction
check the interfaces between the different analyses and ensure the consistency of the
of the cable and the deformation of the pull head, see [22].
input/output.
5.4.2 Conductors
verify the validity of the data resulting from a complex analysis against a simplified model,
Conductors are analysed in-place as beam columns on discrete simple supports, these being
provided by the horizontal framing of the jacket (typically 20 to 25 m span).
The installation sequence of the different casings must be considered to assess the
analysis.
distribution of stresses in the different tubes forming the overall composite section.
7. REFERENCES
Also the portion of compression force in the conductor caused by the hanging casings is
[1] Skop R.A. & Griffin O.M., An Heuristic Model for Determining Flow-Induced Vibrations of
regarded as an internal force (similar to prestressing) which therefore does not induce any
buckling tendency, see [23].
5.5 Helidecks
[3] API-RP2A, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
Offshore Platforms/18th edition, September1989.
[4] DnV, Rules for the Classification of Fixed Offshore Structures, September 1989.
analysed elastically.
[5] DnV, Standard for Insurance Warranty Surveys in Marine Operations, June 1985.
[6] NPD, Regulation for Structural Design of Loadbearing Structures Intended for Exploitation
Analyses of flare booms particularly consider:
variable positions during installation (horizontal pick-up from the barge, lift upright).
reduced material characteristics due to high temperature in the vicinity of the tip
[7] DoE, Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design and Construction/London, April 1984.
during operation.
[8] McClelland B. & Reifel M.D., Planning and Design of Fixed Offshore Platforms/Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1986.
Page 13 of 16
Page 14 of 16
Lecture 15A.5
Lecture 15A.5
[9] UEG, Node Flexibility and its Effect on Jacket Structures/CIRIA Report UR22, 1984.
[23] Stahl B. & Baur M.P., Design Methodology for Offshore Platform Conductors/J. of
[10] Hallam M.G., Heaf N.J. & Wootton L.R., Dynamics of Marine Structures/ CIRIA Report
[24] DnV - Rules for the Classification of Steel Ships, January 1989.
Page 15 of 16
Page 16 of 16
Lecture 15A.5
Lecture 15A.5
[9] UEG, Node Flexibility and its Effect on Jacket Structures/CIRIA Report UR22, 1984.
[23] Stahl B. & Baur M.P., Design Methodology for Offshore Platform Conductors/J. of
[10] Hallam M.G., Heaf N.J. & Wootton L.R., Dynamics of Marine Structures/ CIRIA Report
[24] DnV - Rules for the Classification of Steel Ships, January 1989.
Page 15 of 16
Page 16 of 16
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
Foundations
OBJECTIVE\SCOPE
water content.
For design purposes the influence of these factors on soil behaviour is expressed in terms of
two fundamental parameters:
PREREQUISITES
friction angle.
Since the least significant of either of these parameters is often neglected, soils can be
classified within "ideal" categories:
Lecture 1B.2.2: Limit State Design Philosophy and Partial Safety Factors
Lectures 10.6: Shear Connection
granular soils.
cohesive soils.
silts : characterized by particle sizes between 0,05 and 0,02mm; they are generally
over-consolidated; they may exhibit some cohesion.
SUMMARY
1.3 Cohesive Soils
In this lecture piled foundations for offshore structures are presented. The lecture starts with
the classification of soil. The main steps in the design of piles are then explained. The
Clays are plastic soils with particle sizes less than 0,002mm which tend to stick together; their
different kinds of piles and hammers are described. The three main execution phases are
permeability is low.
throughout. The number of layers depends on the precision required of the analysis.
The stratigraphy of the sea bed results from a complex geological process during which
various materials were deposited, remoulded and pressed together.
2. DESIGN
Soil texture consists of small mineral or organic particles basically characterized by their grain
Steel offshore platforms are usually founded on piles, driven deep into the soil (Figure 1). The
piles have to transfer the loads acting on the jacket into the sea bed. In this section theoretical
aspects of the design of piles are presented. Checking of the pile itself is described in detail in
density.
Page 1 of 25
Page 2 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
Foundations
OBJECTIVE\SCOPE
water content.
For design purposes the influence of these factors on soil behaviour is expressed in terms of
two fundamental parameters:
PREREQUISITES
friction angle.
Since the least significant of either of these parameters is often neglected, soils can be
classified within "ideal" categories:
Lecture 1B.2.2: Limit State Design Philosophy and Partial Safety Factors
Lectures 10.6: Shear Connection
granular soils.
cohesive soils.
silts : characterized by particle sizes between 0,05 and 0,02mm; they are generally
over-consolidated; they may exhibit some cohesion.
SUMMARY
1.3 Cohesive Soils
In this lecture piled foundations for offshore structures are presented. The lecture starts with
the classification of soil. The main steps in the design of piles are then explained. The
Clays are plastic soils with particle sizes less than 0,002mm which tend to stick together; their
different kinds of piles and hammers are described. The three main execution phases are
permeability is low.
throughout. The number of layers depends on the precision required of the analysis.
The stratigraphy of the sea bed results from a complex geological process during which
various materials were deposited, remoulded and pressed together.
2. DESIGN
Soil texture consists of small mineral or organic particles basically characterized by their grain
Steel offshore platforms are usually founded on piles, driven deep into the soil (Figure 1). The
piles have to transfer the loads acting on the jacket into the sea bed. In this section theoretical
aspects of the design of piles are presented. Checking of the pile itself is described in detail in
density.
Page 1 of 25
Page 2 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
2.1.2 Environmental loads
Environmental loads due to waves, current, wind, earthquake, etc. are basically horizontal.
Their resultant at mudline consists of:
for clays: is calculated by the "alpha" or "lambda" method and is a constant equal to
the shear strength Cu at great depth.
These loads are those transferred from the jacket to the foundation. They are calculated at
the mudline.
End bearing is the resultant of bearing pressure over the gross end area of the pile, i.e. with
Gravity loads (platform dead load and live loads) are distributed as axial compression forces
Page 3 of 25
Cu.
Page 4 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
2.1.2 Environmental loads
Environmental loads due to waves, current, wind, earthquake, etc. are basically horizontal.
Their resultant at mudline consists of:
for clays: is calculated by the "alpha" or "lambda" method and is a constant equal to
the shear strength Cu at great depth.
These loads are those transferred from the jacket to the foundation. They are calculated at
the mudline.
End bearing is the resultant of bearing pressure over the gross end area of the pile, i.e. with
Gravity loads (platform dead load and live loads) are distributed as axial compression forces
Page 3 of 25
Cu.
Page 4 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
API-RP2A [1].
A considerable number of empirical formulae exist to predict pile driveability. Each formula is
2.2.3 Pile penetration
The pile penetration shall be sufficient to generate enough friction and bearing resistance
against the maximum design compression multiplied by the appropriate factor of safety. No
bearing resistance can be mobilized against pull-out: the friction available must be equated to
This method of analysing the driving process consists of representing the ensemble of
The shear at the mudline caused by environmental loads is resisted by lateral bearing of the
pile on the soil. This action may generate large deformations and high bending moments in
the part of the pile directly below the mudline, particularly in soft soils.
constant resistance for large deflections or loss of resistance when the soil skeleton
deteriorates (clay under cyclic load in particular).
Page 5 of 25
Page 6 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
API-RP2A [1].
A considerable number of empirical formulae exist to predict pile driveability. Each formula is
2.2.3 Pile penetration
The pile penetration shall be sufficient to generate enough friction and bearing resistance
against the maximum design compression multiplied by the appropriate factor of safety. No
bearing resistance can be mobilized against pull-out: the friction available must be equated to
This method of analysing the driving process consists of representing the ensemble of
The shear at the mudline caused by environmental loads is resisted by lateral bearing of the
pile on the soil. This action may generate large deformations and high bending moments in
the part of the pile directly below the mudline, particularly in soft soils.
constant resistance for large deflections or loss of resistance when the soil skeleton
deteriorates (clay under cyclic load in particular).
Page 5 of 25
Page 6 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
The energy of the ram hitting the top of the pile generates a stress wave in the pile, which
dissipates progressively by friction between the pile and the soil and by reflection at the
extremities of the pile.
The plastic displacement of the tip relative to the soil is the set achieved by the blow. Curves
can be drawn to represent the number of blows per unit length required to drive the pile at
different penetrations.
The wave equation, though representing the most rigorous assessment to date of the driving
process, still suffers a lack of accuracy, mostly caused by the inaccuracies in the soil model.
3. DIFFERENT KINDS OF PILES
Driven piles are the most popular and cost-efficient type of foundation for offshore structures.
As shown in Figure 2, the following alternatives may be chosen when driving proves
impractical:
Page 7 of 25
insert piles.
belled piles.
Page 8 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
The energy of the ram hitting the top of the pile generates a stress wave in the pile, which
dissipates progressively by friction between the pile and the soil and by reflection at the
extremities of the pile.
The plastic displacement of the tip relative to the soil is the set achieved by the blow. Curves
can be drawn to represent the number of blows per unit length required to drive the pile at
different penetrations.
The wave equation, though representing the most rigorous assessment to date of the driving
process, still suffers a lack of accuracy, mostly caused by the inaccuracies in the soil model.
3. DIFFERENT KINDS OF PILES
Driven piles are the most popular and cost-efficient type of foundation for offshore structures.
As shown in Figure 2, the following alternatives may be chosen when driving proves
impractical:
Page 7 of 25
insert piles.
belled piles.
Page 8 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
3.3 Drilled and Grouted Piles
This procedure is the only means of installing piles with tension resistance in hard soils or soft
rocks; it resembles that for drilling a conductor well.
Piles are usually made up in segments. After placing and driving the first long segment,
extension segments called add-ons are set on piece by piece as driving proceeds until the
An oversized hole is initially drilled to the proposed pile penetration depth. The pile is then
lowered down, sometimes centred in the hole by spacers and the annular space between the
pile shaft and the surrounding soil is grouted.
In recent years one-piece piles have been widely used in the North Sea since the offshore
work is considerably reduced.
hard soil formation softens when exposed to the water or mud used during drilling
and exhibits lower skin friction resistance.
in sections from mudline down to a specified depth within which bending stresses are
especially high,
in case of calcareous sand, external grouting just crushes the sand, slightly extending
the effective pile diameter but not increasing the friction significantly.
at the pile tip (driving shoe) to resist local bearing stresses while driving.
3.4 Belled Piles
Uniform wall thickness is however preferable thus avoiding construction and installation
problems.
While belled piles, on land, are used to decrease the bearing stress under a pile, offshore
belled piles provide a large bearing area to increase tip uplift resistance.
oversized hole ahead. A belling tool (underreamer) then enlarges the socket to a conical bell
has been previously drilled out. They are therefore not subjected to skin friction over the
with a base diameter a few times that of the main pile. A heavy reinforcement cage is lowered
length of the main pile and can reach substantial additional penetration.
inside the bell which is subsequently filled with concrete made using fine aggregate
The insert pile is welded to the main pile at the top of the jacket and the annular space
4.1 Fabrication
The piles are usually made up of "cans" - cylinders of rolled plate with a longitudinal seam.
Single cans are typically 1,5m long or more. Longitudinal seams of two adjacent segments
a thicker wall section of the main pile will be within the jacket height instead of below
Bevelling is mandatory should the wall thickness difference exceed 3mm between adjacent
the mudline.
difficulties often noted for the setting-in of all the required volume of grouting, i.e. the
concern is the leakage of grout or the impossibility to fill with the calculated volume of
grout.
Page 9 of 25
Page 10 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
3.3 Drilled and Grouted Piles
This procedure is the only means of installing piles with tension resistance in hard soils or soft
rocks; it resembles that for drilling a conductor well.
Piles are usually made up in segments. After placing and driving the first long segment,
extension segments called add-ons are set on piece by piece as driving proceeds until the
An oversized hole is initially drilled to the proposed pile penetration depth. The pile is then
lowered down, sometimes centred in the hole by spacers and the annular space between the
pile shaft and the surrounding soil is grouted.
In recent years one-piece piles have been widely used in the North Sea since the offshore
work is considerably reduced.
hard soil formation softens when exposed to the water or mud used during drilling
and exhibits lower skin friction resistance.
in sections from mudline down to a specified depth within which bending stresses are
especially high,
in case of calcareous sand, external grouting just crushes the sand, slightly extending
the effective pile diameter but not increasing the friction significantly.
at the pile tip (driving shoe) to resist local bearing stresses while driving.
3.4 Belled Piles
Uniform wall thickness is however preferable thus avoiding construction and installation
problems.
While belled piles, on land, are used to decrease the bearing stress under a pile, offshore
belled piles provide a large bearing area to increase tip uplift resistance.
oversized hole ahead. A belling tool (underreamer) then enlarges the socket to a conical bell
has been previously drilled out. They are therefore not subjected to skin friction over the
with a base diameter a few times that of the main pile. A heavy reinforcement cage is lowered
length of the main pile and can reach substantial additional penetration.
inside the bell which is subsequently filled with concrete made using fine aggregate
The insert pile is welded to the main pile at the top of the jacket and the annular space
4.1 Fabrication
The piles are usually made up of "cans" - cylinders of rolled plate with a longitudinal seam.
Single cans are typically 1,5m long or more. Longitudinal seams of two adjacent segments
a thicker wall section of the main pile will be within the jacket height instead of below
Bevelling is mandatory should the wall thickness difference exceed 3mm between adjacent
the mudline.
difficulties often noted for the setting-in of all the required volume of grouting, i.e. the
concern is the leakage of grout or the impossibility to fill with the calculated volume of
grout.
Page 9 of 25
Page 10 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
impressed current. In the splash zone additional thickness to allow for corrosion (3mm for
example) and epoxy or rubberized coating, monel or copper-nickel sheeting are provided.
Steam hammers are widely used for offshore installation of jackets. They are generally single
acting with rates of up to 40 blows/minute. Energies of current hammers range from 60 000 to
4.2 Transportation
During driving, the hammer with attached driving head rides the pile rather than being
supported by leads. The hammer line from the crane boom is slackened so as to prevent
Pile segments are choked and fastened to the barge to prevent them from falling overboard
under severe seastates. Pile plate should be thick enough to prevent any deformation caused
by stacking.
Diesel hammers are much used at offshore terminals. They are lighter to handle and less
energy consuming than steam hammers, but their effective energy is limited.
This method is attractive where long segments of pile are to be lifted and set in guides far
below the sea surface (skirt piles for example).
The ends of the piles are sealed by steel closure plates or rubber diaphragms which should
Hydraulic hammers are dedicated to underwater driving (skirt piles terminating far below the
sea surface).
Menck hydraulic hammers are widely used. They utilize a solid steel ram and a flexible steel
pile cap to limit impact forces. They are double acting. Hydraulic fluid under high pressure is
The piles are pre-set inside the main legs or in the guides/sleeves, generating additional
used to force a piston or set of pistons, and in turn, the ram up and down.
weight and possibly buoyancy (if closed). They are held in place by shims which prevent them
Properties of some hammers used offshore are shown in Table 1. A selection of large
from escaping from their guides during launch and uprighting of the jacket.
offshore pile driving hammers driving on heavy piles is also shown in Table 2.
Several piles are driven immediately after the jacket has touched down, providing initial
stability against the action of waves and current.
4.3 Hammers
numerical modelling of driving for each particular site (see Pile Driving: Section 2.4)
either inside the jacket legs, extending the full height of the jacket,
Typical values of pile sizes, wall thicknesses, and hammer energies for steam hammers are
shown in Table 3.
Piles can then be driven using any type of hammer (or a combination of types). Hammers are
4.4 Installation
illustrated in Figure 3.
4.4.1 Pile handling and positioning
Figure 4 shows the different ways of providing lifting points for positioning pile sections.
Padeyes are generally used (welded in the fabrication yard; their design should take into
Page 11 of 25
Page 12 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
impressed current. In the splash zone additional thickness to allow for corrosion (3mm for
example) and epoxy or rubberized coating, monel or copper-nickel sheeting are provided.
Steam hammers are widely used for offshore installation of jackets. They are generally single
acting with rates of up to 40 blows/minute. Energies of current hammers range from 60 000 to
4.2 Transportation
During driving, the hammer with attached driving head rides the pile rather than being
supported by leads. The hammer line from the crane boom is slackened so as to prevent
Pile segments are choked and fastened to the barge to prevent them from falling overboard
under severe seastates. Pile plate should be thick enough to prevent any deformation caused
by stacking.
Diesel hammers are much used at offshore terminals. They are lighter to handle and less
energy consuming than steam hammers, but their effective energy is limited.
This method is attractive where long segments of pile are to be lifted and set in guides far
below the sea surface (skirt piles for example).
The ends of the piles are sealed by steel closure plates or rubber diaphragms which should
Hydraulic hammers are dedicated to underwater driving (skirt piles terminating far below the
sea surface).
Menck hydraulic hammers are widely used. They utilize a solid steel ram and a flexible steel
pile cap to limit impact forces. They are double acting. Hydraulic fluid under high pressure is
The piles are pre-set inside the main legs or in the guides/sleeves, generating additional
used to force a piston or set of pistons, and in turn, the ram up and down.
weight and possibly buoyancy (if closed). They are held in place by shims which prevent them
Properties of some hammers used offshore are shown in Table 1. A selection of large
from escaping from their guides during launch and uprighting of the jacket.
offshore pile driving hammers driving on heavy piles is also shown in Table 2.
Several piles are driven immediately after the jacket has touched down, providing initial
stability against the action of waves and current.
4.3 Hammers
numerical modelling of driving for each particular site (see Pile Driving: Section 2.4)
either inside the jacket legs, extending the full height of the jacket,
Typical values of pile sizes, wall thicknesses, and hammer energies for steam hammers are
shown in Table 3.
Piles can then be driven using any type of hammer (or a combination of types). Hammers are
4.4 Installation
illustrated in Figure 3.
4.4.1 Pile handling and positioning
Figure 4 shows the different ways of providing lifting points for positioning pile sections.
Padeyes are generally used (welded in the fabrication yard; their design should take into
Page 11 of 25
Page 12 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
account the changes in load direction during lifting). Padeyes are then carefully cut before
Sketch E shows the different steps for the positioning of pile sections:
either by welding, Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) or flux-cored, segments held
temporarily by internal or external stabbing guides as shown in Figure 4. Welding time
depends upon:
- pile wall thickness: 3 hours for 1in. thick (25,4mm); 16 hours for 3in. thick, (76,2mm)
(typical).
- number and qualification of the welders.
- environmental conditions.
Page 13 of 25
Page 14 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
account the changes in load direction during lifting). Padeyes are then carefully cut before
Sketch E shows the different steps for the positioning of pile sections:
either by welding, Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) or flux-cored, segments held
temporarily by internal or external stabbing guides as shown in Figure 4. Welding time
depends upon:
- pile wall thickness: 3 hours for 1in. thick (25,4mm); 16 hours for 3in. thick, (76,2mm)
(typical).
- number and qualification of the welders.
- environmental conditions.
Page 13 of 25
Page 14 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
4.4.4 Driving
Some penetration under the self weight of the pile is normal. For soft soil conditions, particular
measures are taken to avoid an uncontrolled run.
Piles are then driven or drilled until pile refusal.
Pile refusal is defined as the minimum rate of penetration beyond which further advancement
of the pile is no longer achievable because of the time required and the possible damage to
the pile or to the hammer. A widely accepted rate for defining refusal is 300 blows/feet (980
blows/meters).
4.5 Pile-to-Jacket Connections
4.5.1 Welded shims
The shims are inserted at the top of the pile within the annulus between the pile and jacket leg
(see Figure 6) and welded afterwards.
positioning over pile by booming out or in (the bell of the hammer acts as a stabling
guide... very helpful in rough weather).
Each add-on should be designed to prevent bending or buckling failure during installation and
in-place conditions.
Page 15 of 25
Page 16 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
4.4.4 Driving
Some penetration under the self weight of the pile is normal. For soft soil conditions, particular
measures are taken to avoid an uncontrolled run.
Piles are then driven or drilled until pile refusal.
Pile refusal is defined as the minimum rate of penetration beyond which further advancement
of the pile is no longer achievable because of the time required and the possible damage to
the pile or to the hammer. A widely accepted rate for defining refusal is 300 blows/feet (980
blows/meters).
4.5 Pile-to-Jacket Connections
4.5.1 Welded shims
The shims are inserted at the top of the pile within the annulus between the pile and jacket leg
(see Figure 6) and welded afterwards.
positioning over pile by booming out or in (the bell of the hammer acts as a stabling
guide... very helpful in rough weather).
Each add-on should be designed to prevent bending or buckling failure during installation and
in-place conditions.
Page 15 of 25
Page 16 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
This type of connection is most popular for subsea templates. It offers immediate strength and
the possibility to re-enter the connection should swaging prove incomplete.
This metal-to-metal connection is achieved by a hydraulic swaging tool lowered inside the pile
and expanding it into machined grooves provided in the sleeves at two or three elevations as
4.5.3 Grouting
shown on Figure 7.
This hybrid connection is the most commonly used for connecting piles to the main structure
(in the mudline area). Forces are transmitted by shear through the grout.
Figure 8 shows the two types of packers commonly used. The expansive, non-shrinking grout
must fill completely the annulus between the pile and leg (or sleeve).
Page 17 of 25
Page 18 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
This type of connection is most popular for subsea templates. It offers immediate strength and
the possibility to re-enter the connection should swaging prove incomplete.
This metal-to-metal connection is achieved by a hydraulic swaging tool lowered inside the pile
and expanding it into machined grooves provided in the sleeves at two or three elevations as
4.5.3 Grouting
shown on Figure 7.
This hybrid connection is the most commonly used for connecting piles to the main structure
(in the mudline area). Forces are transmitted by shear through the grout.
Figure 8 shows the two types of packers commonly used. The expansive, non-shrinking grout
must fill completely the annulus between the pile and leg (or sleeve).
Page 17 of 25
Page 18 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
Bonding should be excellent; it is improved by shear connectors (shear keys, strips or weld
beads disposed on the surface of the sleeve and pile in contact with the grout).
- equipment and procedure employed.
The width of the annulus between pile and sleeve should be maintained constant by use of
Packers are used to confine the grout and prevent it from escaping at the base of the sleeve.
Packers are often damaged during piling and are therefore:
attached to the base of the sleeve to protect them during pile entry and driving.
Thorough filling should be checked by suitable devices, e.g. electrical resistance gauges,
radioactive tracers, well-logging devices or overflow pipes checked by divers.
4.6 Quality Control
Quality control shall:
provide a record of pile installation for reference to subsequent driving of nearby piles
and future modifications to the platform.
self penetration of pile (under its own weight and under static weight of the hammer).
Page 19 of 25
Page 20 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
Bonding should be excellent; it is improved by shear connectors (shear keys, strips or weld
beads disposed on the surface of the sleeve and pile in contact with the grout).
- equipment and procedure employed.
The width of the annulus between pile and sleeve should be maintained constant by use of
Packers are used to confine the grout and prevent it from escaping at the base of the sleeve.
Packers are often damaged during piling and are therefore:
attached to the base of the sleeve to protect them during pile entry and driving.
Thorough filling should be checked by suitable devices, e.g. electrical resistance gauges,
radioactive tracers, well-logging devices or overflow pipes checked by divers.
4.6 Quality Control
Quality control shall:
provide a record of pile installation for reference to subsequent driving of nearby piles
and future modifications to the platform.
self penetration of pile (under its own weight and under static weight of the hammer).
Page 19 of 25
Page 20 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
Contingency documents should provide back-up solutions in case "unforeseen" events occur
Rated Striking
such as:
Hammer
Type
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
This lecture has described:
the multiplicity of solutions and the different kind of piles and hammers.
6. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2A, "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
Offshore Platforms", American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 18th ed., 1989.
7. ADDITIONAL READING
1. McClelland, B. and Reifel, M. D., Planning and design of fixed offshore platforms, Von
Mostrand Reinhold Company (1982).
2. Bowles, J. E., Foundation analysis and design, MacGraw Hill Book Company (4th
edition 1988).
3. Bowles, J. E., Analytical and computer methods in Foundation Engineering, MacGraw
Hill Book Company (1983).
Blows per
Minute
Energy
Weight including
Offshore Cage, if
any (metric tons)
(ft-lb x
1000)
Expected Net
Energy (ft-lb x
1000)
KNm
On
Anvil
Vulcan 3250
Single-acting steam
60
300
750
1040
673
600
HBM 3000
Hydraulic underwater
50-60
175
1034
1430
542
542
HBM 3000 A
Hydraulic underwater
40-70
190
1100
1520
796
796
HBM 3000 P
40-70
170
1120
1550
800
800
48-65
135
651
618
Single-acting steam
38
280
868
1200
715
629
Vulcan 4250
Single-acting steam
53
337
1000
1380
901
800
HBM 4000
Hydraulic underwater
40-70
222
1700
2350
1157
1157
Vulcan 6300
Single-acting steam
37
380
1800
2490
1697
1440
Single-acting steam
38
385
1582
2190
1384
1147
32-65
235
1230
1169
IHC S-300
40
30
220
300
IHC S-800
40
80
580
800
IHC S-1600
30
160
1160
1600
IHC S-2000
260
1449
2000
IHC S-2300
1566
2300
4. Poulos, H. G. and Davis, E. H., Pile foundation analysis and design, John Wiley and
Sons (1980).
5. Graff, W. J., Introduction to offshore structures, Gulf Publishing Company (1981).
6. Le Tirant, P., Reconnaissance des sols en mer pour l'implantation des ouvrages
Ptroliens, Technip (1976)
7. Pieux dans les formatines carbonates - Technip ARGEMA (1988).
8. Capacit patante des pieux - Technip ARGEMA (1988).
9. Dawson, T. H., Offshore Structural Engineering, Prentice Hall Inc (1983).
10. Gerwick, Ben C., Construction of Offshore Structures, John Wiley and Sons (1986).
Page 21 of 25
On Pile
Page 22 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
Contingency documents should provide back-up solutions in case "unforeseen" events occur
Rated Striking
such as:
Hammer
Type
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
This lecture has described:
the multiplicity of solutions and the different kind of piles and hammers.
6. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2A, "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
Offshore Platforms", American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 18th ed., 1989.
7. ADDITIONAL READING
1. McClelland, B. and Reifel, M. D., Planning and design of fixed offshore platforms, Von
Mostrand Reinhold Company (1982).
2. Bowles, J. E., Foundation analysis and design, MacGraw Hill Book Company (4th
edition 1988).
3. Bowles, J. E., Analytical and computer methods in Foundation Engineering, MacGraw
Hill Book Company (1983).
Blows per
Minute
Energy
Weight including
Offshore Cage, if
any (metric tons)
(ft-lb x
1000)
Expected Net
Energy (ft-lb x
1000)
KNm
On
Anvil
Vulcan 3250
Single-acting steam
60
300
750
1040
673
600
HBM 3000
Hydraulic underwater
50-60
175
1034
1430
542
542
HBM 3000 A
Hydraulic underwater
40-70
190
1100
1520
796
796
HBM 3000 P
40-70
170
1120
1550
800
800
48-65
135
651
618
Single-acting steam
38
280
868
1200
715
629
Vulcan 4250
Single-acting steam
53
337
1000
1380
901
800
HBM 4000
Hydraulic underwater
40-70
222
1700
2350
1157
1157
Vulcan 6300
Single-acting steam
37
380
1800
2490
1697
1440
Single-acting steam
38
385
1582
2190
1384
1147
32-65
235
1230
1169
IHC S-300
40
30
220
300
IHC S-800
40
80
580
800
IHC S-1600
30
160
1160
1600
IHC S-2000
260
1449
2000
IHC S-2300
1566
2300
4. Poulos, H. G. and Davis, E. H., Pile foundation analysis and design, John Wiley and
Sons (1980).
5. Graff, W. J., Introduction to offshore structures, Gulf Publishing Company (1981).
6. Le Tirant, P., Reconnaissance des sols en mer pour l'implantation des ouvrages
Ptroliens, Technip (1976)
7. Pieux dans les formatines carbonates - Technip ARGEMA (1988).
8. Capacit patante des pieux - Technip ARGEMA (1988).
9. Dawson, T. H., Offshore Structural Engineering, Prentice Hall Inc (1983).
10. Gerwick, Ben C., Construction of Offshore Structures, John Wiley and Sons (1986).
Page 21 of 25
On Pile
Page 22 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
TABLE 2 Large pile driving hammers
C. Hydraulic Hammers
Rated Energy
Make
A. Air/Steam Hammers
Rated
Make
Model
Ram
Max.
Energy
Weight
Stroke
(ft-lbs)
(kips)
(m)
Std.
Pilecap
Weight
(kips)
Typical
Hammer
Weight
(w/leads)
(kips)
Rated
Operating
Pressure
(psi)
Steam
Air
Hose
Consumption
Consumption
ST/F
(lbs ht)
(lbs ht)
.....
Ram Weight
Standard
Hammer
Typical
Weight
Operating
Pilecap
Model
Weight
(ft-lb)
(kips)
(kips)
Pressure
(kips)
(psi)
Rated
Rated
Oil Flow
BPM
(gal. min)
Rated
4000
1.200.000
205
490
BPM
3000A
800.000
152
414
3000
725.000
139
33
1500
290.000
55
17,6
900
170.000
30,8
500
72.000
9,5
1,1
27,5
1700
760.000
132
84
415
3400
845
50-80
MHU
1.230.000
207
77
617
3400
845
32-65
650.000
110
386
3100
580
48-65
195
141.000
22,0
6,0
59
3550
98
38
MH
119.000
19,0
6,0
51
3190
103
42
105.000
16,5
6,0
46
2755
102
42
145
87.000
13,9
6,0
40
2320
103
44
MH
69.000
11,0
1,9
27
2830
75
48
58.000
9,3
1,9
24
2465
75
48
HMB
2@
6850
510.000
85
72
57,5
312
180
5650
325.000
65
60
59,0
262
160
5300
150.000
30
60
12,7
92
160
8.064
1.711
300
90.000
30
36
12,7
86
150
6.944
1.471
200
60.000
20
36
12,7
74
120
5.563
1.195
31.500
7.500
40
3@
45
4
Conmaco
MRBU
54
3
MHU
59
3
2@
1.582.220
275,58
69
154,32
853
171
53.910
26.500
88
46
4
12500
40-70
172
900
36
MH
8800
954.750
194,01
59
103,62
600
150
32.400
16.700
36
8000
867.960
176,37
59
85,98
564
142
30.860
15.900
38
Menck
165
7000
632.885
154
49
92,4
583
156
30.800
14.830
4@
35
Menck
5000
542.470
110,23
59
66,14
335
150
20.940
10.400
MH
40
(MRBS)
4600
499.070
101,41
59
52,91
313
142
19.840
9.900
42
6
3000
325.480
66,14
59
33,07
205
142
12.130
6.000
120
42
5
1800
189.850
38,58
59
22,05
125
142
7.060
3.700
MH 96
44
4
850
93.340
18,96
50
11,5
64
142
3.530
1.950
MH 80
45
MKT
OS-60
18.000
60
36
OS-40
120.000
40
36
OS-20
60.000
20
36
Note 1: With the heavier hammers in the range given, the wall thicknesses must be near the
upper range of those listed in order to prevent overstress (yielding) in the pile under hard
driving.
38,65
150
Page 23 of 25
60
Page 24 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Lecture 15A.6
TABLE 2 Large pile driving hammers
C. Hydraulic Hammers
Rated Energy
Make
A. Air/Steam Hammers
Rated
Make
Model
Ram
Max.
Energy
Weight
Stroke
(ft-lbs)
(kips)
(m)
Std.
Pilecap
Weight
(kips)
Typical
Hammer
Weight
(w/leads)
(kips)
Rated
Operating
Pressure
(psi)
Steam
Air
Hose
Consumption
Consumption
ST/F
(lbs ht)
(lbs ht)
.....
Ram Weight
Standard
Hammer
Typical
Weight
Operating
Pilecap
Model
Weight
(ft-lb)
(kips)
(kips)
Pressure
(kips)
(psi)
Rated
Rated
Oil Flow
BPM
(gal. min)
Rated
4000
1.200.000
205
490
BPM
3000A
800.000
152
414
3000
725.000
139
33
1500
290.000
55
17,6
900
170.000
30,8
500
72.000
9,5
1,1
27,5
1700
760.000
132
84
415
3400
845
50-80
MHU
1.230.000
207
77
617
3400
845
32-65
650.000
110
386
3100
580
48-65
195
141.000
22,0
6,0
59
3550
98
38
MH
119.000
19,0
6,0
51
3190
103
42
105.000
16,5
6,0
46
2755
102
42
145
87.000
13,9
6,0
40
2320
103
44
MH
69.000
11,0
1,9
27
2830
75
48
58.000
9,3
1,9
24
2465
75
48
HMB
2@
6850
510.000
85
72
57,5
312
180
5650
325.000
65
60
59,0
262
160
5300
150.000
30
60
12,7
92
160
8.064
1.711
300
90.000
30
36
12,7
86
150
6.944
1.471
200
60.000
20
36
12,7
74
120
5.563
1.195
31.500
7.500
40
3@
45
4
Conmaco
MRBU
54
3
MHU
59
3
2@
1.582.220
275,58
69
154,32
853
171
53.910
26.500
88
46
4
12500
40-70
172
900
36
MH
8800
954.750
194,01
59
103,62
600
150
32.400
16.700
36
8000
867.960
176,37
59
85,98
564
142
30.860
15.900
38
Menck
165
7000
632.885
154
49
92,4
583
156
30.800
14.830
4@
35
Menck
5000
542.470
110,23
59
66,14
335
150
20.940
10.400
MH
40
(MRBS)
4600
499.070
101,41
59
52,91
313
142
19.840
9.900
42
6
3000
325.480
66,14
59
33,07
205
142
12.130
6.000
120
42
5
1800
189.850
38,58
59
22,05
125
142
7.060
3.700
MH 96
44
4
850
93.340
18,96
50
11,5
64
142
3.530
1.950
MH 80
45
MKT
OS-60
18.000
60
36
OS-40
120.000
40
36
OS-20
60.000
20
36
Note 1: With the heavier hammers in the range given, the wall thicknesses must be near the
upper range of those listed in order to prevent overstress (yielding) in the pile under hard
driving.
38,65
150
Page 23 of 25
60
Page 24 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Note 2: With diesel hammers, the effective hammer energy is from one-half to two-thirds the
values generally listed by the manufacturers and the above table must be adjusted
accordingly. Diesel hammers would normally only be used on 36-in. or less diameter piles.
Note 3: Hydraulic hammers have a more sustained blow, and hence the above table can be
modified to fit the stress wave pattern.
TABLE 3 Typical values of pile sizes, wall thickness and hammer energies
Pile Outer Diameter
Wall Thickness
Hammer Energy
(in.)
(mm)
(in.)
(mm)
(ft-lb)
(kN-m)
24
600
5/8 - 7/8
15-21
50.000 - 120.000
70 - 168
30
750
19
50.000 - 120.000
70 - 168
36
900
7/8 - 1
21-25
50.000 - 180.000
70 - 252
42
1.050
1 - 1
25-32
60.000 - 300.000
84 - 120
48
1.200
17- 1
28-44
90.000 - 500.000
126 - 700
60
1.500
17 - 1
28-44
90.000 - 500.000
126 - 700
72
1.800
1 - 2
32-50
120.000 - 700.000
168 - 980
84
2.100
1 - 2
32-50
180.000 - 1.000.000
252 - 1.400
96
2.400
1 - 2
32-50
180.000 - 1.000.000
252 - 1.400
108
2.700
1 - 2
37-62
300.000 - 1.000.000
420 - 1.400
120
3.000
1 - 2
37-62
300.000 - 1.000.000
420 - 1.400
Page 25 of 25
Lecture 15A.6
Note 2: With diesel hammers, the effective hammer energy is from one-half to two-thirds the
values generally listed by the manufacturers and the above table must be adjusted
accordingly. Diesel hammers would normally only be used on 36-in. or less diameter piles.
Note 3: Hydraulic hammers have a more sustained blow, and hence the above table can be
modified to fit the stress wave pattern.
TABLE 3 Typical values of pile sizes, wall thickness and hammer energies
Pile Outer Diameter
Wall Thickness
Hammer Energy
(in.)
(mm)
(in.)
(mm)
(ft-lb)
(kN-m)
24
600
5/8 - 7/8
15-21
50.000 - 120.000
70 - 168
30
750
19
50.000 - 120.000
70 - 168
36
900
7/8 - 1
21-25
50.000 - 180.000
70 - 252
42
1.050
1 - 1
25-32
60.000 - 300.000
84 - 120
48
1.200
17- 1
28-44
90.000 - 500.000
126 - 700
60
1.500
17 - 1
28-44
90.000 - 500.000
126 - 700
72
1.800
1 - 2
32-50
120.000 - 700.000
168 - 980
84
2.100
1 - 2
32-50
180.000 - 1.000.000
252 - 1.400
96
2.400
1 - 2
32-50
180.000 - 1.000.000
252 - 1.400
108
2.700
1 - 2
37-62
300.000 - 1.000.000
420 - 1.400
120
3.000
1 - 2
37-62
300.000 - 1.000.000
420 - 1.400
Page 25 of 25
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
The question of fatigue behaviour always has to be addressed, even where simple
assessment of fatigue behaviour shows this will not be a problem. The joint designer must
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present methods for the design of large tubular joints typically found on offshore
2. DEFINITIONS
structures.
The following definitions are universally acknowledged [1]: (refer to Figure 1 for clarification):
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 15A.1: Offshore Structures: General Introduction
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 15A.8 : Fabrication
Lecture 15A.12: Connections in Offshore Deck Structures
SUMMARY
The lecture defines the principle terms and ratios used in tubular joint design. It presents the
classifications for T, Y, X, N, K and KT joints and discusses the significance of gaps, overlaps,
multiplanar joints and the details of joint arrangements. It describes design methods for static
and fatigue strength, presenting some detailed information on stress concentration factors.
1. INTRODUCTION
The main structure of topside consists of either an integrated deck or a module support frame
and modules. Commonly tubular lattice frames are present, however a significant amount of
rolled and built up sections are also used.
This lecture refers to the design of tubular joints. These are used extensively offshore,
particularly for jacket structures. Connections of I-shape sections or boxed beams whether
rolled or built up, are basically similar to those used for onshore structures. Refer to the
corresponding lectures for appropriate design guidance.
Two main calculations need to be performed in order to adequately design a tubular joint.
These are:
The CHORD is the main member, receiving the other components. It is necessarily a through
member. The other tubulars are welded to it, without piercing through the chord at the
intersection.
Page 1 of 23
Page 2 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
The question of fatigue behaviour always has to be addressed, even where simple
assessment of fatigue behaviour shows this will not be a problem. The joint designer must
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present methods for the design of large tubular joints typically found on offshore
2. DEFINITIONS
structures.
The following definitions are universally acknowledged [1]: (refer to Figure 1 for clarification):
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 15A.1: Offshore Structures: General Introduction
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 15A.8 : Fabrication
Lecture 15A.12: Connections in Offshore Deck Structures
SUMMARY
The lecture defines the principle terms and ratios used in tubular joint design. It presents the
classifications for T, Y, X, N, K and KT joints and discusses the significance of gaps, overlaps,
multiplanar joints and the details of joint arrangements. It describes design methods for static
and fatigue strength, presenting some detailed information on stress concentration factors.
1. INTRODUCTION
The main structure of topside consists of either an integrated deck or a module support frame
and modules. Commonly tubular lattice frames are present, however a significant amount of
rolled and built up sections are also used.
This lecture refers to the design of tubular joints. These are used extensively offshore,
particularly for jacket structures. Connections of I-shape sections or boxed beams whether
rolled or built up, are basically similar to those used for onshore structures. Refer to the
corresponding lectures for appropriate design guidance.
Two main calculations need to be performed in order to adequately design a tubular joint.
These are:
The CHORD is the main member, receiving the other components. It is necessarily a through
member. The other tubulars are welded to it, without piercing through the chord at the
intersection.
Page 1 of 23
Page 2 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
The CAN is the section of the chord reinforced with an increased wall thickness, or stiffeners.
The BRACES are the structural members which are welded to the chord. They physically
terminate on the chord skin.
The STUB is the extremity of the brace, locally reinforced with an increased wall thickness.
Different positions have to be identified along the brace - chord intersection line:
CROWN position is located where the brace to chord intersection crosses the plane
containing the brace and chord.
Relative gap
SADDLE position is located where the brace to chord intersection crosses the plane
perpendicular to the plane containing the brace and chord, which also contains the
brace axis.
3. CLASSIFICATION
Refer to Figure 1
Load paths within a joint are very different, according to the joint geometry. The following
classification is used, see Figure 2.
Page 3 of 23
Page 4 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
The CAN is the section of the chord reinforced with an increased wall thickness, or stiffeners.
The BRACES are the structural members which are welded to the chord. They physically
terminate on the chord skin.
The STUB is the extremity of the brace, locally reinforced with an increased wall thickness.
Different positions have to be identified along the brace - chord intersection line:
CROWN position is located where the brace to chord intersection crosses the plane
containing the brace and chord.
Relative gap
SADDLE position is located where the brace to chord intersection crosses the plane
perpendicular to the plane containing the brace and chord, which also contains the
brace axis.
3. CLASSIFICATION
Refer to Figure 1
Load paths within a joint are very different, according to the joint geometry. The following
classification is used, see Figure 2.
Page 3 of 23
Page 4 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
These are joints made up of a single brace, perpendicular to the chord (T joint) or inclined to it
(Y joints).
Parameter
Limitations
Typical range
min
max
0,4 - 0,8
0,2
12 - 20
10
30
0,3 - 0,7
0,2
1 (2)
40 - 90
30 (3)
90 (1)
In a T joint, the axial force acting in the brace is reacted by bending in the chord.
In a Y joint, the axial force is reacted by bending and axial force in the chord.
3.2 X Joints
X joints include two coaxial braces on either side of the chord.
Axial forces are balanced in the braces, which in an ideal X joint have the same diameter and
thickness. In fact, other considerations such as brace length, which can be very different on
each side of the chord, may lead to two slightly different braces. Angles may be slightly
different as well.
(1) Physical limitation
The important point to note is the balance of forces in the braces. If the axial force in one
brace is far higher than the one in the other brace, the joint may be classified as a Y (or a T)
(2) Brace shall be less or equal to chord thickness (see punching shear)
The ideal load pattern of these joints is reached when axial forces are balanced in the braces,
It must always be remembered that this classification is based on load pattern as well as the
geometry. Engineering judgement must therefore be used to classify a joint. For example a
geometrical K joint may be classified as.
3.4 KT Joints
These joints include three braces.
The load pattern for these joints is more complex. Ideally axial forces should be balanced
a Y joint when the force in one brace is reacted predominantly by the chord, rather
than by the second brace.
within the braces, i.e. net force into chord member is low.
3.5 Limitations
For a joint to be able to be fabricated and to be effective, the geometrical ratios given in
Section 2.2 have limitations. Table 3.1 shows these limits and their typical ranges.
Page 5 of 23
Page 6 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
These are joints made up of a single brace, perpendicular to the chord (T joint) or inclined to it
(Y joints).
Parameter
Limitations
Typical range
min
max
0,4 - 0,8
0,2
12 - 20
10
30
0,3 - 0,7
0,2
1 (2)
40 - 90
30 (3)
90 (1)
In a T joint, the axial force acting in the brace is reacted by bending in the chord.
In a Y joint, the axial force is reacted by bending and axial force in the chord.
3.2 X Joints
X joints include two coaxial braces on either side of the chord.
Axial forces are balanced in the braces, which in an ideal X joint have the same diameter and
thickness. In fact, other considerations such as brace length, which can be very different on
each side of the chord, may lead to two slightly different braces. Angles may be slightly
different as well.
(1) Physical limitation
The important point to note is the balance of forces in the braces. If the axial force in one
brace is far higher than the one in the other brace, the joint may be classified as a Y (or a T)
(2) Brace shall be less or equal to chord thickness (see punching shear)
The ideal load pattern of these joints is reached when axial forces are balanced in the braces,
It must always be remembered that this classification is based on load pattern as well as the
geometry. Engineering judgement must therefore be used to classify a joint. For example a
geometrical K joint may be classified as.
3.4 KT Joints
These joints include three braces.
The load pattern for these joints is more complex. Ideally axial forces should be balanced
a Y joint when the force in one brace is reacted predominantly by the chord, rather
than by the second brace.
within the braces, i.e. net force into chord member is low.
3.5 Limitations
For a joint to be able to be fabricated and to be effective, the geometrical ratios given in
Section 2.2 have limitations. Table 3.1 shows these limits and their typical ranges.
Page 5 of 23
Page 6 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
4.2 Limitations
4.1 Definitions
The minimum gap allowed is 50mm. This limitation is set to avoid two welds clashing. This is
important because the gap is a highly stressed zone.
The GAP is the distance along the chord between the weld toes of the braces (Figure 3).
4.3 Multiplanar Joints
The same definitions and limitations apply to multiplanar joints.
5. JOINT ARRANGEMENT
As a rule, welds in a joint have to be kept away from zones of high stress concentration.
The following practice, see Figure 4, should be followed:
1. The chord circumferential welds are to be located at either 300mm or a quarter of the
chord diameter, whichever is the greater, from the nearest point of a brace-chord
connection.
2. The brace circumferential welds are to be located at either 600mm or a brace
diameter, whichever is the greatest, from the nearest point of the brace-chord
connection.
3. The actual gap shall not be less than 50mm. To achieve this, most designers use a
70 or 75mm theoretical gap.
4. Eccentricity and offset are to be kept within a quarter of the chord diameter. When
higher values can not be avoided, secondary moments have to be introduced in the
structural analysis by introducing extra nodes.
5. Thickness transitions are smoothed to a 1 in 4 slope, by tapering the thicker wall.
The theoretical gap is the shortest distance between the outer surfaces of two braces,
measured on the line where they cross the chord outer surface. The real gap is the one
measured at the corresponding location, between actual weld toes.
A brace OVERLAPS another brace when one brace is welded to the other brace.
The overlapping brace is always the thinner brace.
The overlapped brace is always completely welded to the chord.
Page 7 of 23
Page 8 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
4.2 Limitations
4.1 Definitions
The minimum gap allowed is 50mm. This limitation is set to avoid two welds clashing. This is
important because the gap is a highly stressed zone.
The GAP is the distance along the chord between the weld toes of the braces (Figure 3).
4.3 Multiplanar Joints
The same definitions and limitations apply to multiplanar joints.
5. JOINT ARRANGEMENT
As a rule, welds in a joint have to be kept away from zones of high stress concentration.
The following practice, see Figure 4, should be followed:
1. The chord circumferential welds are to be located at either 300mm or a quarter of the
chord diameter, whichever is the greater, from the nearest point of a brace-chord
connection.
2. The brace circumferential welds are to be located at either 600mm or a brace
diameter, whichever is the greatest, from the nearest point of the brace-chord
connection.
3. The actual gap shall not be less than 50mm. To achieve this, most designers use a
70 or 75mm theoretical gap.
4. Eccentricity and offset are to be kept within a quarter of the chord diameter. When
higher values can not be avoided, secondary moments have to be introduced in the
structural analysis by introducing extra nodes.
5. Thickness transitions are smoothed to a 1 in 4 slope, by tapering the thicker wall.
The theoretical gap is the shortest distance between the outer surfaces of two braces,
measured on the line where they cross the chord outer surface. The real gap is the one
measured at the corresponding location, between actual weld toes.
A brace OVERLAPS another brace when one brace is welded to the other brace.
The overlapping brace is always the thinner brace.
The overlapped brace is always completely welded to the chord.
Page 7 of 23
Page 8 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
6. STATIC STRENGTH
6.1 Loads taken into account
The loads considered in a joint static strength design are the axial force, the in-plane bending
moment and the out-of-plane bending moment for each brace.
The other components (transverse shear and brace torsion moment) are usually neglected
since unlike the preceding loads, these loads do not induce bending in the chord wall.
Nevertheless, their presence must never be forgotten and in some specific cases, their effects
must be assessed. The axial load, in-plane and out-of-plane bending moments are normally
the dimensioning criterion for tubular joints.
6.2 Punching shear
6.2.1 Acting punching shear
The acting punching shear is the shear stress developed in the chord by the brace load.
The acting punching stress vp is written as:
vp = f sin
where f is the nominal axial, in-plane bending or out-of-plane bending stress in the brace
(punching shear for each kept separate), see Figure 5.
Page 9 of 23
Page 10 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
6. STATIC STRENGTH
6.1 Loads taken into account
The loads considered in a joint static strength design are the axial force, the in-plane bending
moment and the out-of-plane bending moment for each brace.
The other components (transverse shear and brace torsion moment) are usually neglected
since unlike the preceding loads, these loads do not induce bending in the chord wall.
Nevertheless, their presence must never be forgotten and in some specific cases, their effects
must be assessed. The axial load, in-plane and out-of-plane bending moments are normally
the dimensioning criterion for tubular joints.
6.2 Punching shear
6.2.1 Acting punching shear
The acting punching shear is the shear stress developed in the chord by the brace load.
The acting punching stress vp is written as:
vp = f sin
where f is the nominal axial, in-plane bending or out-of-plane bending stress in the brace
(punching shear for each kept separate), see Figure 5.
Page 9 of 23
Page 10 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
Allowable punching shear values in the chord wall are determined from test results carried out
Several offshore design regulations are based on the punching shear concept [1,2]. The
Tests are performed on experimental rigs such as the one shown in Figure 6. They are
A. Principle
performed for a single load-case (axial force, in-plane bending, or out-of-plane bending).
This method applies to a single brace without overlap, for a non-stiffened joint. When
the joint includes several braces, each brace connection is checked independently.
Punching shear for each load component (axial force, in-plane bending, and out of
plane bending) is calculated and compared to the allowable punching shear stress for
the appropriate load and geometry.
Interaction formulae are given for combined loading, combining the three punching
shear ratio calculated for each component.
Vpa = Qq Qf
where: Fyc is the yield strength of the chord member
Qq is to account for the effects of type of loading and geometry, see Table 6.1.
Qf is a factor to account for the nominal longitudinal stress in the chord
The ultimate static strength obtained through these tests can then be expressed in terms of
punching shear, as defined above.
Qf = 1 -
Statistical treatments of results allow formulae to be defined for the allowable punching shear
stress.
fAX, fIPB, fOPB are the nominal axial, in-plane bending and out of plane bending stresses in the
chord
Page 11 of 23
Page 12 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
Allowable punching shear values in the chord wall are determined from test results carried out
Several offshore design regulations are based on the punching shear concept [1,2]. The
Tests are performed on experimental rigs such as the one shown in Figure 6. They are
A. Principle
performed for a single load-case (axial force, in-plane bending, or out-of-plane bending).
This method applies to a single brace without overlap, for a non-stiffened joint. When
the joint includes several braces, each brace connection is checked independently.
Punching shear for each load component (axial force, in-plane bending, and out of
plane bending) is calculated and compared to the allowable punching shear stress for
the appropriate load and geometry.
Interaction formulae are given for combined loading, combining the three punching
shear ratio calculated for each component.
Vpa = Qq Qf
where: Fyc is the yield strength of the chord member
Qq is to account for the effects of type of loading and geometry, see Table 6.1.
Qf is a factor to account for the nominal longitudinal stress in the chord
The ultimate static strength obtained through these tests can then be expressed in terms of
punching shear, as defined above.
Qf = 1 -
Statistical treatments of results allow formulae to be defined for the allowable punching shear
stress.
fAX, fIPB, fOPB are the nominal axial, in-plane bending and out of plane bending stresses in the
chord
Page 11 of 23
Page 12 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
C. Loading Combination
Table 6.1 Values of Qq for allowable punching shear stress from APIRP2A
For combined loadings involving more than one load component, the following equations shall
be satisfied:
Load component
Axial load
In-plane bending
Stress in brace
fax
fby
fbz
Vp = fby sin
Vp = fbz sin
K joints
Compression
and
w/o diaphragm
X
ax
0,045
0,021
The parametric formulae discussed in Section 6.2 were specifically established for nonoverlapping joints with no internal reinforcement. These formulae cannot be used for
overlapping joints.
Qg = 1,8 - 0,1
for 20
In an overlapping joint, part of the load is transferred directly from one brace to the other
through the overlapping section, without that part of the load transferring through the chord.
The static strength of an overlapping joint is higher than a similar joint without an overlap.
API RP2A, [2] allows the static shear strength of the overlapping weld section to be added to
Q =
Page 13 of 23
Page 14 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
C. Loading Combination
Table 6.1 Values of Qq for allowable punching shear stress from APIRP2A
For combined loadings involving more than one load component, the following equations shall
be satisfied:
Load component
Axial load
In-plane bending
Stress in brace
fax
fby
fbz
Vp = fby sin
Vp = fbz sin
K joints
Compression
and
w/o diaphragm
X
ax
0,045
0,021
The parametric formulae discussed in Section 6.2 were specifically established for nonoverlapping joints with no internal reinforcement. These formulae cannot be used for
overlapping joints.
Qg = 1,8 - 0,1
for 20
In an overlapping joint, part of the load is transferred directly from one brace to the other
through the overlapping section, without that part of the load transferring through the chord.
The static strength of an overlapping joint is higher than a similar joint without an overlap.
API RP2A, [2] allows the static shear strength of the overlapping weld section to be added to
Q =
Page 13 of 23
Page 14 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
Some joints may require more complex stiffening. This is the case for large diameter chords
which would otherwise require an un-economic chord wall thickness.
There are very many different stiffening solutions for a large diameter chord. Therefore there
are no parametric formulae available for these designs. Specific analyses must therefore be
carried out for an accurate solution. This may involve finite element analysis.
6.4.2 Ring Stiffening
Ring stiffening consists of ring plates welded in the chord can prior to welding the braces to it.
The punching shear capacity of the chord still may be taken into account when calculating the
forces acting on the stiffeners.
Ring stiffeners can be justified through parametric formulae available in various publications,
the best known being published by Roark [3].
The allowable axial load component perpendicular to the chord, P (in Newtons) should be
taken to be:
7. STRESS CONCENTRATION
As in any mechanical body presenting discontinuities, stresses are not uniform along the
connecting surface of a brace and chord. Figure 8 shows an example of the stress distribution
in a joint with local discontinuities at and in the vicinity of the brace chord intersection.
where:
vpa is the allowable punching shear stress (MPa) for axial stress.
l1 is the circumference for that portion of the brace which contacts the chord (mm), see Figure
7.
vwa is the allowable shear stress for weld between braces (MPa).
tw is the lesser of the weld throat thickness or the thickness t of the inner brace (mm).
l2 is the projected chord length (one side) of the overlapping weld, measured perpendicular to
the chord (mm), see Figure 7.
6.4 Reinforced joints
6.4.1 Definition
Large chord wall thickness may be reduced by stiffening the chord. The most usual
reinforcement consists of ring stiffening inside the chord.
Page 15 of 23
Page 16 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
Some joints may require more complex stiffening. This is the case for large diameter chords
which would otherwise require an un-economic chord wall thickness.
There are very many different stiffening solutions for a large diameter chord. Therefore there
are no parametric formulae available for these designs. Specific analyses must therefore be
carried out for an accurate solution. This may involve finite element analysis.
6.4.2 Ring Stiffening
Ring stiffening consists of ring plates welded in the chord can prior to welding the braces to it.
The punching shear capacity of the chord still may be taken into account when calculating the
forces acting on the stiffeners.
Ring stiffeners can be justified through parametric formulae available in various publications,
the best known being published by Roark [3].
The allowable axial load component perpendicular to the chord, P (in Newtons) should be
taken to be:
7. STRESS CONCENTRATION
As in any mechanical body presenting discontinuities, stresses are not uniform along the
connecting surface of a brace and chord. Figure 8 shows an example of the stress distribution
in a joint with local discontinuities at and in the vicinity of the brace chord intersection.
where:
vpa is the allowable punching shear stress (MPa) for axial stress.
l1 is the circumference for that portion of the brace which contacts the chord (mm), see Figure
7.
vwa is the allowable shear stress for weld between braces (MPa).
tw is the lesser of the weld throat thickness or the thickness t of the inner brace (mm).
l2 is the projected chord length (one side) of the overlapping weld, measured perpendicular to
the chord (mm), see Figure 7.
6.4 Reinforced joints
6.4.1 Definition
Large chord wall thickness may be reduced by stiffening the chord. The most usual
reinforcement consists of ring stiffening inside the chord.
Page 15 of 23
Page 16 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
Out-of-plane bending
The stress concentration factor (SCF) is defined as the ratio of the highest stress in the
0,3 0,55
0,55 0,75
connection (or hot spot stress fHS) to the nominal brace stress fNOM:
SCF = fHS/fNOM
SCFBRACE = 1,522 0,852 0,543 0,801 sin2,033
0,3 0,55
0,55 0,75
A large number of parametric formulae have been published [4]. Sections 7.3.1 to 7.3.3 give,
as an example, the most commonly used and acknowledged formulae.
In using any set of formulae, care should be taken in classifying the situation and ascertaining
any limitations that apply.
The only alternatives to these formulae are to perform model tests (full size or at reduced
scale) or finite element analyses.
No parametric formulae are presently available for stiffened joints. The only ones published to
Axial load
Page 17 of 23
0 < 90
Page 18 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
Out-of-plane bending
The stress concentration factor (SCF) is defined as the ratio of the highest stress in the
0,3 0,55
0,55 0,75
connection (or hot spot stress fHS) to the nominal brace stress fNOM:
SCF = fHS/fNOM
SCFBRACE = 1,522 0,852 0,543 0,801 sin2,033
0,3 0,55
0,55 0,75
A large number of parametric formulae have been published [4]. Sections 7.3.1 to 7.3.3 give,
as an example, the most commonly used and acknowledged formulae.
In using any set of formulae, care should be taken in classifying the situation and ascertaining
any limitations that apply.
The only alternatives to these formulae are to perform model tests (full size or at reduced
scale) or finite element analyses.
No parametric formulae are presently available for stiffened joints. The only ones published to
Axial load
Page 17 of 23
0 < 90
Page 18 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
Validity range
A wave histogram has to be obtained for each direction around the platform. A simple form of
a wave histogram is as follows:
The above equation for T/Y, K and KT joints are generally valid for joint parameters within the
following limits:
0-1,5
3 100 000
1,5-3
410 000
3-4,5
730 000
4,5-6
5 000
6-8
800
8-10
20
8,333 33,3
0,20 0,8
0,3 0,8 unless stated otherwise
6,667 40 unless stated otherwise
0 90 unless stated otherwise.
8. FATIGUE ANALYSIS
A fatigue analysis of a joint consists of the following steps:
3. Calculation of joint fatigue lives using S-N curves for tubular members at joints.
1. Wave heights are grouped in "blocks", for which just one stress range will be
8.1 Nominal stress range
Nominal stress ranges in braces and chords are calculated by a global stress analyses.
Page 19 of 23
Page 20 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
Validity range
A wave histogram has to be obtained for each direction around the platform. A simple form of
a wave histogram is as follows:
The above equation for T/Y, K and KT joints are generally valid for joint parameters within the
following limits:
0-1,5
3 100 000
1,5-3
410 000
3-4,5
730 000
4,5-6
5 000
6-8
800
8-10
20
8,333 33,3
0,20 0,8
0,3 0,8 unless stated otherwise
6,667 40 unless stated otherwise
0 90 unless stated otherwise.
8. FATIGUE ANALYSIS
A fatigue analysis of a joint consists of the following steps:
3. Calculation of joint fatigue lives using S-N curves for tubular members at joints.
1. Wave heights are grouped in "blocks", for which just one stress range will be
8.1 Nominal stress range
Nominal stress ranges in braces and chords are calculated by a global stress analyses.
Page 19 of 23
Page 20 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
When using parametric formulae, stress components (axial, in plane bending and out of plane
bending) have to be distinct throughout the calculations, as the SCF formulae apply
The stress responses should be combined into the long term stress distribution, which should
then be used to calculate the cumulative fatigue damage ratio, D, given by:
Where a chord and brace intersect, four to eight locations are usually chosen around the
intersection line. For each of these locations the stress response for each sea state should be
computed, giving adequate consideration to both global and local stress effects.
D=
Where,
S-N curves to be used for offshore structures are given by statutory regulations [1,2].
Terminology, geometric ratios and joint classifications are now standardised for
tubular joints.
Stress concentration factors (SCF) are defined for most commonly occurring joints.
The X and X1 curves should be used with hot spot stress ranges based on suitable stress
concentration factors. The permissible number of cycles is obtained from the S-N curve by
taking the hot spot stress range, and entering the graph.
It should be noted that Curve X presumes welds which merge smoothly with the adjoining
base metal. For weld without such profile control, the X curve is applicable.
Page 21 of 23
Page 22 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
Lecture 15A.7
When using parametric formulae, stress components (axial, in plane bending and out of plane
bending) have to be distinct throughout the calculations, as the SCF formulae apply
The stress responses should be combined into the long term stress distribution, which should
then be used to calculate the cumulative fatigue damage ratio, D, given by:
Where a chord and brace intersect, four to eight locations are usually chosen around the
intersection line. For each of these locations the stress response for each sea state should be
computed, giving adequate consideration to both global and local stress effects.
D=
Where,
S-N curves to be used for offshore structures are given by statutory regulations [1,2].
Terminology, geometric ratios and joint classifications are now standardised for
tubular joints.
Stress concentration factors (SCF) are defined for most commonly occurring joints.
The X and X1 curves should be used with hot spot stress ranges based on suitable stress
concentration factors. The permissible number of cycles is obtained from the S-N curve by
taking the hot spot stress range, and entering the graph.
It should be noted that Curve X presumes welds which merge smoothly with the adjoining
base metal. For weld without such profile control, the X curve is applicable.
Page 21 of 23
Page 22 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
10. REFERENCES
[1] Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design, Construction and Certification. Fourth Edition,
HMSO, 1990.
[2] Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore
Platforms, API RP2A Nineteenth Edition.
[3] Young, Warren C, Roark's Formulae for Stress and Strain. Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill.
[4] Stress Concentration Factors for Simple Tubular Joints, 1989, Volumes 1 to 5, Lloyds
Register of Shipping-Offshore Division.
Page 23 of 23
Lecture 15A.7
10. REFERENCES
[1] Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design, Construction and Certification. Fourth Edition,
HMSO, 1990.
[2] Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore
Platforms, API RP2A Nineteenth Edition.
[3] Young, Warren C, Roark's Formulae for Stress and Strain. Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill.
[4] Stress Concentration Factors for Simple Tubular Joints, 1989, Volumes 1 to 5, Lloyds
Register of Shipping-Offshore Division.
Page 23 of 23
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
1. INTRODUCTION
Fabrication
OBJECTIVE
To describe the general methods of jacket fabrication. To discuss the various stages of
operation from material selection, through erection, including construction practices and
equipment. To indicate the calculations normally involved.
PREREQUISITES
Fabrication
The processes normally carried out in a fabrication shop to produce relatively small units.
Thus fabrication includes processes such as cutting, rolling, pressing, fitting, welding, stress
relieving on such items as welded tubulars, beams, nodes, girders, cones, supports, clamps,
etc.
Assembly
RELATED LECTURES
The processes normally performed outside the fabrication shop but at ground level in order to
assemble groups of shop fabricated items into an (assembled) unit for subsequent erection in
SUMMARY
Erection
The construction philosophy and definition of the construction phases of the fabrication of
The processes required to install assembled and shop fabricated items together in their final
offshore structures are described. The overall execution plan and the contractor's
configuration. These processes include fitting and welding. However the emphasis is on the
organisation for its implementation are introduced and constructability i.e. the more general
The fabrication of nodes and reinforced tubulars, including the fabrication procedure for a
The design of a jacket, i.e. a lifted, launched or self-floating jacket, is determined primarily by
typical node is described together with jacket assembly and erection and the procedures for
the offshore installation equipment available and the intended water depth. In general the
"big lift".
preference is to lift the jacket in place. The size of such jackets has being increasing as
offshore lifting capacity has grown. With modern lifting capacity now up to 14,000 tonnes,
jackets approaching this order of magnitude are now candidates for lifting into position.
For jackets destined for shallow water, where the height is of the same order as the plan
dimensions, erection is usually carried out vertically, i.e. in the same attitude as the final
installation. Such jackets may be lifted or skidded onto the barge.
Page 1 of 22
Page 2 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
1. INTRODUCTION
Fabrication
OBJECTIVE
To describe the general methods of jacket fabrication. To discuss the various stages of
operation from material selection, through erection, including construction practices and
equipment. To indicate the calculations normally involved.
PREREQUISITES
Fabrication
The processes normally carried out in a fabrication shop to produce relatively small units.
Thus fabrication includes processes such as cutting, rolling, pressing, fitting, welding, stress
relieving on such items as welded tubulars, beams, nodes, girders, cones, supports, clamps,
etc.
Assembly
RELATED LECTURES
The processes normally performed outside the fabrication shop but at ground level in order to
assemble groups of shop fabricated items into an (assembled) unit for subsequent erection in
SUMMARY
Erection
The construction philosophy and definition of the construction phases of the fabrication of
The processes required to install assembled and shop fabricated items together in their final
offshore structures are described. The overall execution plan and the contractor's
configuration. These processes include fitting and welding. However the emphasis is on the
organisation for its implementation are introduced and constructability i.e. the more general
The fabrication of nodes and reinforced tubulars, including the fabrication procedure for a
The design of a jacket, i.e. a lifted, launched or self-floating jacket, is determined primarily by
typical node is described together with jacket assembly and erection and the procedures for
the offshore installation equipment available and the intended water depth. In general the
"big lift".
preference is to lift the jacket in place. The size of such jackets has being increasing as
offshore lifting capacity has grown. With modern lifting capacity now up to 14,000 tonnes,
jackets approaching this order of magnitude are now candidates for lifting into position.
For jackets destined for shallow water, where the height is of the same order as the plan
dimensions, erection is usually carried out vertically, i.e. in the same attitude as the final
installation. Such jackets may be lifted or skidded onto the barge.
Page 1 of 22
Page 2 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
Jackets destined for deeper water are usually erected on their side. Such jackets are loaded
assurance process. They are crucial tools for controlling the project execution and providing
by skidding out onto a barge. Historically most large jackets have been barge launched. This
method of construction usually involves additional flotation tanks and extensive pipework and
valving to enable the legs to be flooded for ballasting the jacket into the vertical position on
Quality control, inspection and testing should be performed during all phases of construction
site. This method of construction is currently applicable for jackets up to 25,000 tonnes. Very
to ensure that specified requirements are being met. The most effective quality scheme is one
large jackets, in excess of this, have been constructed as self-floaters in a graving dock and
which prevents the introduction of defective materials and workmanship into a structure,
In considering the construction philosophy and contract strategy, the objectives of achieving
quality requirements and efficiency are of fundamental importance. An offshore jacket goes
through a series of very distinct stages as it moves from fabrication to load-out. These stages
range from operations which are almost totally automatic under very controlled conditions,
e.g. steel production, automatic welding, to operations which are almost totally manual in very
variable conditions, e.g. yard erection, offshore activities. Thus decreasing efficiency occurs
as progress through these operations advances. In addition, the stable conditions in repetitive
processes of the early operations are more conducive to the maintenance of high quality. A
third basic consideration is that risk increases with each progressive stage. These general
trends during construction are shown in Table 1.
2. ENGINEERING OF EXECUTION
Engineering of execution, 'construction engineering', entails the work required during each
phase of execution to ensure that the design requirements are fulfilled. A general method of
execution is envisaged at the jacket design stage. Since the shape of the jacket, its form and
properties require quite specific methods of load-out, offshore transportation and installation
(which are construction activities executed under contractor responsibility), there is
considerable interfacing of engineering requirements in these phases. In the earlier phases,
i.e. procurement through assembly and erection, the contractor, while being limited by design
specification requirements, has freedom of choice with regard to the exact method of
execution adopted. However, in all phases the contractor is required to demonstrate that the
methods which he adopts are compatible with the specification requirements and do not affect
Some of the principles which reduce the time and cost of construction are:
Each phase of execution has its own specific engineering requirements which are determined
by the processes executed during that phase. These processes range from those which are
largely repetitive early in execution to one-off activities in the latter phases. Accordingly the
Planning the flow of components to their assembly site. Providing adequate facilities
engineering which supports procurement and shop fabrication is voluminous but repetitive,
and equipment for assembly, including such items as synchrolifts, and heavy-lift
e.g. material take-offs, shop drawings, cutting plans, etc. The assembly and erection phases
cranes.
are supported by a mix of repetitive engineering, e.g. scaffolding, and specific studies for
Selection of structural systems that utilise skills and trades on a relatively continuous
and uniform basis. Avoidance of procedures that are overly sensitive to weather
conditions; ensuring that processes which are weather sensitive are completed during
shop fabrication, e.g. protective coating.
Quality management is a vital and integral component of all aspects of offshore fabrication.
Essentially it involves ensuring that what is produced is what is needed. The requirements for
documentation, hold point, audits, reviews and corrective actions are part of the quality
Page 3 of 22
elements which will not distort when fabricated and which can be relatively easily assembled
without welding/dimensional problems. For instance, nodes are categorised as either complex
or simple from the execution viewpoint based on the number of separate fitting-welding-NDT
Page 4 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
Jackets destined for deeper water are usually erected on their side. Such jackets are loaded
assurance process. They are crucial tools for controlling the project execution and providing
by skidding out onto a barge. Historically most large jackets have been barge launched. This
method of construction usually involves additional flotation tanks and extensive pipework and
valving to enable the legs to be flooded for ballasting the jacket into the vertical position on
Quality control, inspection and testing should be performed during all phases of construction
site. This method of construction is currently applicable for jackets up to 25,000 tonnes. Very
to ensure that specified requirements are being met. The most effective quality scheme is one
large jackets, in excess of this, have been constructed as self-floaters in a graving dock and
which prevents the introduction of defective materials and workmanship into a structure,
In considering the construction philosophy and contract strategy, the objectives of achieving
quality requirements and efficiency are of fundamental importance. An offshore jacket goes
through a series of very distinct stages as it moves from fabrication to load-out. These stages
range from operations which are almost totally automatic under very controlled conditions,
e.g. steel production, automatic welding, to operations which are almost totally manual in very
variable conditions, e.g. yard erection, offshore activities. Thus decreasing efficiency occurs
as progress through these operations advances. In addition, the stable conditions in repetitive
processes of the early operations are more conducive to the maintenance of high quality. A
third basic consideration is that risk increases with each progressive stage. These general
trends during construction are shown in Table 1.
2. ENGINEERING OF EXECUTION
Engineering of execution, 'construction engineering', entails the work required during each
phase of execution to ensure that the design requirements are fulfilled. A general method of
execution is envisaged at the jacket design stage. Since the shape of the jacket, its form and
properties require quite specific methods of load-out, offshore transportation and installation
(which are construction activities executed under contractor responsibility), there is
considerable interfacing of engineering requirements in these phases. In the earlier phases,
i.e. procurement through assembly and erection, the contractor, while being limited by design
specification requirements, has freedom of choice with regard to the exact method of
execution adopted. However, in all phases the contractor is required to demonstrate that the
methods which he adopts are compatible with the specification requirements and do not affect
Some of the principles which reduce the time and cost of construction are:
Each phase of execution has its own specific engineering requirements which are determined
by the processes executed during that phase. These processes range from those which are
largely repetitive early in execution to one-off activities in the latter phases. Accordingly the
Planning the flow of components to their assembly site. Providing adequate facilities
engineering which supports procurement and shop fabrication is voluminous but repetitive,
and equipment for assembly, including such items as synchrolifts, and heavy-lift
e.g. material take-offs, shop drawings, cutting plans, etc. The assembly and erection phases
cranes.
are supported by a mix of repetitive engineering, e.g. scaffolding, and specific studies for
Selection of structural systems that utilise skills and trades on a relatively continuous
and uniform basis. Avoidance of procedures that are overly sensitive to weather
conditions; ensuring that processes which are weather sensitive are completed during
shop fabrication, e.g. protective coating.
Quality management is a vital and integral component of all aspects of offshore fabrication.
Essentially it involves ensuring that what is produced is what is needed. The requirements for
documentation, hold point, audits, reviews and corrective actions are part of the quality
Page 3 of 22
elements which will not distort when fabricated and which can be relatively easily assembled
without welding/dimensional problems. For instance, nodes are categorised as either complex
or simple from the execution viewpoint based on the number of separate fitting-welding-NDT
Page 4 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
(non-destructive testing) cycles required during fabrication and the possibility of automatic
welding between the node can and the tubular during sub-assembly. The number of fittingwelding-NDT cycles depends on the existence of ring stiffeners and the number and
disposition of stubs. For reasons relating to weld distortion and to allow automatic welding, it
is almost essential that ring stiffeners be installed prior to fitting/welding of stubs. This adds an
extra cycle to the fabrication of the node. Thus ring stiffeners are best avoided. Where this is
not possible, care should be taken to define them at an early stage on critical nodes.
Node stubs can be classified as simple or overlapping. Overlapping stubs add at least one
complete cycle to node fabrication and should therefore be avoided where possible. The
minimum separation between the weld toes of adjacent simple stubs is typically specified as
50mm, see API RP2A, Fig. 4.3.1-2 [1]. However this distance is too small to allow
simultaneous welding of adjacent stubs - 150mm is a more practical distance.
3. FABRICATION
3.1 Fabrication Processes
The specifications for fabrication of offshore jackets are determined by the designer. They are
usually based on one or more of the well known codes, with additional requirements dictated
by the specific design, client standards, statutory rules, etc. Two recognised codes which are
used extensively for establishing general requirements are the API RP2A Recommended
Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, [1] and AISC
Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings [2].
For larger jackets, the nodes tend to be fabricated separately under highly controlled shop
conditions. Alternatively cast steel nodes may be used in order to eliminate critical welding
details.
Recent experience, both in the laboratory and as a result of in-service inspection, has
prompted increasingly greater attention to the welding aspects of fabrication. In particular
greater attention has been focused on the importance of complete joint penetration groove
welds, elimination of "notch effects" at the root and especially the cap of node welds, and
achieving the required weld profile. Welds which are critical for fatigue endurance may be
required to be ground to a smooth curve. This process reduces the probability of brittle failure.
However it also implies increasingly sophisticated and stringent fabrication and quality
assurance/quality control (QA/QC) requirements. Typical welding details from API RP2A [1],
showing tubular members framing into or overlapping another member with access from one
side only, are shown in Figure 1. However, a lot of emphasis is placed on designing stubs
which can be welded from both sides. For instance, in the weld details for the Bouri jacket,
Figure 2, most stubs are accessible from both sides.
Page 5 of 22
Page 6 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
(non-destructive testing) cycles required during fabrication and the possibility of automatic
welding between the node can and the tubular during sub-assembly. The number of fittingwelding-NDT cycles depends on the existence of ring stiffeners and the number and
disposition of stubs. For reasons relating to weld distortion and to allow automatic welding, it
is almost essential that ring stiffeners be installed prior to fitting/welding of stubs. This adds an
extra cycle to the fabrication of the node. Thus ring stiffeners are best avoided. Where this is
not possible, care should be taken to define them at an early stage on critical nodes.
Node stubs can be classified as simple or overlapping. Overlapping stubs add at least one
complete cycle to node fabrication and should therefore be avoided where possible. The
minimum separation between the weld toes of adjacent simple stubs is typically specified as
50mm, see API RP2A, Fig. 4.3.1-2 [1]. However this distance is too small to allow
simultaneous welding of adjacent stubs - 150mm is a more practical distance.
3. FABRICATION
3.1 Fabrication Processes
The specifications for fabrication of offshore jackets are determined by the designer. They are
usually based on one or more of the well known codes, with additional requirements dictated
by the specific design, client standards, statutory rules, etc. Two recognised codes which are
used extensively for establishing general requirements are the API RP2A Recommended
Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, [1] and AISC
Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings [2].
For larger jackets, the nodes tend to be fabricated separately under highly controlled shop
conditions. Alternatively cast steel nodes may be used in order to eliminate critical welding
details.
Recent experience, both in the laboratory and as a result of in-service inspection, has
prompted increasingly greater attention to the welding aspects of fabrication. In particular
greater attention has been focused on the importance of complete joint penetration groove
welds, elimination of "notch effects" at the root and especially the cap of node welds, and
achieving the required weld profile. Welds which are critical for fatigue endurance may be
required to be ground to a smooth curve. This process reduces the probability of brittle failure.
However it also implies increasingly sophisticated and stringent fabrication and quality
assurance/quality control (QA/QC) requirements. Typical welding details from API RP2A [1],
showing tubular members framing into or overlapping another member with access from one
side only, are shown in Figure 1. However, a lot of emphasis is placed on designing stubs
which can be welded from both sides. For instance, in the weld details for the Bouri jacket,
Figure 2, most stubs are accessible from both sides.
Page 5 of 22
Page 6 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
order to minimise the risk of defect propagation. This is not unduly conservative - the
"Alexander Kielland" capsized due to a fatigue crack initiated at the attachment of a sonar
device to a principal structural member. Temporary cut-outs should be of sufficient size to
allow sound replacement. Corners should be rounded to minimise stress concentrations.
Where welds are found to be defective, they should be rectified by grinding, machining or
welding as required. Welds of insufficient strength, ductility or notch toughness should be
completely removed prior to repair.
In general, sub-assemblies are executed so that at least one of the two edges which will mate
during subsequent assembly/erection has a cut-off allowance. This procedure provides
flexibility in that the sub-assemblies can be sent to the field with the cut-off allowance in place
and cut to fit on location. Alternatively they can be cut to exact dimensions during subassembly where the as-built dimension has already been determined.
3.2 Node Fabrication
The primary structure nodes are frequently geometrically complex. Accordingly their
fabrication presents particular problems, especially from the points of view of welding and
dimensional control.
On a complex jacket the designer may specify the node cans, or the whole node including
stubs and ring stiffeners, in material with specified through-thickness properties. This
requirement is introduced because of tearing or punching effects likely to be sustained by
these elements during their design life and indeed during fabrication. The designer may also
"thicken" or reinforce the cans to withstand local stresses. Finally, in an effort to ensure that
Welding procedures are required, detailing steel grades, joint design, welding consumables,
node welds contain minimal levels of residual stress due to fabrication, thermal stress
etc. Welds are typically subject to 100% visual, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) and
relieving or post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) of the heavier more restrained welds may be
ultrasonic test (UT) inspection. The weld acceptance criteria, e.g. maximum weld undercut
prescribed. This is frequently a requirement for thicker walled North Sea jackets.
length (t/2 or 10mm), and maximum depth (t/20 or 0,25mm), imply an exceptionally high
quality of welding. In addition all welders should be qualified for the type of work assigned to
API RP2A [1] provides specific tolerances for final fabrication. The contractor must work
within tolerances which preserve dimensional compatibility and observe weight control
The location and orientation of circumferential and longitudinal welds during construction is
fabrication tolerances are tight, e.g. typical working points within 6mm of theoretical, stub
angle within 1 minute, all braces within 12mm of the design dimension.
circumferential welds. Special attention is required on items such as pile sleeve shear plates,
launch runners, mudmats, etc. where planned avoidance of weld interference is critical.
The typical fabrication process for a conventional node, assuming that the can (with or without
All temporary plates and fittings should be subjected to the same requirements for weld
ring stiffeners) has already been fabricated, commences with profiling of stubs and terminates
testing as the member to which they are being affixed. There is also an overriding necessity
to ensure that such attachments are located at a safe distance from main structural welds in
Page 7 of 22
Page 8 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
order to minimise the risk of defect propagation. This is not unduly conservative - the
"Alexander Kielland" capsized due to a fatigue crack initiated at the attachment of a sonar
device to a principal structural member. Temporary cut-outs should be of sufficient size to
allow sound replacement. Corners should be rounded to minimise stress concentrations.
Where welds are found to be defective, they should be rectified by grinding, machining or
welding as required. Welds of insufficient strength, ductility or notch toughness should be
completely removed prior to repair.
In general, sub-assemblies are executed so that at least one of the two edges which will mate
during subsequent assembly/erection has a cut-off allowance. This procedure provides
flexibility in that the sub-assemblies can be sent to the field with the cut-off allowance in place
and cut to fit on location. Alternatively they can be cut to exact dimensions during subassembly where the as-built dimension has already been determined.
3.2 Node Fabrication
The primary structure nodes are frequently geometrically complex. Accordingly their
fabrication presents particular problems, especially from the points of view of welding and
dimensional control.
On a complex jacket the designer may specify the node cans, or the whole node including
stubs and ring stiffeners, in material with specified through-thickness properties. This
requirement is introduced because of tearing or punching effects likely to be sustained by
these elements during their design life and indeed during fabrication. The designer may also
"thicken" or reinforce the cans to withstand local stresses. Finally, in an effort to ensure that
Welding procedures are required, detailing steel grades, joint design, welding consumables,
node welds contain minimal levels of residual stress due to fabrication, thermal stress
etc. Welds are typically subject to 100% visual, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) and
relieving or post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) of the heavier more restrained welds may be
ultrasonic test (UT) inspection. The weld acceptance criteria, e.g. maximum weld undercut
prescribed. This is frequently a requirement for thicker walled North Sea jackets.
length (t/2 or 10mm), and maximum depth (t/20 or 0,25mm), imply an exceptionally high
quality of welding. In addition all welders should be qualified for the type of work assigned to
API RP2A [1] provides specific tolerances for final fabrication. The contractor must work
within tolerances which preserve dimensional compatibility and observe weight control
The location and orientation of circumferential and longitudinal welds during construction is
fabrication tolerances are tight, e.g. typical working points within 6mm of theoretical, stub
angle within 1 minute, all braces within 12mm of the design dimension.
circumferential welds. Special attention is required on items such as pile sleeve shear plates,
launch runners, mudmats, etc. where planned avoidance of weld interference is critical.
The typical fabrication process for a conventional node, assuming that the can (with or without
All temporary plates and fittings should be subjected to the same requirements for weld
ring stiffeners) has already been fabricated, commences with profiling of stubs and terminates
testing as the member to which they are being affixed. There is also an overriding necessity
to ensure that such attachments are located at a safe distance from main structural welds in
Page 7 of 22
Page 8 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
The intermediate stages can be performed in several different ways, some of which depend
on the specific geometry of the node and many of which depend on fabricator preference.
associated with them, e.g. short, large diameter infillings are difficult to erect vertically
Some fabricators prefer to orient the can upright, maintaining that it enables more stubs to be
fitted simultaneously. However the majority of fabricators tend to fit the stubs to a can placed
3.4 Dimensional Control
on horizontal rollers. The sequential steps in the fabrication of a typical node are as follows:
Trace generators, working points, etc. onto the can. Cut and profile the stubs. Touch
Of all the areas of quality control (QC) which require attention, that of dimensional control, as
up bevels and trace generators onto the stubs. Trace node locations onto the can
emphasised in the code and specifications, tends to be exaggerated. However, it is clear that
surface and grind or blast areas. UT the cleaned areas to ensure that the steel is free
attention must be paid to the dimensions which have structural significance, e.g. the
from laminations. Particular care is required where shrinkage strains in the through-
straightness of elements, ovality of tubulars, eccentricities at node joints, etc. It is also clear
that on a jacket the global alignment/verticality of items such as pile sleeves, conductor
Assemble one or two adjacent stubs in the same plane on the can. Tack-weld in
guides, launch runners, etc. are also important. Finally dimensional control of items which are
intended for "mating" or "removal" offshore, for example piles/pile sleeves, jacket top/MSF
base, buoyancy tank/supports, etc. is vital to the efficiency of offshore installation. There are
processes used are usually shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) or flux cored arc
therefore, many aspects where the attention to dimensional control is justified even if the
welding (FCAW), see Lecture 3.4 Welding Processes. If the weld is double-sided,
overall design might occasionally benefit if the designer did not always require that everything
after 3 or 4 passes, back-grind and clean weld roots from opposite side. Perform MPI
fitted so tightly.
test on ground roots. Complete weld body. Deposit weld bead for cap profiling. Toegrind profiles if required. Grind weld beads at base metal to remove undercut. Allow
welds to cool. Visually inspect finished welds. MPI and UT finished welds.
during fabrication is not because of the structural consequences of out-of-tolerance but rather
because the parts may not fit together in the yard. It is one of the most vexing incongruities of
When all stubs have been fitted and welded out perform post weld heat treatment
(PWHT) as required, blast or grind welds and perform NDT re-test on all welds.
The principal reason for requiring such accurate dimensional control of nodes and tubulars
Cut any required off-cuts on cans or stubs. Perform final dimensional control of node.
the tubular steel jacket concept that the theoretical tolerances on node stub eccentricity are
generous from the structural viewpoint while the actual tolerances are very tight because of
considerations regarding the fitting together of components during subsequent phases of
construction.
The dimensional control of node fabrication, in particular, involves potentially intricate
calculations in the shop. However, the most successful systems simply involve the inclusion
fabrication, i.e. nodes, tubulars, beams etc. and assembly or erection. The emphasis is on
on the shop drawings of several additional "checking" measurements and the correct marking
performing the maximum number of welds in the shop. This ensures the highest weld quality
since many node and tubular welds can be double-sided and/or automatic when performed in
the fabrication shop.
When defining sub-assemblies, the principal factors to be borne in mind are the following:
Size/Weight/Dimensions:
these
are
largely
governed
by
considerations
of
transportability.
Page 9 of 22
Shop fabricated sub-assemblies and loose items are incorporated into assemblies which
constitute the major lifts of the erection sequence. Thus for a large jacket, the assemblies are
typically of four types:
Top frames
Page 10 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
The intermediate stages can be performed in several different ways, some of which depend
on the specific geometry of the node and many of which depend on fabricator preference.
associated with them, e.g. short, large diameter infillings are difficult to erect vertically
Some fabricators prefer to orient the can upright, maintaining that it enables more stubs to be
fitted simultaneously. However the majority of fabricators tend to fit the stubs to a can placed
3.4 Dimensional Control
on horizontal rollers. The sequential steps in the fabrication of a typical node are as follows:
Trace generators, working points, etc. onto the can. Cut and profile the stubs. Touch
Of all the areas of quality control (QC) which require attention, that of dimensional control, as
up bevels and trace generators onto the stubs. Trace node locations onto the can
emphasised in the code and specifications, tends to be exaggerated. However, it is clear that
surface and grind or blast areas. UT the cleaned areas to ensure that the steel is free
attention must be paid to the dimensions which have structural significance, e.g. the
from laminations. Particular care is required where shrinkage strains in the through-
straightness of elements, ovality of tubulars, eccentricities at node joints, etc. It is also clear
that on a jacket the global alignment/verticality of items such as pile sleeves, conductor
Assemble one or two adjacent stubs in the same plane on the can. Tack-weld in
guides, launch runners, etc. are also important. Finally dimensional control of items which are
intended for "mating" or "removal" offshore, for example piles/pile sleeves, jacket top/MSF
base, buoyancy tank/supports, etc. is vital to the efficiency of offshore installation. There are
processes used are usually shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) or flux cored arc
therefore, many aspects where the attention to dimensional control is justified even if the
welding (FCAW), see Lecture 3.4 Welding Processes. If the weld is double-sided,
overall design might occasionally benefit if the designer did not always require that everything
after 3 or 4 passes, back-grind and clean weld roots from opposite side. Perform MPI
fitted so tightly.
test on ground roots. Complete weld body. Deposit weld bead for cap profiling. Toegrind profiles if required. Grind weld beads at base metal to remove undercut. Allow
welds to cool. Visually inspect finished welds. MPI and UT finished welds.
during fabrication is not because of the structural consequences of out-of-tolerance but rather
because the parts may not fit together in the yard. It is one of the most vexing incongruities of
When all stubs have been fitted and welded out perform post weld heat treatment
(PWHT) as required, blast or grind welds and perform NDT re-test on all welds.
The principal reason for requiring such accurate dimensional control of nodes and tubulars
Cut any required off-cuts on cans or stubs. Perform final dimensional control of node.
the tubular steel jacket concept that the theoretical tolerances on node stub eccentricity are
generous from the structural viewpoint while the actual tolerances are very tight because of
considerations regarding the fitting together of components during subsequent phases of
construction.
The dimensional control of node fabrication, in particular, involves potentially intricate
calculations in the shop. However, the most successful systems simply involve the inclusion
fabrication, i.e. nodes, tubulars, beams etc. and assembly or erection. The emphasis is on
on the shop drawings of several additional "checking" measurements and the correct marking
performing the maximum number of welds in the shop. This ensures the highest weld quality
since many node and tubular welds can be double-sided and/or automatic when performed in
the fabrication shop.
When defining sub-assemblies, the principal factors to be borne in mind are the following:
Size/Weight/Dimensions:
these
are
largely
governed
by
considerations
of
transportability.
Page 9 of 22
Shop fabricated sub-assemblies and loose items are incorporated into assemblies which
constitute the major lifts of the erection sequence. Thus for a large jacket, the assemblies are
typically of four types:
Top frames
Page 10 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
Dimensional control of the assembly both prior to and after welding, can be by means of a
series of self-checking measurements on the structure itself. Provided cross checks are
adequate, the time consuming exercise of referring measurements to an external bench mark
The assembly and erection phases are based on the following objectives:
can be avoided.
Normally the assembly is tacked in position to theoretical dimensions using allowable positive
tolerances to compensate for weld shrinkage. Perhaps the most fundamental rule in fitting is
Minimise erection joints in principal structural elements, such as jacket legs, launch
the avoidance of "force-fitting" of members prior to welding or to force stresses into unwelded
runners, rows, levels. Align critical areas such as conductor guides, pile sleeves,
members through the welding sequence since such conditions cannot have been foreseen by
launch runners.
the designer.
Sub-assemble principal structural elements of jacket such as jacket legs, rows, levels.
Sub-assemble, and where possible pre-test, systems such as grouting, ballasting.
caissons. Coat or paint required areas (top of jacket, risers) prior to erection.
Minimise the use of temporary items which require subsequent removal, such as
Rough setting of assembly main structure and position tacking. Dimensional control of
assembly main structure.
scaffolding, walkways, lifting aids, etc. and pre-install such aids where they are
necessary.
The assembly of a jacket frame often having a spread at the base of 50m or more, places
severe demands on field layout and survey and on temporary support and adjustment
bracing. Such large dimensions mean that the thermal changes can be significant.
Temperature differences may be as great as 30C between dawn and afternoon and as much
as 15C between various parts of the structure, resulting in several centimetres distortion.
temporary attachments.
However, the practice of 'using the sun' to fit elements which are not dimensionally in-
tolerance is common in the field. This procedure in itself tends to induce residual stresses in
Blasting and painting or touch up. Removal of temporary assembly supports and
the structure. Because of the difficulty associated with thermal distortion, it is normal to
"correct" all measurements to a standard temperature, e.g. 20 C.
staging.
Elastic deflections are also a source of difficulty in maintaining tolerances in the location of
nodes. Foundation displacements under the skid beams and temporary erection skids must
In this phase assembled, sub-assembled and fabricated structures, together with loose items,
are incorporated into the final structure according to the sequence outlined in Figure 3a - 3e.
The overall assembly sequence and programme requires that each assembly be completed
prior to lifting. It is normal to determine the exact location, orientation and attitude, i.e. face-up
or face-down, of each assembly in the field in anticipation of its lifting procedure.
Assembly layout drawings are usually prepared showing central co-ordinates for each
assembly. The central co-ordinates are then used as local bench marks with the object of
defining the assembly, the sub-assemblies, loose items, appurtenances and temporary
attachments which comprise, field welds, overall dimensions, weight, reference drawings, etc.
Page 11 of 22
Page 12 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
Dimensional control of the assembly both prior to and after welding, can be by means of a
series of self-checking measurements on the structure itself. Provided cross checks are
adequate, the time consuming exercise of referring measurements to an external bench mark
The assembly and erection phases are based on the following objectives:
can be avoided.
Normally the assembly is tacked in position to theoretical dimensions using allowable positive
tolerances to compensate for weld shrinkage. Perhaps the most fundamental rule in fitting is
Minimise erection joints in principal structural elements, such as jacket legs, launch
the avoidance of "force-fitting" of members prior to welding or to force stresses into unwelded
runners, rows, levels. Align critical areas such as conductor guides, pile sleeves,
members through the welding sequence since such conditions cannot have been foreseen by
launch runners.
the designer.
Sub-assemble principal structural elements of jacket such as jacket legs, rows, levels.
Sub-assemble, and where possible pre-test, systems such as grouting, ballasting.
caissons. Coat or paint required areas (top of jacket, risers) prior to erection.
Minimise the use of temporary items which require subsequent removal, such as
Rough setting of assembly main structure and position tacking. Dimensional control of
assembly main structure.
scaffolding, walkways, lifting aids, etc. and pre-install such aids where they are
necessary.
The assembly of a jacket frame often having a spread at the base of 50m or more, places
severe demands on field layout and survey and on temporary support and adjustment
bracing. Such large dimensions mean that the thermal changes can be significant.
Temperature differences may be as great as 30C between dawn and afternoon and as much
as 15C between various parts of the structure, resulting in several centimetres distortion.
temporary attachments.
However, the practice of 'using the sun' to fit elements which are not dimensionally in-
tolerance is common in the field. This procedure in itself tends to induce residual stresses in
Blasting and painting or touch up. Removal of temporary assembly supports and
the structure. Because of the difficulty associated with thermal distortion, it is normal to
"correct" all measurements to a standard temperature, e.g. 20 C.
staging.
Elastic deflections are also a source of difficulty in maintaining tolerances in the location of
nodes. Foundation displacements under the skid beams and temporary erection skids must
In this phase assembled, sub-assembled and fabricated structures, together with loose items,
are incorporated into the final structure according to the sequence outlined in Figure 3a - 3e.
The overall assembly sequence and programme requires that each assembly be completed
prior to lifting. It is normal to determine the exact location, orientation and attitude, i.e. face-up
or face-down, of each assembly in the field in anticipation of its lifting procedure.
Assembly layout drawings are usually prepared showing central co-ordinates for each
assembly. The central co-ordinates are then used as local bench marks with the object of
defining the assembly, the sub-assemblies, loose items, appurtenances and temporary
attachments which comprise, field welds, overall dimensions, weight, reference drawings, etc.
Page 11 of 22
Page 12 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
Page 13 of 22
Page 14 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
Page 13 of 22
Page 14 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
analysed for a number of load cases which correspond (approximately) to the support
conditions of the assembly at its presumed critical attitudes, i.e. the locations of the cranes,
bogies, saddles, etc. when the panel is being transported and when it is in horizontal and
vertical attitudes. The structural analysis for lift/transport identifies the worst cases from the
point of view of structural response. These cases are then analysed to determine the
maximum stresses and displacements. The calculations should show that global and local
stresses are within allowable limits according to API/AISC codes.
Frequently, a structural analysis computer programme is used for this purpose. The analysis
will indicate where bending stresses are high and/or crane, bogie or support loads
inadmissible. Thus modifications can be made to redistribute structural stresses and loads at
"supports" to optimise both and ensure that neither the cranes nor the structure can be
overloaded during erection.
An outline sequence for the erection of all major components would be:
Jacket frames are typically laid out flat and then rolled using multiple crawler cranes. Co-
ordinating such a rigging and lifting operation requires thoroughly developed threedimensional layouts, firm and level foundations for the cranes and experienced, well
Preparation of cranes for lift. Preparation for rigging. Transport assembly to lift
location. Roll-up into position with scaffolding and staging in position, if possible.
rehearsed operators.
Preparation of fixing system and wind bracing (usually done by means of guy wires
and turnbuckles). Weldout at least sufficient to allow crane release.
Twenty four cranes were involved in the two major side frame lifts during the erection of
platform Cerveza, which was 300m long.
Jacket structural completion is followed by a short phase during which all the jacket systems,
For the Magnus platform and Bouri DP3, a different procedure known as "toast rack" was
used. Here the jacket horizontal levels were fabricated, erected in place and tied in to
complete the jacket.
both permanent and those required during installation, are completed and rendered
functional. The load-out operations are covered in Lecture 15A.9: Installation.
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
For the Bullwinkle jacket, one of the world's largest, sections of the jacket were fabricated in
Japan, transported by barge to Texas and assembled using jacking towers which rolled up
For jackets destined for shallow water erection is usually carried out vertically, i.e. in the same
attitude as the final installation. Such jackets may be lifted onto the barge or skidded out. In
this latter case, adequate temporary pads and braces must be provided under the columns to
distribute the loads for skidding.
Each phase of execution has its own engineering requirements which are determined
by the processes executed during that phase.
The structural analysis associated with the erection procedure for a given assembly usually
involves a computer model with all relevant structural characteristics. The assembly is
Page 15 of 22
The specifications for fabrication of offshore jackets are determined by the designer
and are usually based on one or more of the well known codes.
Page 16 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
analysed for a number of load cases which correspond (approximately) to the support
conditions of the assembly at its presumed critical attitudes, i.e. the locations of the cranes,
bogies, saddles, etc. when the panel is being transported and when it is in horizontal and
vertical attitudes. The structural analysis for lift/transport identifies the worst cases from the
point of view of structural response. These cases are then analysed to determine the
maximum stresses and displacements. The calculations should show that global and local
stresses are within allowable limits according to API/AISC codes.
Frequently, a structural analysis computer programme is used for this purpose. The analysis
will indicate where bending stresses are high and/or crane, bogie or support loads
inadmissible. Thus modifications can be made to redistribute structural stresses and loads at
"supports" to optimise both and ensure that neither the cranes nor the structure can be
overloaded during erection.
An outline sequence for the erection of all major components would be:
Jacket frames are typically laid out flat and then rolled using multiple crawler cranes. Co-
ordinating such a rigging and lifting operation requires thoroughly developed threedimensional layouts, firm and level foundations for the cranes and experienced, well
Preparation of cranes for lift. Preparation for rigging. Transport assembly to lift
location. Roll-up into position with scaffolding and staging in position, if possible.
rehearsed operators.
Preparation of fixing system and wind bracing (usually done by means of guy wires
and turnbuckles). Weldout at least sufficient to allow crane release.
Twenty four cranes were involved in the two major side frame lifts during the erection of
platform Cerveza, which was 300m long.
Jacket structural completion is followed by a short phase during which all the jacket systems,
For the Magnus platform and Bouri DP3, a different procedure known as "toast rack" was
used. Here the jacket horizontal levels were fabricated, erected in place and tied in to
complete the jacket.
both permanent and those required during installation, are completed and rendered
functional. The load-out operations are covered in Lecture 15A.9: Installation.
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
For the Bullwinkle jacket, one of the world's largest, sections of the jacket were fabricated in
Japan, transported by barge to Texas and assembled using jacking towers which rolled up
For jackets destined for shallow water erection is usually carried out vertically, i.e. in the same
attitude as the final installation. Such jackets may be lifted onto the barge or skidded out. In
this latter case, adequate temporary pads and braces must be provided under the columns to
distribute the loads for skidding.
Each phase of execution has its own engineering requirements which are determined
by the processes executed during that phase.
The structural analysis associated with the erection procedure for a given assembly usually
involves a computer model with all relevant structural characteristics. The assembly is
Page 15 of 22
The specifications for fabrication of offshore jackets are determined by the designer
and are usually based on one or more of the well known codes.
Page 16 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
Shop fabricated sub-assemblies and hose items are incorporated into assemblies
APPENDIX 1
Assembled, sub-assembled and fabricated structures, together with loose items, are
incorporated into the final structure in a sequence which takes account of structural
analyses of bending stresses, and crane, bogie and support loads.
6. REFERENCES
ISO 9000/EN 29000, Standard for Quality Systems Management, is recognised as the
[1] API RP2A, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Construction of Fixed
accepted standard in such situations. These standards set down the requirements that a
soundly based quality management system must fulfil if it is to assist in properly defining and
controlling product quality. Because the standards deal with the quality system, and are not
Engineering design principles and practices that have evolved during the development of
product standards, they are applicable to many sectors of industry including offshore
construction. They apply in any situation where management wish to adopt a clearly defined
policy and an orderly approach to providing a quality product.
[2] AISC Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for
Buildings, latest edition.
API code refers to this specification for calculations of basic allowable stresses of all jacket
members.
7. ADDITIONAL READING
[1] Det Norkse Veritas Marine Operations Recommended Practice RP5 - Lifting (June 1985).
Principles and good practice for offshore heavy lifts.
[2] AWS Structural Welding Code AWS D1.1-88.
All jacket welding and weld procedure qualifications are required by the API code to be
undertaken in accordance with this code.
Design
Product Traceability
Contract Review
Process Control
Documentation Control
Inspection/Testing
Management Responsibility
Calibration of Equipment
Purchasing
Control of Non-Conformances
Corrective Action
Handling/Storage/Delivery
Quality Records
Training
Management Review/Audits
Etc.
QA Management Complexity
[3] Det Norske Veritas, Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore
Structures, 1977.
The overall programme for a jacket construction, shows that there are a very considerable
number of offshore activities in many different locations within a very short period of time. The
evaluation of the performance of such a range of activities and at a number of centres is a
[4] Lloyd's Register of Shipping, Rules and Regulations for the Classification of Fixed
Offshore Installations, 1989.
to a single node. From the time the plate is manufactured until it is located in the final
structure, a dossier must be compiled. This documentation could commence with copies of
certificates from the steel plate manufacturer and progress through several welding, NDT,
Page 17 of 22
Page 18 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
Shop fabricated sub-assemblies and hose items are incorporated into assemblies
APPENDIX 1
Assembled, sub-assembled and fabricated structures, together with loose items, are
incorporated into the final structure in a sequence which takes account of structural
analyses of bending stresses, and crane, bogie and support loads.
6. REFERENCES
ISO 9000/EN 29000, Standard for Quality Systems Management, is recognised as the
[1] API RP2A, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Construction of Fixed
accepted standard in such situations. These standards set down the requirements that a
soundly based quality management system must fulfil if it is to assist in properly defining and
controlling product quality. Because the standards deal with the quality system, and are not
Engineering design principles and practices that have evolved during the development of
product standards, they are applicable to many sectors of industry including offshore
construction. They apply in any situation where management wish to adopt a clearly defined
policy and an orderly approach to providing a quality product.
[2] AISC Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for
Buildings, latest edition.
API code refers to this specification for calculations of basic allowable stresses of all jacket
members.
7. ADDITIONAL READING
[1] Det Norkse Veritas Marine Operations Recommended Practice RP5 - Lifting (June 1985).
Principles and good practice for offshore heavy lifts.
[2] AWS Structural Welding Code AWS D1.1-88.
All jacket welding and weld procedure qualifications are required by the API code to be
undertaken in accordance with this code.
Design
Product Traceability
Contract Review
Process Control
Documentation Control
Inspection/Testing
Management Responsibility
Calibration of Equipment
Purchasing
Control of Non-Conformances
Corrective Action
Handling/Storage/Delivery
Quality Records
Training
Management Review/Audits
Etc.
QA Management Complexity
[3] Det Norske Veritas, Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore
Structures, 1977.
The overall programme for a jacket construction, shows that there are a very considerable
number of offshore activities in many different locations within a very short period of time. The
evaluation of the performance of such a range of activities and at a number of centres is a
[4] Lloyd's Register of Shipping, Rules and Regulations for the Classification of Fixed
Offshore Installations, 1989.
to a single node. From the time the plate is manufactured until it is located in the final
structure, a dossier must be compiled. This documentation could commence with copies of
certificates from the steel plate manufacturer and progress through several welding, NDT,
Page 17 of 22
Page 18 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
Certification
primary structure, risers, etc. These documents may be useful during maintenance of the
and certified as such. This certification is also almost invariably required by the state
authorities in whose waters the plant is installed. It is normally performed by one of the
during construction. Construction of a large jacket typically involves thousands of steel plates.
traditional ship classification societies known as the Certifying Authority (CA). In the widest
sense, certification requires that the CA carry out independent surveillance to ensure that the
to a Material Utilisation Schedule or Cutting Plan. The individual number of pieces of plate
standards chosen for the project are satisfactory and that the project is performed in
could be in excess of 20,000 items. The primary object of material control is to ensure that, at
accordance with them. Formerly this meant that the CA inspected every activity likely to
any stage of construction, the origin of each and every item can be traced back to a material
influence the adequacy of the final product - an enormous task. More recently with the advent
of QA, the certification function can mean audits of the construction so that, rather than
the Data Dossier. However, voluminous as this documentation may be, it constitutes less than
inspect everything, the CA satisfies himself that the manner in which the construction is being
half of the total documentation produced for a complete jacket. Consider for instance the
managed and performed (based on incomplete but comprehensive inspection) is likely to lead
number of welds in a complex buoyancy tank, the walkways on top of the jacket, the anodes,
to a satisfactory product.
launch runners, grout lines, etc. Each of these must be welded, several must be individually
Table 1 Jacket Construction Phases and Characteristics
Work Centre
Efficiency
Engineering
Office
Decreasing
Increasing
Increasing
Procurement
Factory
Decreasing
Increasing
Increasing
Fabrication
Fabrication Shop
Decreasing
Increasing
Increasing
Yard Site
Decreasing
Increasing
Increasing
Transition
Decreasing
Increasing
Increasing
Offshore Site
Decreasing
Increasing
Increasing
and that the identification system be simple. In actual practice it has proven to be very difficult
to make all materials really traceable. Much more could be done to structure such
Quality
Phase
Variability
Risk
documentation in such a way that it would really be of help throughout the platform life.
Procedures and Specifications
Within the Contractor's organisation QA/QC procedures must be developed for the project,
many of which will be specifically for jacket construction. These are divided into Management
Assembly and
Erection
Onshore, etc.) and Control Procedures (e.g. Procedure for Ultrasonic Testing of welds at
Jacket Yard, Dimensional Control Procedure for Node Fabrication at factory etc.).
Loadout and
Construction Procedures/Specifications are also required (e.g. Jacket Assembly and Erection
Seafastening
Procedure, Pile Installation Procedure, etc.) in addition to a vast number of weld procedure
Transport and
Installation
Even if the number of specific procedures required from each subcontractor is minimised, a
fabrication subcontractor will still be required to develop procedure and specifications for the
following typical functions/activities: subcontract organisation, material control, fabrication
method/sequence, procedures for cutting, forming, pre-heating, post-weld heat treatment
along with the more obvious welding and NDT procedures and Inspection Plans. Typically
hundreds of procedures/specifications must be developed by jacket subcontractors.
Page 19 of 22
Page 20 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
Certification
primary structure, risers, etc. These documents may be useful during maintenance of the
and certified as such. This certification is also almost invariably required by the state
authorities in whose waters the plant is installed. It is normally performed by one of the
during construction. Construction of a large jacket typically involves thousands of steel plates.
traditional ship classification societies known as the Certifying Authority (CA). In the widest
sense, certification requires that the CA carry out independent surveillance to ensure that the
to a Material Utilisation Schedule or Cutting Plan. The individual number of pieces of plate
standards chosen for the project are satisfactory and that the project is performed in
could be in excess of 20,000 items. The primary object of material control is to ensure that, at
accordance with them. Formerly this meant that the CA inspected every activity likely to
any stage of construction, the origin of each and every item can be traced back to a material
influence the adequacy of the final product - an enormous task. More recently with the advent
of QA, the certification function can mean audits of the construction so that, rather than
the Data Dossier. However, voluminous as this documentation may be, it constitutes less than
inspect everything, the CA satisfies himself that the manner in which the construction is being
half of the total documentation produced for a complete jacket. Consider for instance the
managed and performed (based on incomplete but comprehensive inspection) is likely to lead
number of welds in a complex buoyancy tank, the walkways on top of the jacket, the anodes,
to a satisfactory product.
launch runners, grout lines, etc. Each of these must be welded, several must be individually
Table 1 Jacket Construction Phases and Characteristics
Work Centre
Efficiency
Engineering
Office
Decreasing
Increasing
Increasing
Procurement
Factory
Decreasing
Increasing
Increasing
Fabrication
Fabrication Shop
Decreasing
Increasing
Increasing
Yard Site
Decreasing
Increasing
Increasing
Transition
Decreasing
Increasing
Increasing
Offshore Site
Decreasing
Increasing
Increasing
and that the identification system be simple. In actual practice it has proven to be very difficult
to make all materials really traceable. Much more could be done to structure such
Quality
Phase
Variability
Risk
documentation in such a way that it would really be of help throughout the platform life.
Procedures and Specifications
Within the Contractor's organisation QA/QC procedures must be developed for the project,
many of which will be specifically for jacket construction. These are divided into Management
Assembly and
Erection
Onshore, etc.) and Control Procedures (e.g. Procedure for Ultrasonic Testing of welds at
Jacket Yard, Dimensional Control Procedure for Node Fabrication at factory etc.).
Loadout and
Construction Procedures/Specifications are also required (e.g. Jacket Assembly and Erection
Seafastening
Procedure, Pile Installation Procedure, etc.) in addition to a vast number of weld procedure
Transport and
Installation
Even if the number of specific procedures required from each subcontractor is minimised, a
fabrication subcontractor will still be required to develop procedure and specifications for the
following typical functions/activities: subcontract organisation, material control, fabrication
method/sequence, procedures for cutting, forming, pre-heating, post-weld heat treatment
along with the more obvious welding and NDT procedures and Inspection Plans. Typically
hundreds of procedures/specifications must be developed by jacket subcontractors.
Page 19 of 22
Page 20 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
Manuals
No.
Document Series
Weld Procedures
Design
Reports,
Reviews
and Specifications
piles,
drawings.
2
Method
and
Temporary
Works Drawings
Subassemblies,
assemblies,
supports,
Engineering Meetings
9
transportation,
Erection
identification,
witness
and
hold
distribution
points,
Inspection plan
and
technical
relevant centres).
control,
material
identification
and
11
Technical
Proposals
and
Non-Conformance
and
approval,
launching
Procedures
jacket
Assurance
tanks,
access,
Quality
buoyancy
dimensional
control,
destructive
testing
Resolutions
miscellaneous testing.
Page 21 of 22
Page 22 of 22
Lecture 15A.8
Lecture 15A.8
Manuals
No.
Document Series
Weld Procedures
Design
Reports,
Reviews
and Specifications
piles,
drawings.
2
Method
and
Temporary
Works Drawings
Subassemblies,
assemblies,
supports,
Engineering Meetings
9
transportation,
Erection
identification,
witness
and
hold
distribution
points,
Inspection plan
and
technical
relevant centres).
control,
material
identification
and
11
Technical
Proposals
and
Non-Conformance
and
approval,
launching
Procedures
jacket
Assurance
tanks,
access,
Quality
buoyancy
dimensional
control,
destructive
testing
Resolutions
miscellaneous testing.
Page 21 of 22
Page 22 of 22
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
Installation - Comprises the series of activities required to place the structure in the final
Installation
offshore location. These activities include jacket lift and upending, positioning, pile installation,
OBJECTIVE
jacket levelling and grouting, together with support services for these activities.
To describe the general methods of jacket installation. To discuss the various stages of
operation from loadout through offshore positioning and installation, including construction
practices and equipment. To indicate the calculations normally involved.
In deciding how best to fabricate (i.e. vertical or on its side) and install (i.e. lifted, launched or
self-floating) a given jacket, the options are principally determined by the installation
equipment available and the jacket's intended water depth. In general, the preference is to lift
PREREQUISITES
the jacket into location. The motivation for this installation method, rather than the more
traditional barge-launching, is a reluctance to spend money on jacket steelwork which will
only be used during the temporary installation phase. The size of such lifted jackets has been
RELATED LECTURES
increasing as offshore lifting capacity has grown. With modern lifting capacity now up to
14000 tonnes (see Table 1), jackets approaching this order of magnitude are now candidates
Figure 1 shows how the 6000 tonne jacket for the Kittiwake field in the North Sea was lifted
from the barge into the water and up-ended in a continuous operation, ending with the jacket
on the seabed ready for piling. The advantage of this approach is that the jacket, being
lowered into the water, does not require the launch frames necessary for launching from a
barge. Also, since the weight of the jacket is taken by the cranes throughout, there is no need
for special buoyancy tanks and deballasting systems.
Page 1 of 19
Page 2 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
Installation - Comprises the series of activities required to place the structure in the final
Installation
offshore location. These activities include jacket lift and upending, positioning, pile installation,
OBJECTIVE
jacket levelling and grouting, together with support services for these activities.
To describe the general methods of jacket installation. To discuss the various stages of
operation from loadout through offshore positioning and installation, including construction
practices and equipment. To indicate the calculations normally involved.
In deciding how best to fabricate (i.e. vertical or on its side) and install (i.e. lifted, launched or
self-floating) a given jacket, the options are principally determined by the installation
equipment available and the jacket's intended water depth. In general, the preference is to lift
PREREQUISITES
the jacket into location. The motivation for this installation method, rather than the more
traditional barge-launching, is a reluctance to spend money on jacket steelwork which will
only be used during the temporary installation phase. The size of such lifted jackets has been
RELATED LECTURES
increasing as offshore lifting capacity has grown. With modern lifting capacity now up to
14000 tonnes (see Table 1), jackets approaching this order of magnitude are now candidates
Figure 1 shows how the 6000 tonne jacket for the Kittiwake field in the North Sea was lifted
from the barge into the water and up-ended in a continuous operation, ending with the jacket
on the seabed ready for piling. The advantage of this approach is that the jacket, being
lowered into the water, does not require the launch frames necessary for launching from a
barge. Also, since the weight of the jacket is taken by the cranes throughout, there is no need
for special buoyancy tanks and deballasting systems.
Page 1 of 19
Page 2 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
Jackets destined for deeper water are heavier and are usually erected on their side and
launched from a barge (Figure 2). This method of construction is currently applicable for
jackets up to 25000 tonnes. A launched jacket usually requires additional buoyancy tanks with
extensive pipework and valving to enable the legs and tanks to be flooded in order to ballast
the jacket into the vertical position on site. For instance, in the case of the Brae 'B' jacket (a
large 19000 tonne jacket installed in 100m water depth in the North Sea) it was necessary to
provide 11000 tonnes of additional buoyancy. This buoyancy was primarily to limit the jacket
trajectory through launch (i.e. to stop it hitting the sea bed) but was also essential for
maintaining bottom clearance during up-ending. The additional buoyancy took the form of two
'saddle' tanks, two pairs of twin 'piggy-bank tanks' and twelve 'cigar' tubes installed down the
pile guides (Figure 3). Altogether the auxiliary buoyancy added about 3,300 tonnes additional
weight to the jacket.
Page 3 of 19
Page 4 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
Jackets destined for deeper water are heavier and are usually erected on their side and
launched from a barge (Figure 2). This method of construction is currently applicable for
jackets up to 25000 tonnes. A launched jacket usually requires additional buoyancy tanks with
extensive pipework and valving to enable the legs and tanks to be flooded in order to ballast
the jacket into the vertical position on site. For instance, in the case of the Brae 'B' jacket (a
large 19000 tonne jacket installed in 100m water depth in the North Sea) it was necessary to
provide 11000 tonnes of additional buoyancy. This buoyancy was primarily to limit the jacket
trajectory through launch (i.e. to stop it hitting the sea bed) but was also essential for
maintaining bottom clearance during up-ending. The additional buoyancy took the form of two
'saddle' tanks, two pairs of twin 'piggy-bank tanks' and twelve 'cigar' tubes installed down the
pile guides (Figure 3). Altogether the auxiliary buoyancy added about 3,300 tonnes additional
weight to the jacket.
Page 3 of 19
Page 4 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
Very large jackets, in excess of launch capacity, have been constructed as self-floaters in a
graving dock, towed offshore subsequent to flooding the dock, and installed on location by
means of controlled flooding of the legs (see Figure 4).
Page 5 of 19
Page 6 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
Very large jackets, in excess of launch capacity, have been constructed as self-floaters in a
graving dock, towed offshore subsequent to flooding the dock, and installed on location by
means of controlled flooding of the legs (see Figure 4).
Page 5 of 19
Page 6 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
An installation plan must be prepared for each installation. The plan will include the method
Initial friction of the jacket on the skid ways may be as high as 15 per cent, especially if the
and procedures developed for the loadout, seafastening and transportation and for the
jacket has been erected with its weight bearing continuously on the skid way. In some cases
complete installation of the jacket, piles, superstructure and equipment. Depending on the
the jacket is initially fabricated slightly above the skid ways using hydraulic or sand jacks.
complexity of the installation, detailed procedures and instructions may be needed for special
Then, at the time of loadout, the jacket is lowered onto the skid ways. To reduce the sliding
items such as grouting, diving, welding inspections, etc. Limitations on the various operations
friction, grease on hardwood, or heavy lubricating oil on steel, or even fibre-filled Teflon faced
due to factors such as environmental conditions, barge stability, lifting capacity, etc. must be
pads, are used. Values of sliding friction as low as 3 per cent are usually attained.
defined. The installation plan is normally subdivided into phases, e.g., loadout, seafastening,
The barge should be of adequate size and structural strength to ensure that the stability and
static and dynamic stresses in the barge and seafastenings due to the loading operation and
Installation drawings, specifications and procedures must be prepared showing all the
during transportation remain within acceptable limits. The barge must also have the capability
pertinent information necessary for construction of the total facility on location at sea. These
to launch the jacket, if this is required, without the use of a derrick barge. For a barge which
drawings typically include details of all inspection aids such as lifting eyes, launch runners or
floats during the loadout, the ballast system must be capable of compensating the changes in
trusses, jacking brackets, stabbing points, etc. For jackets installed by flotation or launching,
tide and loading. It is usual in this case to load out on a rising tide so that the tide assists the
ballast system. In the case of a barge which will be grounded during loadout, the barge must
addition, details are also provided for piping, valving and controls of the flotation system, etc.
have sufficient structural strength to distribute the concentrated deck loads to the supporting
foundation material.
The engineering input into an offshore installation project also involves the design of all
The jacket must be loaded in such a manner that the barge is in a balanced and stable
temporary bracing, seafastenings, rigging, slings, shackles and installation aids, etc. These
condition. Barge stability can be determined in accordance with regulations such as those
must be designed in accordance with an approved offshore design code, e.g. API RP2A [1].
published by Noble Denton, The American Bureau of Shipping, or the US Coast Guard.
Allowable static and dynamic stresses in the barge hull and framing due to loadout,
Quality management is a vital and integral component of all offshore installation projects. A
general note on Quality Assurance for Offshore Construction is appended to Lecture 15A.8 :
A simplified check list for the operations relating to jacket loadout might be:
1. Is the jacket complete? Has the structure been analysed for loadout stresses on the
Loadout entails the movement of the completed structure onto the barge which will transport it
2. Is the launch barge securely moored to the loadout dock, so that it won't move out
during the loading? Is the barge properly moored against sideways movement?
3. If compression struts are used between the barge skid ways and those on shore, are
Jackets which have been fabricated on their side are usually loaded by skidding the entire
structure onto a cargo or launch barge. During loadout, the jacket is supported on the skid
ways, usually on two inner legs of the jacket, see Fig. 9 of Lecture 15A.1. The legs function as
the bottom chord of a large truss, which can span between points of support, especially when
part of the jacket is on the barge and part still on the skid ways.
they accurately aligned and supported so they won't kick out during loadout? Have
the pull lines, shackles, and pad eyes been inspected to ensure they are properly
installed and can't foul during loadout?
4. Can the barge be properly ballasted? If the tide will vary during loadout, are ballasting
arrangements adequate? Will ballast be adjusted as the weight of the jacket goes
onto the barge? Are there proper controls? Is there an adequate standby ballast
Where jackets are fabricated in the vertical, i.e. in the same attitude as the final installation,
they may be lifted onto the barge or skidded out. In this latter case, adequate temporary pads
and braces must be provided under the columns to distribute the loads during skidding.
Page 7 of 19
system? Are there back-up systems to pull the jacket back to shore if anything goes
wrong during loadout? If the ballast correction is to be made iteratively, step-by-step
as the jacket is loaded, are there clear paint marks so that each step can be clearly
identified?
Page 8 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
An installation plan must be prepared for each installation. The plan will include the method
Initial friction of the jacket on the skid ways may be as high as 15 per cent, especially if the
and procedures developed for the loadout, seafastening and transportation and for the
jacket has been erected with its weight bearing continuously on the skid way. In some cases
complete installation of the jacket, piles, superstructure and equipment. Depending on the
the jacket is initially fabricated slightly above the skid ways using hydraulic or sand jacks.
complexity of the installation, detailed procedures and instructions may be needed for special
Then, at the time of loadout, the jacket is lowered onto the skid ways. To reduce the sliding
items such as grouting, diving, welding inspections, etc. Limitations on the various operations
friction, grease on hardwood, or heavy lubricating oil on steel, or even fibre-filled Teflon faced
due to factors such as environmental conditions, barge stability, lifting capacity, etc. must be
pads, are used. Values of sliding friction as low as 3 per cent are usually attained.
defined. The installation plan is normally subdivided into phases, e.g., loadout, seafastening,
The barge should be of adequate size and structural strength to ensure that the stability and
static and dynamic stresses in the barge and seafastenings due to the loading operation and
Installation drawings, specifications and procedures must be prepared showing all the
during transportation remain within acceptable limits. The barge must also have the capability
pertinent information necessary for construction of the total facility on location at sea. These
to launch the jacket, if this is required, without the use of a derrick barge. For a barge which
drawings typically include details of all inspection aids such as lifting eyes, launch runners or
floats during the loadout, the ballast system must be capable of compensating the changes in
trusses, jacking brackets, stabbing points, etc. For jackets installed by flotation or launching,
tide and loading. It is usual in this case to load out on a rising tide so that the tide assists the
ballast system. In the case of a barge which will be grounded during loadout, the barge must
addition, details are also provided for piping, valving and controls of the flotation system, etc.
have sufficient structural strength to distribute the concentrated deck loads to the supporting
foundation material.
The engineering input into an offshore installation project also involves the design of all
The jacket must be loaded in such a manner that the barge is in a balanced and stable
temporary bracing, seafastenings, rigging, slings, shackles and installation aids, etc. These
condition. Barge stability can be determined in accordance with regulations such as those
must be designed in accordance with an approved offshore design code, e.g. API RP2A [1].
published by Noble Denton, The American Bureau of Shipping, or the US Coast Guard.
Allowable static and dynamic stresses in the barge hull and framing due to loadout,
Quality management is a vital and integral component of all offshore installation projects. A
general note on Quality Assurance for Offshore Construction is appended to Lecture 15A.8 :
A simplified check list for the operations relating to jacket loadout might be:
1. Is the jacket complete? Has the structure been analysed for loadout stresses on the
Loadout entails the movement of the completed structure onto the barge which will transport it
2. Is the launch barge securely moored to the loadout dock, so that it won't move out
during the loading? Is the barge properly moored against sideways movement?
3. If compression struts are used between the barge skid ways and those on shore, are
Jackets which have been fabricated on their side are usually loaded by skidding the entire
structure onto a cargo or launch barge. During loadout, the jacket is supported on the skid
ways, usually on two inner legs of the jacket, see Fig. 9 of Lecture 15A.1. The legs function as
the bottom chord of a large truss, which can span between points of support, especially when
part of the jacket is on the barge and part still on the skid ways.
they accurately aligned and supported so they won't kick out during loadout? Have
the pull lines, shackles, and pad eyes been inspected to ensure they are properly
installed and can't foul during loadout?
4. Can the barge be properly ballasted? If the tide will vary during loadout, are ballasting
arrangements adequate? Will ballast be adjusted as the weight of the jacket goes
onto the barge? Are there proper controls? Is there an adequate standby ballast
Where jackets are fabricated in the vertical, i.e. in the same attitude as the final installation,
they may be lifted onto the barge or skidded out. In this latter case, adequate temporary pads
and braces must be provided under the columns to distribute the loads during skidding.
Page 7 of 19
system? Are there back-up systems to pull the jacket back to shore if anything goes
wrong during loadout? If the ballast correction is to be made iteratively, step-by-step
as the jacket is loaded, are there clear paint marks so that each step can be clearly
identified?
Page 8 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
5. Have clear lines of supervision and control been established? Are the voice radio
channels checked? Have the marine surveyors been notified so that they can be
the design of the jacket itself. Also there are the practical aspects of tug selection, tow route,
etc. to be considered.
received?
arrangement must be calculated or determined from past experience. Tug selection involves
Once the jacket is on the barge, the barge must be ballasted for transportation. During
such considerations as length of tow route, proximity of safe harbours and the anticipated
loadout, many tanks will be partially full, in order to control deck elevation and trim. However,
weather conditions and sea states. As a minimum the tugs should be capable of maintaining
with the jacket fully supported on the barge, these considerations are no longer relevant and
station in a 15 metre/second wind with accompanying waves. However, this criterion depends
the tanks can be ballasted to suit the demands of the sea voyage. Ballast tanks should
on the location. For instance, the requirement in the Mediterranean is typically that the main
normally either be full or completely empty, to eliminate free surface and sloshing effects. The
tug should maintain station against a 20 metre/second wind, 5,0m significant sea-state and
draft and freeboard will have been carefully selected to maximise stability, and especially to
minimise submersion of projecting members of the jacket during the tow and the consequent
the tow so that, if exceptional weather threatens, a pre-arranged port of refuge may be
sought.
Large jacket launch and cargo barges are relatively flexible structures in that the jacket
Experience has shown that the first phase of transportation is the most treacherous. There
structure is normally (much) stiffer. Therefore, ballasting the barge to obtain the required draft
are several reasons for this. In the harbour area a big tug can normally exercise very little
and trim should preferably be done at the dock side before seafastenings are attached. If one
control even with a shortened towline. With a short towline between two considerable
scheme of ballasting is to be used for a sheltered channel tow and another for the open sea,
masses, the large tug and the much larger barge/jacket, the risk of snapping is high. Thus it is
the seafastenings should be freed during the reballasting to avoid imposing undue stresses
standard practice to lengthen the towline once out of the port. Also, because of the nature of
on the jacket legs or, alternatively, calculations should be performed to demonstrate that
many ports, close control is essential in order to avoid the possibility of running aground.
Normally, therefore, the harbour tugs take the barge out under the guidance of a pilot who
knows the port. When the barge is out of the port the problems are not totally solved since it
Seafastenings are installed after loadout and must be completed prior to sailaway. They are
must be assumed that the worst can happen, i.e. the towline may break.
major structural systems, subjected to both static and dynamic loads. When the barge is on
the high seas it must be assumed that it can encounter conditions which are "as bad as could
The tug must have sufficient time to pick up the emergency towline and control the barge
have been statistically foreseen". Accordingly, the gravity and inertial forces involved must be
before it drifts into shallow water. Thus the departure is normally subject to strict weather
calculated for all anticipated barge accelerations and angles of roll and pitch during the design
forecast conditions for a period which assumes that the speed of the tow is between 1 and 2
sea conditions adopted for the tow (usually the 10-year return storm for that season and
knots for the first 100 nautical miles from the coast. Consequently, as a minimum, a
location). In determining this criteria, the reliability of the short term weather forecast should
be considered. Since the loads are dynamic, impact must be minimised. Seafastenings
should be attached to the jacket only at locations approved by the designer. They should be
Once the tow is under way, trim will be adjusted to optimise tow speed and give directional
attached to the barge at locations which are capable of distributing the load to the barge
stability during tow. Usually the barge will be trimmed down by the stern.
internal framing. They should also be designed to facilitate easy removal on location.
Seafastenings are normally subject to the same code requirements for fabrication as the
jacket.
The behaviour of the jacket seafastened to the barge must be satisfactory both from the point
of view of static and dynamic stability. Both are verified by means of numerical analyses.
However, particularly for larger structures, the sensitivity of the dynamic analysis will usually
3. OFFSHORE TRANSPORTATION
The transportation of heavy components from a fabrication yard to the offshore site is a
The intact static stability criteria usually adopted is that the righting arm be positive throughout
critical activity. It is especially so in the case of the jacket since the behaviour of the unit
a range of 36
about any axis. The so-called dynamic stability of wind overturning criteria
usually influences the verification of barge strength, the design of seafastenings, and indeed
Page 9 of 19
Page 10 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
5. Have clear lines of supervision and control been established? Are the voice radio
channels checked? Have the marine surveyors been notified so that they can be
the design of the jacket itself. Also there are the practical aspects of tug selection, tow route,
etc. to be considered.
received?
arrangement must be calculated or determined from past experience. Tug selection involves
Once the jacket is on the barge, the barge must be ballasted for transportation. During
such considerations as length of tow route, proximity of safe harbours and the anticipated
loadout, many tanks will be partially full, in order to control deck elevation and trim. However,
weather conditions and sea states. As a minimum the tugs should be capable of maintaining
with the jacket fully supported on the barge, these considerations are no longer relevant and
station in a 15 metre/second wind with accompanying waves. However, this criterion depends
the tanks can be ballasted to suit the demands of the sea voyage. Ballast tanks should
on the location. For instance, the requirement in the Mediterranean is typically that the main
normally either be full or completely empty, to eliminate free surface and sloshing effects. The
tug should maintain station against a 20 metre/second wind, 5,0m significant sea-state and
draft and freeboard will have been carefully selected to maximise stability, and especially to
minimise submersion of projecting members of the jacket during the tow and the consequent
the tow so that, if exceptional weather threatens, a pre-arranged port of refuge may be
sought.
Large jacket launch and cargo barges are relatively flexible structures in that the jacket
Experience has shown that the first phase of transportation is the most treacherous. There
structure is normally (much) stiffer. Therefore, ballasting the barge to obtain the required draft
are several reasons for this. In the harbour area a big tug can normally exercise very little
and trim should preferably be done at the dock side before seafastenings are attached. If one
control even with a shortened towline. With a short towline between two considerable
scheme of ballasting is to be used for a sheltered channel tow and another for the open sea,
masses, the large tug and the much larger barge/jacket, the risk of snapping is high. Thus it is
the seafastenings should be freed during the reballasting to avoid imposing undue stresses
standard practice to lengthen the towline once out of the port. Also, because of the nature of
on the jacket legs or, alternatively, calculations should be performed to demonstrate that
many ports, close control is essential in order to avoid the possibility of running aground.
Normally, therefore, the harbour tugs take the barge out under the guidance of a pilot who
knows the port. When the barge is out of the port the problems are not totally solved since it
Seafastenings are installed after loadout and must be completed prior to sailaway. They are
must be assumed that the worst can happen, i.e. the towline may break.
major structural systems, subjected to both static and dynamic loads. When the barge is on
the high seas it must be assumed that it can encounter conditions which are "as bad as could
The tug must have sufficient time to pick up the emergency towline and control the barge
have been statistically foreseen". Accordingly, the gravity and inertial forces involved must be
before it drifts into shallow water. Thus the departure is normally subject to strict weather
calculated for all anticipated barge accelerations and angles of roll and pitch during the design
forecast conditions for a period which assumes that the speed of the tow is between 1 and 2
sea conditions adopted for the tow (usually the 10-year return storm for that season and
knots for the first 100 nautical miles from the coast. Consequently, as a minimum, a
location). In determining this criteria, the reliability of the short term weather forecast should
be considered. Since the loads are dynamic, impact must be minimised. Seafastenings
should be attached to the jacket only at locations approved by the designer. They should be
Once the tow is under way, trim will be adjusted to optimise tow speed and give directional
attached to the barge at locations which are capable of distributing the load to the barge
stability during tow. Usually the barge will be trimmed down by the stern.
internal framing. They should also be designed to facilitate easy removal on location.
Seafastenings are normally subject to the same code requirements for fabrication as the
jacket.
The behaviour of the jacket seafastened to the barge must be satisfactory both from the point
of view of static and dynamic stability. Both are verified by means of numerical analyses.
However, particularly for larger structures, the sensitivity of the dynamic analysis will usually
3. OFFSHORE TRANSPORTATION
The transportation of heavy components from a fabrication yard to the offshore site is a
The intact static stability criteria usually adopted is that the righting arm be positive throughout
critical activity. It is especially so in the case of the jacket since the behaviour of the unit
a range of 36
about any axis. The so-called dynamic stability of wind overturning criteria
usually influences the verification of barge strength, the design of seafastenings, and indeed
Page 9 of 19
Page 10 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
simply ensure that for a given wind, the energy which tends to overturn the barge is at least
The skid ways terminate in rocker arms at the stern of the barge. As the jacket moves along
40% less than that which is available due to the inherent righting stability of the barge.
the skid ways its centre of gravity reaches a point where it is vertically above the rocker arm
pivot. Further movement causes the rocker arm and jacket to rotate. The jacket will then slide
In considering the motions of the jacket and barge it is intuitively plausible that roll will be the
under its own self weight into the water. Various stages in the launch of a jacket are shown in
most problematical motion (from the point of view of body accelerations) and that the largest
Figure 1a to 1d.
roll will be caused by a beam sea. It may be less obvious, but nevertheless true, that if the
barge width and, to a lesser extent the length, are reduced, the roll will diminish and if the
Once in the water the self floating jacket is brought under control with lines from tugs and/or
barge is set at a (much) deeper draft, the roll will also diminish. All of these considerations
reflect static properties of the jacket and barge. Improvements can occasionally be made by
choosing a narrower barge (although obviously stability will suffer) or increasing the draft
The jacket must be designed and fabricated to withstand the stresses caused by the launch.
(although in this case stability may again suffer and parts of the structure which were
This can be achieved either by strengthening those members which might be over-stressed
previously 'dry' may now be subjected to 'slamming'). Incorrect "balancing" of these aspects
by the launching operation, or designing into the jacket a special truss, commonly referred to
can have very serious cost/risk implications in overall project terms. Thus, for a large jacket,
as a launch truss. Spacing between jacket members or launch trusses will be dictated by the
the barge selection process is normally performed at a very early stage of the design process.
spacing between launch skid ways. Thus a jacket will generally be designed from the outset
for installation by a specific barge.
4. OFFSHORE INSTALLATION
Once launched the jacket must float with a reserve of buoyancy in order to stop the downward
This section is concerned with the stages of jacket installation commencing with removal of
momentum of the jacket. This requires the jacket to be water tight. It is common practice to
the jacket from the barge to its placing on the sea bed and temporary on-bottom stability.
gain additional buoyancy by sealing jacket legs and pile sleeves with removable rubber
diaphragms. However, there is frequently a need for even more buoyancy. This is achieved
by adding buoyancy tanks. These need to be removable and are located where they give
most benefit. Buoyancy tanks from previous launches are often used.
Unless a jacket is a self floater, it must first be removed from the transportation barge. There
The launch of a jacket is clearly a critical phase in the life of the jacket. Considerable design
effort is required in order to ensure that the launch sequence is feasible. A jacket launch naval
launch
lift
4.1.1 Launch
The launch site is normally at or near the installation location. With heavy jackets in shallow
water it may be necessary to launch the jacket in deep water at some distance from the
installation location and tow the jacket to site.
ensure that an adequate sliding velocity is maintained during the rocker arm rotation;
check the stability of the jacket during launch and when free floating.
The plots shown in Figures 1a to 1d are extracted from such an analysis. The jacket weight
Immediately prior to launch, the seafastening securing the jacket to the barge is cut. The
jacket is then pulled along the barge skid ways (which were used for loadout) by winches. As
the jacket moves towards the stern of the barge, the barge start to tilt and a point is reached
was 14,000 tonnes and was being installed in 105 metres of water. The analysis showed that
it should take approximately 2 minutes between start of self sliding (Figure 1a) and the jacket
reaching its final floating position (Figure 1d).
when the jacket is self sliding. An initial tilt to the barge may have been provided by ballasting
immediately prior to launch. A stern trim of approximately 5
Page 11 of 19
Page 12 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
simply ensure that for a given wind, the energy which tends to overturn the barge is at least
The skid ways terminate in rocker arms at the stern of the barge. As the jacket moves along
40% less than that which is available due to the inherent righting stability of the barge.
the skid ways its centre of gravity reaches a point where it is vertically above the rocker arm
pivot. Further movement causes the rocker arm and jacket to rotate. The jacket will then slide
In considering the motions of the jacket and barge it is intuitively plausible that roll will be the
under its own self weight into the water. Various stages in the launch of a jacket are shown in
most problematical motion (from the point of view of body accelerations) and that the largest
Figure 1a to 1d.
roll will be caused by a beam sea. It may be less obvious, but nevertheless true, that if the
barge width and, to a lesser extent the length, are reduced, the roll will diminish and if the
Once in the water the self floating jacket is brought under control with lines from tugs and/or
barge is set at a (much) deeper draft, the roll will also diminish. All of these considerations
reflect static properties of the jacket and barge. Improvements can occasionally be made by
choosing a narrower barge (although obviously stability will suffer) or increasing the draft
The jacket must be designed and fabricated to withstand the stresses caused by the launch.
(although in this case stability may again suffer and parts of the structure which were
This can be achieved either by strengthening those members which might be over-stressed
previously 'dry' may now be subjected to 'slamming'). Incorrect "balancing" of these aspects
by the launching operation, or designing into the jacket a special truss, commonly referred to
can have very serious cost/risk implications in overall project terms. Thus, for a large jacket,
as a launch truss. Spacing between jacket members or launch trusses will be dictated by the
the barge selection process is normally performed at a very early stage of the design process.
spacing between launch skid ways. Thus a jacket will generally be designed from the outset
for installation by a specific barge.
4. OFFSHORE INSTALLATION
Once launched the jacket must float with a reserve of buoyancy in order to stop the downward
This section is concerned with the stages of jacket installation commencing with removal of
momentum of the jacket. This requires the jacket to be water tight. It is common practice to
the jacket from the barge to its placing on the sea bed and temporary on-bottom stability.
gain additional buoyancy by sealing jacket legs and pile sleeves with removable rubber
diaphragms. However, there is frequently a need for even more buoyancy. This is achieved
by adding buoyancy tanks. These need to be removable and are located where they give
most benefit. Buoyancy tanks from previous launches are often used.
Unless a jacket is a self floater, it must first be removed from the transportation barge. There
The launch of a jacket is clearly a critical phase in the life of the jacket. Considerable design
effort is required in order to ensure that the launch sequence is feasible. A jacket launch naval
launch
lift
4.1.1 Launch
The launch site is normally at or near the installation location. With heavy jackets in shallow
water it may be necessary to launch the jacket in deep water at some distance from the
installation location and tow the jacket to site.
ensure that an adequate sliding velocity is maintained during the rocker arm rotation;
check the stability of the jacket during launch and when free floating.
The plots shown in Figures 1a to 1d are extracted from such an analysis. The jacket weight
Immediately prior to launch, the seafastening securing the jacket to the barge is cut. The
jacket is then pulled along the barge skid ways (which were used for loadout) by winches. As
the jacket moves towards the stern of the barge, the barge start to tilt and a point is reached
was 14,000 tonnes and was being installed in 105 metres of water. The analysis showed that
it should take approximately 2 minutes between start of self sliding (Figure 1a) and the jacket
reaching its final floating position (Figure 1d).
when the jacket is self sliding. An initial tilt to the barge may have been provided by ballasting
immediately prior to launch. A stern trim of approximately 5
Page 11 of 19
Page 12 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
4.1.2 Lift
which is the most disruptive motion. However, the "best attitude" is not always possible since
it depends on the work that the vessel is required to perform. Accordingly vessel operators
An increasing number of jackets are being installed by direct lift. This trend has been
perform extensive studies to determine permissible sea states for specific operations and
encouraged by the availability of large crane vessels such as the Micoperi 7000. Curves
vessel captains invariably "experiment" with different headings in a particular sea in order to
showing load capacity against lifting radius are shown in Figure 2. Another factor tending to
increase direct lift jackets are savings in weight that are being achieved in jacket design.
The first stages in lifting a jacket from the transportation barge involve positioning the barge
In a direct lift the jacket is lifted off the barge completely in air. A second form of lift is the
and connecting the slings to the hook. The barge will normally be controlled by tugs. Once
buoyancy assisted lift. In this case the barge is flooded and hence submerged. This results in
everything is ready for lift to proceed the seafastenings will be cut. The next stage is to
part of the jacket being buoyant, reducing hook loads. Buoyancy tanks may be added to the
transfer the weight of the jacket from the barge to the crane. The general requirement here is
jacket if required.
to lift as rapidly as possible. However, careful control and phasing with barge and crane
Shallow water jackets may be lifted in the vertical position. In this case no up-ending is
required and installation is straight forward. Deep water jackets will in general be lifted on
their side. Two cranes will normally be used, noting that large derrick barges such as the
vessel motions is required in order to ensure that once the jacket is lifted clear of the barge it
does not hit the barge as a subsequent wave passes through. The same lift procedure is
adopted in both a direct and buoyancy assisted lift.
Micoperi 7000 are fitted with two cranes as standard. When considering a tandem lift it should
Once the jacket is lifted clear of the barge, the barge is removed by tugs. Up-ending of the
be noted that it is unlikely that both hooks will carry the same load, and that the maximum
permissible jacket weight will be less than the sum of the two crane capacities. It should also
be noted that cranes are frequently guyed back to give maximum lift capacity and carry less
load if they are revolving. This can further reduce the apparent lift capacity. Finally, the weight
of lifting slings need to be considered, these contributing as much as 7% of the lift weight.
Unless a jacket is transported and lifted in its upright position, it will be necessary to up-end
the jacket at the installation location. Up-ending may be achieved by controlled flooding of
When the jacket is to be removed from the transportation barge by lifting, it is normal for the
installation vessel to be correctly moored and positioned so that up-ending and set-down may
proceed as one integral lift operation.
The selection of a suitable installation vessel is clearly essential. In addition to lift capacity, it
A large crane vessel will not normally be required for either a launched or self-floating jacket.
is also necessary to consider stability and motion response characteristics. In the harsh North
Upending is therefore achieved by controlled flooding. A small installation vessel will usually
Sea environments installation vessels are usually semi-submersibles such as the Micoperi
be required for the installation of piles once the jacket has been set-down, so this is used as
7000. In more moderate waters they are often flat bottomed barges. In intermediate
the platform from which to control the various flooding operations. This installation vessel will
The large semi-submersible crane vessels used in the North Sea have full dynamic
Figure 3 shows a sketch of the Brae 'B' jacket showing the auxiliary buoyancy tanks. In this
positioning systems for locating themselves on site. They also have sophisticated computer
case the flooding system involved 42 primary and 22 contingency subsea valves under direct
controlled ballast systems to keep the vessel level during lifting operations. During a lift the
hydraulic control. The nitrogen power source and associated control panels were contained in
ballast system is also used to counteract heel and increase hoisting and lowering speeds
watertight capsules.
Figure 4 shows a sequence of sketches indicating how a self floating jacket is upended. In
The natural period of large installation vessels in roll, pitch and heave tend to be close to the
step 1 the waterline compartments at one end of the jacket are flooded. More water line tanks
typical peak periods of the sea spectra encountered offshore. These motions therefore
are flooded in step 2 until by step 3 the upper frame of the jacket reaches waterline and may
predominate. Normally this means that beam seas should be avoided since this excites roll
also be flooded. The jacket is then allowed to rotate until all legs are equally flooded as in
Page 13 of 19
Page 14 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
4.1.2 Lift
which is the most disruptive motion. However, the "best attitude" is not always possible since
it depends on the work that the vessel is required to perform. Accordingly vessel operators
An increasing number of jackets are being installed by direct lift. This trend has been
perform extensive studies to determine permissible sea states for specific operations and
encouraged by the availability of large crane vessels such as the Micoperi 7000. Curves
vessel captains invariably "experiment" with different headings in a particular sea in order to
showing load capacity against lifting radius are shown in Figure 2. Another factor tending to
increase direct lift jackets are savings in weight that are being achieved in jacket design.
The first stages in lifting a jacket from the transportation barge involve positioning the barge
In a direct lift the jacket is lifted off the barge completely in air. A second form of lift is the
and connecting the slings to the hook. The barge will normally be controlled by tugs. Once
buoyancy assisted lift. In this case the barge is flooded and hence submerged. This results in
everything is ready for lift to proceed the seafastenings will be cut. The next stage is to
part of the jacket being buoyant, reducing hook loads. Buoyancy tanks may be added to the
transfer the weight of the jacket from the barge to the crane. The general requirement here is
jacket if required.
to lift as rapidly as possible. However, careful control and phasing with barge and crane
Shallow water jackets may be lifted in the vertical position. In this case no up-ending is
required and installation is straight forward. Deep water jackets will in general be lifted on
their side. Two cranes will normally be used, noting that large derrick barges such as the
vessel motions is required in order to ensure that once the jacket is lifted clear of the barge it
does not hit the barge as a subsequent wave passes through. The same lift procedure is
adopted in both a direct and buoyancy assisted lift.
Micoperi 7000 are fitted with two cranes as standard. When considering a tandem lift it should
Once the jacket is lifted clear of the barge, the barge is removed by tugs. Up-ending of the
be noted that it is unlikely that both hooks will carry the same load, and that the maximum
permissible jacket weight will be less than the sum of the two crane capacities. It should also
be noted that cranes are frequently guyed back to give maximum lift capacity and carry less
load if they are revolving. This can further reduce the apparent lift capacity. Finally, the weight
of lifting slings need to be considered, these contributing as much as 7% of the lift weight.
Unless a jacket is transported and lifted in its upright position, it will be necessary to up-end
the jacket at the installation location. Up-ending may be achieved by controlled flooding of
When the jacket is to be removed from the transportation barge by lifting, it is normal for the
installation vessel to be correctly moored and positioned so that up-ending and set-down may
proceed as one integral lift operation.
The selection of a suitable installation vessel is clearly essential. In addition to lift capacity, it
A large crane vessel will not normally be required for either a launched or self-floating jacket.
is also necessary to consider stability and motion response characteristics. In the harsh North
Upending is therefore achieved by controlled flooding. A small installation vessel will usually
Sea environments installation vessels are usually semi-submersibles such as the Micoperi
be required for the installation of piles once the jacket has been set-down, so this is used as
7000. In more moderate waters they are often flat bottomed barges. In intermediate
the platform from which to control the various flooding operations. This installation vessel will
The large semi-submersible crane vessels used in the North Sea have full dynamic
Figure 3 shows a sketch of the Brae 'B' jacket showing the auxiliary buoyancy tanks. In this
positioning systems for locating themselves on site. They also have sophisticated computer
case the flooding system involved 42 primary and 22 contingency subsea valves under direct
controlled ballast systems to keep the vessel level during lifting operations. During a lift the
hydraulic control. The nitrogen power source and associated control panels were contained in
ballast system is also used to counteract heel and increase hoisting and lowering speeds
watertight capsules.
Figure 4 shows a sequence of sketches indicating how a self floating jacket is upended. In
The natural period of large installation vessels in roll, pitch and heave tend to be close to the
step 1 the waterline compartments at one end of the jacket are flooded. More water line tanks
typical peak periods of the sea spectra encountered offshore. These motions therefore
are flooded in step 2 until by step 3 the upper frame of the jacket reaches waterline and may
predominate. Normally this means that beam seas should be avoided since this excites roll
also be flooded. The jacket is then allowed to rotate until all legs are equally flooded as in
Page 13 of 19
Page 14 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
step 4. The jackets natural position will then be floating upright as in step 5. Further flooding
new slings attached at the top of the jacket. The jacket may then be up-ended as shown in
of the jacket as in step 6 will enable the jacket to be lowered onto the sea bed in a controlled
Figure 5. This may require closures to legs and some additional buoyancy.
manner.
A second method is to up-end directly, as shown in Figure 6. This requires special padears so
The up-ending of a launched jacket will be similar to that shown in Figure 4. The main
that the necessary rotation between slings and jacket can occur. Careful naval analysis is
difference is that there may be less excess buoyancy with which to control the operation. In
also required in order to carefully determine hook loads and to ensure that the jacket remains
this case a combination of flooding and lift, as shown in Figure 5, may be used to up-end and
stable.
The crane and ballasting operations need to be clearly defined before the operation begins.
Once up-ended the jacket can be set-down on the sea-bed. Since the lifting points are
This involves careful naval analysis of the free floating position of the jacket at various stages
submerged divers may be required to disconnect the slings from the jacket.
during the up-ending procedure. A feature of these analyses is the need to consider what
happens in the event of buoyancy tanks being accidentally flooded, or of flooding valves
Although two crane hooks are shown in Figure 6, it should be noted that for light weight
jackets it is possible to up-end using a single crane. In this case the main and auxiliary hooks
are used together, for example the main hook taking the weight of the jacket with the auxiliary
Figure 5 shows the simplest use of a crane to up-end and set-down a jacket. This is
An increasing trend is to install a jacket over an existing well or wells. A pre-drilling template
acceptable for jackets that are launched. For horizontally oriented jackets that are lifted
will have been used to position the wells, the same template being used to position the jacket.
It is necessary to ensure that the well heads are protected from damage due to accidental
A horizontally lifted jacket may be upended in one of two ways. Perhaps the straightest
forward is to lower the jacket into the water so that it floats. Slings can then be removed and
Page 15 of 19
Page 16 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
step 4. The jackets natural position will then be floating upright as in step 5. Further flooding
new slings attached at the top of the jacket. The jacket may then be up-ended as shown in
of the jacket as in step 6 will enable the jacket to be lowered onto the sea bed in a controlled
Figure 5. This may require closures to legs and some additional buoyancy.
manner.
A second method is to up-end directly, as shown in Figure 6. This requires special padears so
The up-ending of a launched jacket will be similar to that shown in Figure 4. The main
that the necessary rotation between slings and jacket can occur. Careful naval analysis is
difference is that there may be less excess buoyancy with which to control the operation. In
also required in order to carefully determine hook loads and to ensure that the jacket remains
this case a combination of flooding and lift, as shown in Figure 5, may be used to up-end and
stable.
The crane and ballasting operations need to be clearly defined before the operation begins.
Once up-ended the jacket can be set-down on the sea-bed. Since the lifting points are
This involves careful naval analysis of the free floating position of the jacket at various stages
submerged divers may be required to disconnect the slings from the jacket.
during the up-ending procedure. A feature of these analyses is the need to consider what
happens in the event of buoyancy tanks being accidentally flooded, or of flooding valves
Although two crane hooks are shown in Figure 6, it should be noted that for light weight
jackets it is possible to up-end using a single crane. In this case the main and auxiliary hooks
are used together, for example the main hook taking the weight of the jacket with the auxiliary
Figure 5 shows the simplest use of a crane to up-end and set-down a jacket. This is
An increasing trend is to install a jacket over an existing well or wells. A pre-drilling template
acceptable for jackets that are launched. For horizontally oriented jackets that are lifted
will have been used to position the wells, the same template being used to position the jacket.
It is necessary to ensure that the well heads are protected from damage due to accidental
A horizontally lifted jacket may be upended in one of two ways. Perhaps the straightest
forward is to lower the jacket into the water so that it floats. Slings can then be removed and
Page 15 of 19
Page 16 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
Once set-down the jacket should be positioned at or near grade and levelled within the
jacket is set-down. These will penetrate some distance under self weight providing additional
tolerances specified in the installation plan. Once level, care should be exercised to maintain
sliding resistance. Since most piles are inclined, the piles also provide a degree of resistance
grade and levelness of the jacket during subsequent operations. Levelling the jacket after all
to over turning.
piles have been installed should be avoided if at all possible as it is costly and frequently
ineffective. If necessary, levelling should take place after a minimum number of piles have
been driven by jacking or lifting. In this instance procedures should be used to minimise
bending stresses in the piles.
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
There are broadly four phases to the installation of a steel jacket - loadout,
seafastening, offshore transportation and installation offshore.
In deciding how best to fabricate and install a given jacket, the options are principally
determined by the installation equipment available and the jacket's intended water
Once set-down on the sea bed, it is normal for piling to proceed as rapidly as possible.
However, this far into the installation procedure the weather and hence sea conditions may be
depth.
detioriating. This is a result of long term weather forecasting being less reliable than short
term forecasting. It should also be noted that any problems encountered during the
movement of the completed structure onto the barge which will transport it offshore.
installation procedure will result in delay and that it may be some time before the jacket is
adequately fixed to the sea bed by piling.
An installation plan must be prepared for each installation. Loadout entails the
Seafastening entails fitting and welding sufficient ties between the jacket and the
barge to prevent shifting while in transit to the offshore site.
The transportation of heavy components from a fabrication yard to the offshore site is
a critical activity requiring careful calculation and planning.
It is necessary for the jacket to be stable and level during piling. A separate on-bottom
stability analysis is therefore carried out. Three conditions need to be met:
Removal of the jacket from the barge is accomplished either by direct lifting with a
derrick barge and lowering into position, or by launching. A number of engineering
studies are required for jacket launch and set-down.
6. REFERENCES
[1] API RP2A, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Construction of Fixed
Offshore Installations, latest edition. Engineering design principles and practices that have
In carrying out the above analyses it is necessary to use an appropriate sea-state to generate
hydro-dynamic loading. This should be the maximum statistical wave which may occur prior to
piling being completed. Assuming installation to occur in the summer months, a typical criteria
may be a 1 year summer storm wave.
The provisions that need to be made to ensure on-bottom stability vary greatly depending on
jacket location, height and on sea-bed soil conditions. For example, with good soil conditions
the jacket may be able to be supported directly on existing jacket steel with no extra provision
made. However, with poor soil conditions large 'mudmats' may be required in order to spread
the load. These can influence launch and installation dynamics.
For many jackets it is not possible to achieve stability against sliding and overturning using
flat mudmats. In these circumstances mudmats with skirts may be used. Skirts considerably
improve the resistance to sliding, and in silty or clay soils can allow nominal tension loading to
resist overturning. Another option frequently used is to stab a number of piles as soon as the
Page 17 of 19
code.
4. Det Norske Veritas, Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore
Structures, 1977. Rules for construction and installation of steel jackets as required
by DNV.
Page 18 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
Lecture 15A.9
Once set-down the jacket should be positioned at or near grade and levelled within the
jacket is set-down. These will penetrate some distance under self weight providing additional
tolerances specified in the installation plan. Once level, care should be exercised to maintain
sliding resistance. Since most piles are inclined, the piles also provide a degree of resistance
grade and levelness of the jacket during subsequent operations. Levelling the jacket after all
to over turning.
piles have been installed should be avoided if at all possible as it is costly and frequently
ineffective. If necessary, levelling should take place after a minimum number of piles have
been driven by jacking or lifting. In this instance procedures should be used to minimise
bending stresses in the piles.
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
There are broadly four phases to the installation of a steel jacket - loadout,
seafastening, offshore transportation and installation offshore.
In deciding how best to fabricate and install a given jacket, the options are principally
determined by the installation equipment available and the jacket's intended water
Once set-down on the sea bed, it is normal for piling to proceed as rapidly as possible.
However, this far into the installation procedure the weather and hence sea conditions may be
depth.
detioriating. This is a result of long term weather forecasting being less reliable than short
term forecasting. It should also be noted that any problems encountered during the
movement of the completed structure onto the barge which will transport it offshore.
installation procedure will result in delay and that it may be some time before the jacket is
adequately fixed to the sea bed by piling.
An installation plan must be prepared for each installation. Loadout entails the
Seafastening entails fitting and welding sufficient ties between the jacket and the
barge to prevent shifting while in transit to the offshore site.
The transportation of heavy components from a fabrication yard to the offshore site is
a critical activity requiring careful calculation and planning.
It is necessary for the jacket to be stable and level during piling. A separate on-bottom
stability analysis is therefore carried out. Three conditions need to be met:
Removal of the jacket from the barge is accomplished either by direct lifting with a
derrick barge and lowering into position, or by launching. A number of engineering
studies are required for jacket launch and set-down.
6. REFERENCES
[1] API RP2A, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Construction of Fixed
Offshore Installations, latest edition. Engineering design principles and practices that have
In carrying out the above analyses it is necessary to use an appropriate sea-state to generate
hydro-dynamic loading. This should be the maximum statistical wave which may occur prior to
piling being completed. Assuming installation to occur in the summer months, a typical criteria
may be a 1 year summer storm wave.
The provisions that need to be made to ensure on-bottom stability vary greatly depending on
jacket location, height and on sea-bed soil conditions. For example, with good soil conditions
the jacket may be able to be supported directly on existing jacket steel with no extra provision
made. However, with poor soil conditions large 'mudmats' may be required in order to spread
the load. These can influence launch and installation dynamics.
For many jackets it is not possible to achieve stability against sliding and overturning using
flat mudmats. In these circumstances mudmats with skirts may be used. Skirts considerably
improve the resistance to sliding, and in silty or clay soils can allow nominal tension loading to
resist overturning. Another option frequently used is to stab a number of piles as soon as the
Page 17 of 19
code.
4. Det Norske Veritas, Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore
Structures, 1977. Rules for construction and installation of steel jackets as required
by DNV.
Page 18 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
5. Lloyds Register of Shipping, Rules and Regulations for the Classification of Fixed
Offshore Installations, 1989. Based on Lloyd's experience from certification of over
500 platforms world-wide.
Table 1 Major Offshore Crane Vessels
Operator
Name
Type
Thor
Monohull
Odin
Mode
Lifting Capacity
Fix
2720
Rev
1820
Fix
2720
Rev
2450
Fix
Rev
Fix
Rev
Fix
4000
Rev
3800
Fix
1820
Rev
1450
Fix
3360
Rev
2450
Monohull
Heerema
Hermod
Balder
DB50
DB100
Semisub
Semisub
Monohull
Semisub
McDermott
DB101
Micoperi
Semisub
DB102
Semisub
Rev
M7000
Semisub
Rev
Notes:
1. Rated lifting capacity in metric tonnes
2. When the crane vessels are provided with two cranes, these are situated at the
vessels stern at approximately 60m distance etc.
Page 19 of 19
Lecture 15A.9
5. Lloyds Register of Shipping, Rules and Regulations for the Classification of Fixed
Offshore Installations, 1989. Based on Lloyd's experience from certification of over
500 platforms world-wide.
Table 1 Major Offshore Crane Vessels
Operator
Name
Type
Thor
Monohull
Odin
Mode
Lifting Capacity
Fix
2720
Rev
1820
Fix
2720
Rev
2450
Fix
Rev
Fix
Rev
Fix
4000
Rev
3800
Fix
1820
Rev
1450
Fix
3360
Rev
2450
Monohull
Heerema
Hermod
Balder
DB50
DB100
Semisub
Semisub
Monohull
Semisub
McDermott
DB101
Micoperi
Semisub
DB102
Semisub
Rev
M7000
Semisub
Rev
Notes:
1. Rated lifting capacity in metric tonnes
2. When the crane vessels are provided with two cranes, these are situated at the
vessels stern at approximately 60m distance etc.
Page 19 of 19
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
1. INTRODUCTION
Superstructures I
This lecture deals with the overall aspects of the design of offshore topsides.
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce the functional requirements; to identify major interfaces with the process,
equipment, logistics, and safety; to introduce the structural concepts for jacket and gravity
based structure (GBS) topsides; to elaborate on structural design for deck floors.
The topside of an offshore structure accommodates the equipment and supports modules and
accessories such as living quarters, helideck, flare stack or flare boom, microwave tower, and
crane pedestals.
The structural concept for the deck is influenced greatly by the type of substructure (jacket or
PREREQUISITES
Page 1 of 21
Page 2 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
1. INTRODUCTION
Superstructures I
This lecture deals with the overall aspects of the design of offshore topsides.
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce the functional requirements; to identify major interfaces with the process,
equipment, logistics, and safety; to introduce the structural concepts for jacket and gravity
based structure (GBS) topsides; to elaborate on structural design for deck floors.
The topside of an offshore structure accommodates the equipment and supports modules and
accessories such as living quarters, helideck, flare stack or flare boom, microwave tower, and
crane pedestals.
The structural concept for the deck is influenced greatly by the type of substructure (jacket or
PREREQUISITES
Page 1 of 21
Page 2 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
Heavy decks, over 10,000 tons, are provided with a module support frame onto which a
number of modules are placed. Smaller decks, such as those located in the southern North
Sea, are nowadays installed complete with all equipment in one lift to minimize offshore hookup. Most of this lecture refers to this type of integrated deck such as is shown in Figures 3
and 4.
The selection of the concept for the structural deck is made in close cooperation with the
other disciplines.
2. BASIC ASPECTS OF DESIGN
2.1 Space and Elevations
The first step in developing a new design concept is to consider all the requirements for the
deck structure. The design requirements and their impact on the structural system are
discussed below.
The lay-out of the deck is influenced by the type of hydrocarbon processing to be undertaken.
The area required for the equipment, piping and cable routings, the vertical clearance as well
as the access/egress requirements determine the deck area and deck elevations.
The elevation on the lowest decks depends on the environmental conditions. The elevation of
the cellar deck, i.e. the lowest deck, is based on the maximum elevation of the design wave
crest, including tide and storm sway, plus an air gap of 1,5m minimum.
The vertical distance between the decks of the topside is generally in the range 6 - 9m in the
North Sea.
Page 3 of 21
Page 4 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
Heavy decks, over 10,000 tons, are provided with a module support frame onto which a
number of modules are placed. Smaller decks, such as those located in the southern North
Sea, are nowadays installed complete with all equipment in one lift to minimize offshore hookup. Most of this lecture refers to this type of integrated deck such as is shown in Figures 3
and 4.
The selection of the concept for the structural deck is made in close cooperation with the
other disciplines.
2. BASIC ASPECTS OF DESIGN
2.1 Space and Elevations
The first step in developing a new design concept is to consider all the requirements for the
deck structure. The design requirements and their impact on the structural system are
discussed below.
The lay-out of the deck is influenced by the type of hydrocarbon processing to be undertaken.
The area required for the equipment, piping and cable routings, the vertical clearance as well
as the access/egress requirements determine the deck area and deck elevations.
The elevation on the lowest decks depends on the environmental conditions. The elevation of
the cellar deck, i.e. the lowest deck, is based on the maximum elevation of the design wave
crest, including tide and storm sway, plus an air gap of 1,5m minimum.
The vertical distance between the decks of the topside is generally in the range 6 - 9m in the
North Sea.
Page 3 of 21
Page 4 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
Consideration of the prevailing wind direction is very important in determining the position of
Survival capsules and man-overboard crane: the supporting structures for these items usually
various components on the platform, such as the vent of the flare, cranes, helideck; and the
cantilever from the main structure. Shock loading and dynamic amplification increases the
Walkways, ladders and stairs: these items should be kept obstacle free, be non-slippery and
have sufficient width to allow evacuation of personnel on stretchers.
The requirements for the various topside components are briefly described below, based on
Cladding, walls, doors and louvres: the type of cladding depends on the operational
API-RP2G [1].
requirements and the preference of the oil company. For safety reasons, walls and doors may
Wells: the position of the wells depends heavily on whether the wells will be drilled and
have to satisfy specified explosion and fire resistance requirements. Louvres may be used to
worked with a separate cantilevered jack-up rig or with a platform-based rig. In the first case
allow natural ventilation, whilst preventing entry of rain, snow and birds.
the wells must be close to the platform edge and require significant deck area above free of
obstacles. In the second case a pair of heavy beams to support the drill rig must be provided.
Lay down areas for equipment, spares and consumables: these areas are provided by
cantilevering from the main structure in order to allow access to the lower deck levels by the
Equipment, piping and cable-supports: all devices to treat the oil or gas shall comply with the
maintenance, repair and platform modification. The hatches should be identified early in the
enable fast evacuation. Usually the helideck is located in the obstacle free area on top of the
design.
living quarters.
Risers, caissons, sumps: the riser section of the pipeline rises from the seabed to the deck. It
Gas compressor module: the pressure in gas reservoirs declines due to production. Future
introduces vertical and horizontal loads (environmental and operational) in the deck structure.
compression may be needed in order to achieve acceptable gas flow through the export
Caissons for pumps and sumps for discharge are hung from the cellar deck and introduce
pipeline.
Water or gas injection module: oil production declines after some years of operation. The
Drainage provisions: provision is required for spillage in drip pans under the equipment and
Deck crane: the location of the crane should be selected so as to obtain maximum deck
Deck penetrations: pipes connecting process-items on different decks and, vessels, cable
coverage and to enable the crane operator to keep eye contact with the lifted object and the
routings, etc. can require significant areas to be clear of structural members. The major
supply vessel. The location of the deck crane should be outside the obstacle free area of the
penetrations should be identified early in the design and coordinated with major structural
members.
Vent/flare boom or stack: a vent discharges gaseous products in the air without burning them;
Other provisions: items such as monorails and inspection gangways may also be required.
a flare discharges and burns these products. Both vents and flares should be located outside
hazardous areas and away from the helideck. The tip shall exceed the elevation of the
2.3 Loads
Dead weight, tankful live load and wind load are discussed here. Dead weight includes the
weight of structure, equipment, piping, cables, machinery, and architectural outfitting. Tankful
Page 5 of 21
Page 6 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
Consideration of the prevailing wind direction is very important in determining the position of
Survival capsules and man-overboard crane: the supporting structures for these items usually
various components on the platform, such as the vent of the flare, cranes, helideck; and the
cantilever from the main structure. Shock loading and dynamic amplification increases the
Walkways, ladders and stairs: these items should be kept obstacle free, be non-slippery and
have sufficient width to allow evacuation of personnel on stretchers.
The requirements for the various topside components are briefly described below, based on
Cladding, walls, doors and louvres: the type of cladding depends on the operational
API-RP2G [1].
requirements and the preference of the oil company. For safety reasons, walls and doors may
Wells: the position of the wells depends heavily on whether the wells will be drilled and
have to satisfy specified explosion and fire resistance requirements. Louvres may be used to
worked with a separate cantilevered jack-up rig or with a platform-based rig. In the first case
allow natural ventilation, whilst preventing entry of rain, snow and birds.
the wells must be close to the platform edge and require significant deck area above free of
obstacles. In the second case a pair of heavy beams to support the drill rig must be provided.
Lay down areas for equipment, spares and consumables: these areas are provided by
cantilevering from the main structure in order to allow access to the lower deck levels by the
Equipment, piping and cable-supports: all devices to treat the oil or gas shall comply with the
maintenance, repair and platform modification. The hatches should be identified early in the
enable fast evacuation. Usually the helideck is located in the obstacle free area on top of the
design.
living quarters.
Risers, caissons, sumps: the riser section of the pipeline rises from the seabed to the deck. It
Gas compressor module: the pressure in gas reservoirs declines due to production. Future
introduces vertical and horizontal loads (environmental and operational) in the deck structure.
compression may be needed in order to achieve acceptable gas flow through the export
Caissons for pumps and sumps for discharge are hung from the cellar deck and introduce
pipeline.
Water or gas injection module: oil production declines after some years of operation. The
Drainage provisions: provision is required for spillage in drip pans under the equipment and
Deck crane: the location of the crane should be selected so as to obtain maximum deck
Deck penetrations: pipes connecting process-items on different decks and, vessels, cable
coverage and to enable the crane operator to keep eye contact with the lifted object and the
routings, etc. can require significant areas to be clear of structural members. The major
supply vessel. The location of the deck crane should be outside the obstacle free area of the
penetrations should be identified early in the design and coordinated with major structural
members.
Vent/flare boom or stack: a vent discharges gaseous products in the air without burning them;
Other provisions: items such as monorails and inspection gangways may also be required.
a flare discharges and burns these products. Both vents and flares should be located outside
hazardous areas and away from the helideck. The tip shall exceed the elevation of the
2.3 Loads
Dead weight, tankful live load and wind load are discussed here. Dead weight includes the
weight of structure, equipment, piping, cables, machinery, and architectural outfitting. Tankful
Page 5 of 21
Page 6 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
live load covers weight of potable water, diesel fuel, helifuel, glycol, methanol, well-kill mud,
Space allocation: the structure should not use space allocated for equipment or
access routes. Overhead clearance between piping, cable routes, equipment and the
structure.
- deck beam
- deck truss
Interface between platform crane and helideck, deckhouse, drilling rig, and flare
- deck leg
Direct interface control; pumps, vessels and piping require support by the steel
stack.
- jacket
- pile
the area to which live load is to be applied. This area is described in the code as the
non-occupied area.
For local strength, the walkways, escape routes, etc. are considered as non-occupied by
The weight of the overall facility as well as its major components is critical. Lack of weight
control can lead to costly design changes as well as to major provisions in order to keep
For overall strength, the walkways, escape routes, etc. are considered as occupied (kept
clear for evacuation) and consequently no live load is applied.
the arrangement of loads that generates maximum stress. A policy on this item
weight prognosis
should be prepared for each project, stating both variation of loads over one deck,
weight reporting
weight control
weighing
Wind loads should be properly assessed. For overall structural integrity, the complex shape of
the platform creates problems in assessing the effective area for wind load. Special elements
such as communication towers and flare booms require consideration as wind sensitive
+30% in the conceptual design phase, to +5% in the final fabrication phase, see Figure 5.
structures.
To control the design process, weight engineering as explained in Section 2.5 below, shall be
performed by the project management staff. Any structural analysis must be linked to the
latest available information in the weight report. This requires that the load file for the
structural analysis and the weight report are compatible with respect to total weight, weight
distribution and centres of gravity.
Page 7 of 21
Page 8 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
live load covers weight of potable water, diesel fuel, helifuel, glycol, methanol, well-kill mud,
Space allocation: the structure should not use space allocated for equipment or
access routes. Overhead clearance between piping, cable routes, equipment and the
structure.
- deck beam
- deck truss
Interface between platform crane and helideck, deckhouse, drilling rig, and flare
- deck leg
Direct interface control; pumps, vessels and piping require support by the steel
stack.
- jacket
- pile
the area to which live load is to be applied. This area is described in the code as the
non-occupied area.
For local strength, the walkways, escape routes, etc. are considered as non-occupied by
The weight of the overall facility as well as its major components is critical. Lack of weight
control can lead to costly design changes as well as to major provisions in order to keep
For overall strength, the walkways, escape routes, etc. are considered as occupied (kept
clear for evacuation) and consequently no live load is applied.
the arrangement of loads that generates maximum stress. A policy on this item
weight prognosis
should be prepared for each project, stating both variation of loads over one deck,
weight reporting
weight control
weighing
Wind loads should be properly assessed. For overall structural integrity, the complex shape of
the platform creates problems in assessing the effective area for wind load. Special elements
such as communication towers and flare booms require consideration as wind sensitive
+30% in the conceptual design phase, to +5% in the final fabrication phase, see Figure 5.
structures.
To control the design process, weight engineering as explained in Section 2.5 below, shall be
performed by the project management staff. Any structural analysis must be linked to the
latest available information in the weight report. This requires that the load file for the
structural analysis and the weight report are compatible with respect to total weight, weight
distribution and centres of gravity.
Page 7 of 21
Page 8 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
Table 1 Comparison of concepts for main jacket-based structures
No.
3. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
Item
Truss type
Frame type
1.
Discipline non-interference
++
2.
++
3.
++
4.
Automated fabrication
++
5.
Construction depth
++
6.
Inspection
++
7.
Maintenance
8.
Weight of structure
9.
Strength reserve
++
10.
++
11.
Structural CAPEX
12.
Platform CAPEX
++
The selection of the concept for the topside structure is the second step in the development of
a structural system. The two possible basic alternatives: a truss type (Figure 4) or a portalframe type without braces (Figure 3), are compared in Table 1.
Page 9 of 21
Page 10 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
Table 1 Comparison of concepts for main jacket-based structures
No.
3. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
Item
Truss type
Frame type
1.
Discipline non-interference
++
2.
++
3.
++
4.
Automated fabrication
++
5.
Construction depth
++
6.
Inspection
++
7.
Maintenance
8.
Weight of structure
9.
Strength reserve
++
10.
++
11.
Structural CAPEX
12.
Platform CAPEX
++
The selection of the concept for the topside structure is the second step in the development of
a structural system. The two possible basic alternatives: a truss type (Figure 4) or a portalframe type without braces (Figure 3), are compared in Table 1.
Page 9 of 21
Page 10 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
the connection area with the concrete shaft must provide the transition from circular
(shaft) to square (deck). It accommodates high strength anchor bars, temporary
crushing devices for deckmating, and requires tolerances on deck and substructure
dimensions.
inspection and repair options must be planned carefully, especially as fatigue may
occur.
The material used at present is high strength steel typically of 355 MPa yield stress. There is
a trend to use higher strength steel (420-460 MPa).
3.3 Floor Systems
The concept for the floor-system in offshore structures is conventional: hot rolled beams,
typically at 1000-1200mm centres, are covered by a chequered or flat steel plate 6-10mm
thick.
The options are:
In such decks, however, portal frames will be arranged in 2 longitudinal rows, approximately
The conventional steel floor contributes approximately half of the weight of the steel structure
of an offshore deck.
portal-type system. Gravity based substructures have been built with one to four shafts. A
Steel gratings, especially with the plate type, could gain increased application as their weight
rectangular or a T-arrangement of four shafts has been adopted. The basic form is
real potential.
due to portal frame action, the deck is subject to fatigue; a design case difficult to
Orthotropic decks in steel have found application in helidecks. Further study is required to
equipment lay out optimization, piping and cable routes, logistic and emergency
routes require many big openings and perforations of plate walls, thus creating stress
Corrugated steel plate (approximately 1-3mm thick) as sub-flooring has been used in living
concentrations.
quarters.
Page 11 of 21
Page 12 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
the connection area with the concrete shaft must provide the transition from circular
(shaft) to square (deck). It accommodates high strength anchor bars, temporary
crushing devices for deckmating, and requires tolerances on deck and substructure
dimensions.
inspection and repair options must be planned carefully, especially as fatigue may
occur.
The material used at present is high strength steel typically of 355 MPa yield stress. There is
a trend to use higher strength steel (420-460 MPa).
3.3 Floor Systems
The concept for the floor-system in offshore structures is conventional: hot rolled beams,
typically at 1000-1200mm centres, are covered by a chequered or flat steel plate 6-10mm
thick.
The options are:
In such decks, however, portal frames will be arranged in 2 longitudinal rows, approximately
The conventional steel floor contributes approximately half of the weight of the steel structure
of an offshore deck.
portal-type system. Gravity based substructures have been built with one to four shafts. A
Steel gratings, especially with the plate type, could gain increased application as their weight
rectangular or a T-arrangement of four shafts has been adopted. The basic form is
real potential.
due to portal frame action, the deck is subject to fatigue; a design case difficult to
Orthotropic decks in steel have found application in helidecks. Further study is required to
equipment lay out optimization, piping and cable routes, logistic and emergency
routes require many big openings and perforations of plate walls, thus creating stress
Corrugated steel plate (approximately 1-3mm thick) as sub-flooring has been used in living
concentrations.
quarters.
Page 11 of 21
Page 12 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
In summary, the floor concept used for a typical floor of an offshore deck of a module is a
conventional steel floor or steel grating.
3.4 Floor Panel Concept for Conventional Steel Floor
The floor panel, defined as the assembly of the floor plate and the stringer, can be connected
to the overall structure in two ways:
All elevations and overhead clearances are involved in the choice of arrangement.
Clearances are very important for equipment height, pipe routing, pipe stress, cable routing,
etc. The single most important structural aspect is the amount of prefabrication that can be
carried out away from the main fabrication yard. The cost is also a very important factor.
3.5 Floor Stabilization Concept
The deck structure requires lateral stabilization of each floor with respect to:
There is a clear preference for the stabilization by the floor plate. Where underfloor bracing is
adopted, there are two configuration options (see Figure 11). The rhomboid solution should
be chosen for the upper deck, due to congestion at the column by the padeyes for lifting. The
underfloor bracing under a plate floor does create a very unclear structural situation. The
bracing is assumed completely to perform the stabilizing function, but in practice the floor
plate is much too stiff to allow that. It is common practice in the structural analysis for
underfloor bracing to neglect completely the floor plate.
4.1 Introduction
The selection of the main deck dimensions have been considered above in relation to lay-out
requirements.
The interactive process of conceptual design of the jacket and deck yields the spacing of the
columns. In the Dutch sector of the North Sea, transverse column spacings are typically 9m
Page 13 of 21
Page 14 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
In summary, the floor concept used for a typical floor of an offshore deck of a module is a
conventional steel floor or steel grating.
3.4 Floor Panel Concept for Conventional Steel Floor
The floor panel, defined as the assembly of the floor plate and the stringer, can be connected
to the overall structure in two ways:
All elevations and overhead clearances are involved in the choice of arrangement.
Clearances are very important for equipment height, pipe routing, pipe stress, cable routing,
etc. The single most important structural aspect is the amount of prefabrication that can be
carried out away from the main fabrication yard. The cost is also a very important factor.
3.5 Floor Stabilization Concept
The deck structure requires lateral stabilization of each floor with respect to:
There is a clear preference for the stabilization by the floor plate. Where underfloor bracing is
adopted, there are two configuration options (see Figure 11). The rhomboid solution should
be chosen for the upper deck, due to congestion at the column by the padeyes for lifting. The
underfloor bracing under a plate floor does create a very unclear structural situation. The
bracing is assumed completely to perform the stabilizing function, but in practice the floor
plate is much too stiff to allow that. It is common practice in the structural analysis for
underfloor bracing to neglect completely the floor plate.
4.1 Introduction
The selection of the main deck dimensions have been considered above in relation to lay-out
requirements.
The interactive process of conceptual design of the jacket and deck yields the spacing of the
columns. In the Dutch sector of the North Sea, transverse column spacings are typically 9m
Page 13 of 21
Page 14 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
for a wellhead platform to 15m for a production platform. Longitudinally spacings are typically
The same attention applies to the buckling of the floor plate by stresses which are picked up
15m.
unintentionally.
The strength of the floor plate is very high both for uniform as well as concentrated loads.
Elastic, small-deflection theory provides uneconomical conservative results.
API-RP2A (2) does not specify live loads. They are specified by the operator.
A principle for economic design of steel structures is that the load-paths should be short.
For a floor design of a production deck typical dimensions are:
p = 20kN/sqm, or
F = 10-25 kN on a 0,3 x 0,3m load area
Det Norske Veritas [3] presents an expression for the required plate thickness t, which
incorporates membrane effects and is of special interest for design for local loads.
1. floor plate 1m
2. stringer (longitudinal) 5m
Equipment and containers are regularly offloaded by the crane in some deck areas, such as
lay-down areas and food container platforms. An increased plate thickness may be required
5. column
4.3 Stringers
The typical stringer for a production platform is an IPE 240-270 or HE 240-280A profile
Design
It is important to choose, especially for stacked floor panels, a profile which allows selection of
Options are to choose between flat plates, chequered plate or tear plate. Another option for
providing slip resistance is to coat with a sand finish. The floor plate thickness is usually 810mm and 6mm for lighter loaded floors, although welding distortion may rule out the 6 mm
thickness.
heavier sections with practically identical depth to accommodate local heavy equipment.
Designers should avoid choosing deeper sections or reinforcing them to accommodate late
extra load requirements by welding another section underneath. Interference with small
diameter, hard piping or with cable trays then is quite likely.
In practice the floor plate acts as horizontal bracing between the columns.
Joining floor plate and stringers requires welding. Intermittent welding is generally not
Special attention is required to ensure that all welds between the floor plate and the
accepted. A continuous thin weld (a = 4 mm) is usually specified. The shear in this weld is
underlying structure do not form brittle points. Failure of such welds could lead to crack
The joint between the stringer and the deck beam differs with the floor panel concept chosen.
Page 15 of 21
Page 16 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
for a wellhead platform to 15m for a production platform. Longitudinally spacings are typically
The same attention applies to the buckling of the floor plate by stresses which are picked up
15m.
unintentionally.
The strength of the floor plate is very high both for uniform as well as concentrated loads.
Elastic, small-deflection theory provides uneconomical conservative results.
API-RP2A (2) does not specify live loads. They are specified by the operator.
A principle for economic design of steel structures is that the load-paths should be short.
For a floor design of a production deck typical dimensions are:
p = 20kN/sqm, or
F = 10-25 kN on a 0,3 x 0,3m load area
Det Norske Veritas [3] presents an expression for the required plate thickness t, which
incorporates membrane effects and is of special interest for design for local loads.
1. floor plate 1m
2. stringer (longitudinal) 5m
Equipment and containers are regularly offloaded by the crane in some deck areas, such as
lay-down areas and food container platforms. An increased plate thickness may be required
5. column
4.3 Stringers
The typical stringer for a production platform is an IPE 240-270 or HE 240-280A profile
Design
It is important to choose, especially for stacked floor panels, a profile which allows selection of
Options are to choose between flat plates, chequered plate or tear plate. Another option for
providing slip resistance is to coat with a sand finish. The floor plate thickness is usually 810mm and 6mm for lighter loaded floors, although welding distortion may rule out the 6 mm
thickness.
heavier sections with practically identical depth to accommodate local heavy equipment.
Designers should avoid choosing deeper sections or reinforcing them to accommodate late
extra load requirements by welding another section underneath. Interference with small
diameter, hard piping or with cable trays then is quite likely.
In practice the floor plate acts as horizontal bracing between the columns.
Joining floor plate and stringers requires welding. Intermittent welding is generally not
Special attention is required to ensure that all welds between the floor plate and the
accepted. A continuous thin weld (a = 4 mm) is usually specified. The shear in this weld is
underlying structure do not form brittle points. Failure of such welds could lead to crack
The joint between the stringer and the deck beam differs with the floor panel concept chosen.
Page 15 of 21
Page 16 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
stacked floors have a continuous fillet weld around the flange contact area and
The decision on the type of stringer joint should preferably be made prior to material ordering.
flush floors. Welding the floor between deck beams requires removal of the top-flange
of the stringer near its end and perfect fit between the deck beams and floor. Deck
beam prefabrication is also required.
Page 17 of 21
Page 18 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
stacked floors have a continuous fillet weld around the flange contact area and
The decision on the type of stringer joint should preferably be made prior to material ordering.
flush floors. Welding the floor between deck beams requires removal of the top-flange
of the stringer near its end and perfect fit between the deck beams and floor. Deck
beam prefabrication is also required.
Page 17 of 21
Page 18 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
For the full stacked concept (Figure 9), where both transverse and longitudinal main beam are
To allow top flange welding a strip of the floor plate is fitted and welded last.
In Section 3.5 the preference for the floor plate to act as horizontal bracing was indicated.
For the less suitable partially stacked concept (Figure 8), where only the transverse main
If however separate bracing members are required, the elevation must be chosen carefully.
beam is positioned lower, connection for the top flange of the transverse deck beam is more
The bracing members have to pass with sufficient clearance under the stringers, penetrate
difficult. Direct welding of the top flange of the deck beam to the web should be rejected.
the web of the deck beams at sufficient distance from the lower flange. They also require
Options are shown in Figure 9 with detail (a) haunching and detail (b) slotting the top flange
These requirements generate the elevation and the maximum feasible diameter of the brace
Again it is apparent that a decision on joint configuration is required prior to material ordering.
(Figure 11).
Horizontal bracing can easily clash with vertical piping and major hatches.
If the deck panel is prefabricated as an assembly of plate, stringer and deck beam, the detail
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
The topside lay-out was discussed, referring to API-RP2G, together with general
aspects of interface control and weight control.
Based on the type of substructure, jacket and GBS, the different types of topside
structure were introduced and described. These types are:
integrated deck.
module support frame.
modules.
6. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2G: Production facilities on offshore structures.
American Petroleum Institute 1 ed. 1974.
Presents the basic requirements.
Page 19 of 21
Page 20 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
Lecture 15A.10
For the full stacked concept (Figure 9), where both transverse and longitudinal main beam are
To allow top flange welding a strip of the floor plate is fitted and welded last.
In Section 3.5 the preference for the floor plate to act as horizontal bracing was indicated.
For the less suitable partially stacked concept (Figure 8), where only the transverse main
If however separate bracing members are required, the elevation must be chosen carefully.
beam is positioned lower, connection for the top flange of the transverse deck beam is more
The bracing members have to pass with sufficient clearance under the stringers, penetrate
difficult. Direct welding of the top flange of the deck beam to the web should be rejected.
the web of the deck beams at sufficient distance from the lower flange. They also require
Options are shown in Figure 9 with detail (a) haunching and detail (b) slotting the top flange
These requirements generate the elevation and the maximum feasible diameter of the brace
Again it is apparent that a decision on joint configuration is required prior to material ordering.
(Figure 11).
Horizontal bracing can easily clash with vertical piping and major hatches.
If the deck panel is prefabricated as an assembly of plate, stringer and deck beam, the detail
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
The topside lay-out was discussed, referring to API-RP2G, together with general
aspects of interface control and weight control.
Based on the type of substructure, jacket and GBS, the different types of topside
structure were introduced and described. These types are:
integrated deck.
module support frame.
modules.
6. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2G: Production facilities on offshore structures.
American Petroleum Institute 1 ed. 1974.
Presents the basic requirements.
Page 19 of 21
Page 20 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
[2] API-RP2A: Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing fixed
platforms.
American Petroleum Institute, 18th ed., 1989.
The structural offshore code governs the majority of platforms.
[3] DNV: Rules for the classification of steel ships.
Part 5, Chapter 2.4.C, Permanent decks for wheel loading.
Det Norske Veritas.
Practical approach for economic floor plate design under static load.
7. ADDITIONAL READING
1. M. Langseth & c.s.: Dropped objects, plugging capacity of steel plates.
BOSS Conference 1988 Trondheim, pp 1001-1014.
Floor and roof plate behaviour under accidental loading.
2. D. v.d. Zee & A.G.J. Berkelder: Placid K12BP biggest Dutch production platform.
IRO Journal, nr. 38, 1987, pp 3-9.
Presents a recent example for a portal-framed topside.
3. P. Gjerde et al: Design of steel deckstructures for deepwater multishaft gravity
concrete platform.
9th. OMAE conference Houston 1990, paper 90-335.
Most recent presentation on GBS topside structure.
4. P. Dubas & c.s.: Behaviour and design of steel plated structures, IABSE Surveys S
31/1985, August 1985, pp 17-44.
Good background to theory of plated structures.
Page 21 of 21
Lecture 15A.10
[2] API-RP2A: Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing fixed
platforms.
American Petroleum Institute, 18th ed., 1989.
The structural offshore code governs the majority of platforms.
[3] DNV: Rules for the classification of steel ships.
Part 5, Chapter 2.4.C, Permanent decks for wheel loading.
Det Norske Veritas.
Practical approach for economic floor plate design under static load.
7. ADDITIONAL READING
1. M. Langseth & c.s.: Dropped objects, plugging capacity of steel plates.
BOSS Conference 1988 Trondheim, pp 1001-1014.
Floor and roof plate behaviour under accidental loading.
2. D. v.d. Zee & A.G.J. Berkelder: Placid K12BP biggest Dutch production platform.
IRO Journal, nr. 38, 1987, pp 3-9.
Presents a recent example for a portal-framed topside.
3. P. Gjerde et al: Design of steel deckstructures for deepwater multishaft gravity
concrete platform.
9th. OMAE conference Houston 1990, paper 90-335.
Most recent presentation on GBS topside structure.
4. P. Dubas & c.s.: Behaviour and design of steel plated structures, IABSE Surveys S
31/1985, August 1985, pp 17-44.
Good background to theory of plated structures.
Page 21 of 21
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
7. hook-up
Superstructures II
8. commissioning
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
A brief discussion on inspection and repair and on platform removal concludes this lecture.
To elaborate on structural steel concepts for integrated decks, module support frames, and
modules. To show principles and methods of construction (from yard to offshore site).
1. INTRODUCTION
This lecture deals with the structural design of jacket-based offshore deck structures,
PRE-REQUISITES
Heavy decks, over 10.000 tons, are provided with a module support frame onto which a
number of modules are placed, see Lecture 15A.1, Figs. 4 and 5. Smaller decks, such as
those located in the southern North Sea, are nowadays installed complete with all equipment
in one lift to minimize offshore hook-up. Most of this lecture refers to this type of integrated
other disciplines.
For the design of the deck structure, the in-place condition has to be considered, together
with the various previous stages such as fabrication, load-out, transport and installation.
A structural system for a deck structure comprises several of the following elements:
} Discussed in
Horizontal bracing
} Lecture 15A.10
Deck beams
Primary girders
} Discussed in
Deck legs
} this lecture
Page 2 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
7. hook-up
Superstructures II
8. commissioning
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
A brief discussion on inspection and repair and on platform removal concludes this lecture.
To elaborate on structural steel concepts for integrated decks, module support frames, and
modules. To show principles and methods of construction (from yard to offshore site).
1. INTRODUCTION
This lecture deals with the structural design of jacket-based offshore deck structures,
PRE-REQUISITES
Heavy decks, over 10.000 tons, are provided with a module support frame onto which a
number of modules are placed, see Lecture 15A.1, Figs. 4 and 5. Smaller decks, such as
those located in the southern North Sea, are nowadays installed complete with all equipment
in one lift to minimize offshore hook-up. Most of this lecture refers to this type of integrated
other disciplines.
For the design of the deck structure, the in-place condition has to be considered, together
with the various previous stages such as fabrication, load-out, transport and installation.
A structural system for a deck structure comprises several of the following elements:
} Discussed in
Horizontal bracing
} Lecture 15A.10
Deck beams
Primary girders
} Discussed in
Deck legs
} this lecture
Page 2 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
The severe restraint of welding a tubular in a diaphragm requires the selection of TTP steel
for the column section.
2.1 Introduction
Due to the high importance of the diaphragm plates in the overall integrity of the structure and
Some major topics in topside structural design are reviewed below.
the welding constraints on the web plates in between, TTP-steel is chosen also for the
diaphragm.
Another option is to weld the girders directly onto the unstiffened can section of the column.
The assessment of ultimate resistance as well as fatigue strength has been the subject of
recent research (see Lecture 15A.12).
The main girder/column joint, as shown in Figure 1, is very important in determining the
height. It is most practical to position the longitudinal and transverse main girder flanges at
the same elevation.
Further improvement of the theoretical and experimental background is required. For lighter
loaded truss structures, this non-stiffened type of joint has been used successfully.
A third solution is to weld the girders directly to the can section of the column, which is
internally stiffened by rings. Its most severe disadvantage is the difficulty of inspecting the
column interior.
The disadvantage of both direct girder-column joints is that the girder sizing is governed by
the very high moments at the column/beam transition point.
Cast steel nodes form an alternative to the welded designs.
Member selection for portal frame structures with increasing section module usually includes:
castellated beams fabricated from rolled beams, giving a height 1,5 times the original
beam height
built-up girders fabricated from rolled beam T-sections with a web plate welded-inbetween
plate girder
The plate girder of course provides the greatest flexibility for design, material selection and
procurement, though its cost per tonne is approximately twice that of a rolled beam.
2.3 Main Structure-Truss Design
Most offshore structures of moderate size have been provided with a truss-type structure.
Haunching of the transverse main girder, which is more lightly loaded-in-plane, however is not
Typically such trusses consist of rolled beams as chords and tubulars as diagonals.
Page 4 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
The severe restraint of welding a tubular in a diaphragm requires the selection of TTP steel
for the column section.
2.1 Introduction
Due to the high importance of the diaphragm plates in the overall integrity of the structure and
Some major topics in topside structural design are reviewed below.
the welding constraints on the web plates in between, TTP-steel is chosen also for the
diaphragm.
Another option is to weld the girders directly onto the unstiffened can section of the column.
The assessment of ultimate resistance as well as fatigue strength has been the subject of
recent research (see Lecture 15A.12).
The main girder/column joint, as shown in Figure 1, is very important in determining the
height. It is most practical to position the longitudinal and transverse main girder flanges at
the same elevation.
Further improvement of the theoretical and experimental background is required. For lighter
loaded truss structures, this non-stiffened type of joint has been used successfully.
A third solution is to weld the girders directly to the can section of the column, which is
internally stiffened by rings. Its most severe disadvantage is the difficulty of inspecting the
column interior.
The disadvantage of both direct girder-column joints is that the girder sizing is governed by
the very high moments at the column/beam transition point.
Cast steel nodes form an alternative to the welded designs.
Member selection for portal frame structures with increasing section module usually includes:
castellated beams fabricated from rolled beams, giving a height 1,5 times the original
beam height
built-up girders fabricated from rolled beam T-sections with a web plate welded-inbetween
plate girder
The plate girder of course provides the greatest flexibility for design, material selection and
procurement, though its cost per tonne is approximately twice that of a rolled beam.
2.3 Main Structure-Truss Design
Most offshore structures of moderate size have been provided with a truss-type structure.
Haunching of the transverse main girder, which is more lightly loaded-in-plane, however is not
Typically such trusses consist of rolled beams as chords and tubulars as diagonals.
Page 4 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
Truss design requires several choices which affect the structural efficiency and have impact
If a joint, e.g. at the top deck, is subject to severe moments due to lifting, ventstack, or crane
on other disciplines:
pedestal for example, much of the bracing stress would result from unintended bending.
Generally the deck leg restraint creates a similar problem in the lower deck. An evaluation
The truss deflects under its vertical load which leads to restraint of the chord in the column
and to bending of the chord. Both effects can quite severely effect the efficiency. The chord
section should be kept compact therefore and not given too much height.
should yield a preferred location therefore for the node of the end brace.
Tubulars (circular, square or rectangular) or rolled sections can be chosen for the braces.
The choice depends primarily on the loads and the chord width. A chord width of 300mm can
of the number of nodes. It should be kept in mind that all diagonals and verticals form
For the transverse trusses, transparency is even more important, especially near the well
area. The number of members required should therefore be reduced to a minimum.
Providing a W-truss with light verticals should be evaluated against choosing a heavier chord
section.
Page 5 of 22
Page 6 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
Truss design requires several choices which affect the structural efficiency and have impact
If a joint, e.g. at the top deck, is subject to severe moments due to lifting, ventstack, or crane
on other disciplines:
pedestal for example, much of the bracing stress would result from unintended bending.
Generally the deck leg restraint creates a similar problem in the lower deck. An evaluation
The truss deflects under its vertical load which leads to restraint of the chord in the column
and to bending of the chord. Both effects can quite severely effect the efficiency. The chord
section should be kept compact therefore and not given too much height.
should yield a preferred location therefore for the node of the end brace.
Tubulars (circular, square or rectangular) or rolled sections can be chosen for the braces.
The choice depends primarily on the loads and the chord width. A chord width of 300mm can
of the number of nodes. It should be kept in mind that all diagonals and verticals form
For the transverse trusses, transparency is even more important, especially near the well
area. The number of members required should therefore be reduced to a minimum.
Providing a W-truss with light verticals should be evaluated against choosing a heavier chord
section.
Page 5 of 22
Page 6 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
The functions of the main structure with respect to the crane pedestal are:
the capability of the walls to comply with the deformation of the main structure during
the strength of welds to the main structure being stronger than the plate to avoid
One solution is to provide a flexible detail, see Figure 3b and 3c, with stiffeners falling short.
Bending restraint by deck beams and/or main structure girders is not required and should be
reduced where possible. Torsion caused by slewing of the crane should preferably be
It has become practice to include the tapered top section of the pedestal in the supply
It is structurally economical to put the crane pedestal on top of a main column. For a truss
type the main structure will be close to the platform periphery so a moderate length of crane
boom is sufficient.
package of the crane. The top section contains the large flange for the slewing bearing.
Fatigue due to crane operations is a design criterion and requires careful detailing of the
pedestal and the adjoining structure.
For a portal frame type with columns closer to the outer periphery, the pedestal requires a
special column in order to avoid using a crane with large boom length. Figure 4 depicts such
a solution.
Page 7 of 22
Page 8 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
The functions of the main structure with respect to the crane pedestal are:
the capability of the walls to comply with the deformation of the main structure during
the strength of welds to the main structure being stronger than the plate to avoid
One solution is to provide a flexible detail, see Figure 3b and 3c, with stiffeners falling short.
Bending restraint by deck beams and/or main structure girders is not required and should be
reduced where possible. Torsion caused by slewing of the crane should preferably be
It has become practice to include the tapered top section of the pedestal in the supply
It is structurally economical to put the crane pedestal on top of a main column. For a truss
type the main structure will be close to the platform periphery so a moderate length of crane
boom is sufficient.
package of the crane. The top section contains the large flange for the slewing bearing.
Fatigue due to crane operations is a design criterion and requires careful detailing of the
pedestal and the adjoining structure.
For a portal frame type with columns closer to the outer periphery, the pedestal requires a
special column in order to avoid using a crane with large boom length. Figure 4 depicts such
a solution.
Page 7 of 22
Page 8 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
3.1 Introduction
Although the analysis of deck structures is a standard task, several aspects require special
The effect of lifting points on deck design is considerable. For example the local forces that
attention:
act on the lifting points (Figure 5) have to be transmitted safely through to the deck structure.
Strength of joints
Lifting points
Support of modules.
0,66 Fy
There are two types of lifting points, trunnions and padeye, Figure 6.
0,60 Fy
90
138
18
27
Instead of the above approach, more recent research, [3] and [6], allows use of the postbuckling strength. The depth/thickness limits given above do not then apply.
3.3 Strength of Joints
The most important joints in a topside steel structure are:
the ring stiffened joint between rolled beams or plate girders with a circular column
the non-stiffened joint between rolled beams or plate girders with a circular column
Page 9 of 22
Page 10 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
3.1 Introduction
Although the analysis of deck structures is a standard task, several aspects require special
The effect of lifting points on deck design is considerable. For example the local forces that
attention:
act on the lifting points (Figure 5) have to be transmitted safely through to the deck structure.
Strength of joints
Lifting points
Support of modules.
0,66 Fy
There are two types of lifting points, trunnions and padeye, Figure 6.
0,60 Fy
90
138
18
27
Instead of the above approach, more recent research, [3] and [6], allows use of the postbuckling strength. The depth/thickness limits given above do not then apply.
3.3 Strength of Joints
The most important joints in a topside steel structure are:
the ring stiffened joint between rolled beams or plate girders with a circular column
the non-stiffened joint between rolled beams or plate girders with a circular column
Page 9 of 22
Page 10 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
Trunnions, though favourable from other points of view, see Section 4, can generate
case. Dimensional controls of the module as well as the support, with corrective measures,
considerable offset of the sling force with respect to the topdeck system points. Significant
further provide control over the module - deck interaction. Some modules, such as living
bending is generated which is transferred to the topdeck girders to the extent that they
quarter modules, gas compressor and injection modules, are often placed on anti-vibration
contribute to joint stiffness. It is most efficient to leave these bending moments in the column,
or trunnions.
The design should allow efficient prefabrication of major sections. Prefabrication will avoid
4.2 Fabrication
4.2.1 Operations
In Lecture 15A.1 the principal aspects of construction of offshore structures and their major
equipment was introduced.
For topsides more specific aspects are discussed below.
API-RP2A [1] requires larger load factors to be used for members direct-loaded by padeyes
4.1 Introduction
congestion in one working area and it speeds up the whole construction process.
Prefabrication and assembly shall properly incorporate the aspects of installation of major and
smaller mechanical equipment, as well as outfitting with piping, electrical and instrument
There are several ways to model the plate. The most direct is to choose a computer-program
which allows selection of plate elements. A second option is to define representative
members which model the plate stiffness by diagonals.
cables and lines. It should be recognized that major mechanical and electrical equipment is
often not available at the start of assembly and must be brought in during fabrication.
4.2.2 Design aspects
The deck plate is often positioned in the model at the elevation of the centre line, i.e. the mid
height of the main structure girders, in order to save nodes in the model. It should however be
recognised that this "error" of elevation, amounting to 0,5 - 1m, can affect the results. A
separate evaluation should then be performed on the effect to this deliberate "error" at least at
Since the overhead space is well covered by extensive piping routes as well as cable trays
during construction, "late" structural work should preferably not be positioned overhead in that
underfloor area.
The prefabrication concept and joint detailing should maximize welding productivity with many
Modules and deck structures interact structurally. API-RP2A [1] requires that modules are
modelled as elastic structures for the analysis of the supporting deck. In the 1970's major
Support to the topside during construction should be well controlled to avoid settlement and to
difficulties arose in the decks for concrete gravity structures, because modules were
represented as a set of loads for the different load cases, acting at the support points, and
neglecting structural interaction. The basic phenomenon of this interaction is that the
distribution of the support reactions of the module is quite unequal and varies with the load
Page 11 of 22
Page 12 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
Trunnions, though favourable from other points of view, see Section 4, can generate
case. Dimensional controls of the module as well as the support, with corrective measures,
considerable offset of the sling force with respect to the topdeck system points. Significant
further provide control over the module - deck interaction. Some modules, such as living
bending is generated which is transferred to the topdeck girders to the extent that they
quarter modules, gas compressor and injection modules, are often placed on anti-vibration
contribute to joint stiffness. It is most efficient to leave these bending moments in the column,
or trunnions.
The design should allow efficient prefabrication of major sections. Prefabrication will avoid
4.2 Fabrication
4.2.1 Operations
In Lecture 15A.1 the principal aspects of construction of offshore structures and their major
equipment was introduced.
For topsides more specific aspects are discussed below.
API-RP2A [1] requires larger load factors to be used for members direct-loaded by padeyes
4.1 Introduction
congestion in one working area and it speeds up the whole construction process.
Prefabrication and assembly shall properly incorporate the aspects of installation of major and
smaller mechanical equipment, as well as outfitting with piping, electrical and instrument
There are several ways to model the plate. The most direct is to choose a computer-program
which allows selection of plate elements. A second option is to define representative
members which model the plate stiffness by diagonals.
cables and lines. It should be recognized that major mechanical and electrical equipment is
often not available at the start of assembly and must be brought in during fabrication.
4.2.2 Design aspects
The deck plate is often positioned in the model at the elevation of the centre line, i.e. the mid
height of the main structure girders, in order to save nodes in the model. It should however be
recognised that this "error" of elevation, amounting to 0,5 - 1m, can affect the results. A
separate evaluation should then be performed on the effect to this deliberate "error" at least at
Since the overhead space is well covered by extensive piping routes as well as cable trays
during construction, "late" structural work should preferably not be positioned overhead in that
underfloor area.
The prefabrication concept and joint detailing should maximize welding productivity with many
Modules and deck structures interact structurally. API-RP2A [1] requires that modules are
modelled as elastic structures for the analysis of the supporting deck. In the 1970's major
Support to the topside during construction should be well controlled to avoid settlement and to
difficulties arose in the decks for concrete gravity structures, because modules were
represented as a set of loads for the different load cases, acting at the support points, and
neglecting structural interaction. The basic phenomenon of this interaction is that the
distribution of the support reactions of the module is quite unequal and varies with the load
Page 11 of 22
Page 12 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
Special consideration should be given to the selection of materials suitable for the fabrication.
Where thick-walled elements are involved requiring Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT), the
design should position such welding and the PWHT in the prefabrication phase.
4.3 Weight Engineering
The topside must be kept under strict weight control, as explained in Lecture 15A.10. To that
end the topside is usually weighed prior to load out. The basic design of a weighing system
usually consists of a set of hydraulic jacks with electrical load cells on top, installed between
the topside and the shop floor. The accuracy of such systems is typically 0,5-1%.
Accuracy is necessary in order to check the actual position of the centre of gravity.
Knowledge of the position is vital for the installation.
The system for support of the topside should be similar to the anticipated method of load out.
4.4 Load Out
4.4.1 Operations
The load out usually combines two operations:
moving the topside from the fabrication hall to the nearby quay
The short journey on land can be complicated when the track is not flat or curves have to be
taken.
The most preferred option for load out is therefore to use a platform trailer with individual
suspended wheels, see Figure 7 and Slide 1.
Page 13 of 22
Page 14 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
Special consideration should be given to the selection of materials suitable for the fabrication.
Where thick-walled elements are involved requiring Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT), the
design should position such welding and the PWHT in the prefabrication phase.
4.3 Weight Engineering
The topside must be kept under strict weight control, as explained in Lecture 15A.10. To that
end the topside is usually weighed prior to load out. The basic design of a weighing system
usually consists of a set of hydraulic jacks with electrical load cells on top, installed between
the topside and the shop floor. The accuracy of such systems is typically 0,5-1%.
Accuracy is necessary in order to check the actual position of the centre of gravity.
Knowledge of the position is vital for the installation.
The system for support of the topside should be similar to the anticipated method of load out.
4.4 Load Out
4.4.1 Operations
The load out usually combines two operations:
moving the topside from the fabrication hall to the nearby quay
The short journey on land can be complicated when the track is not flat or curves have to be
taken.
The most preferred option for load out is therefore to use a platform trailer with individual
suspended wheels, see Figure 7 and Slide 1.
Page 13 of 22
Page 14 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
When it reached the right position, the topside is set down on the beam grid of the sea
After completion of the load out and full fastening to the barge, the barge is ballasted to its
fastening.
The barge is towed by one or two tugs to the offshore location. There the barge is positioned
close alongside the crane vessel.
When using platform trailers the lower deck should be designed to meet three basic load-out
requirements:
the bottom flange plates of the transverse beams should all be in one plane
the lower deck should be able to take an upward reaction typically in the range of 50-
identification of critical clearances, e.g. (harbour depth, width of bridges or locks, etc
inshore)
A uniform distribution of loads is assumed for platform trailers. Skid systems which are not
provided with a proper load sharing system will lead to a non-uniform load distribution.
There is also the option with some crane vessels to transport the top side on board. Usually
4.5.1 Operations
an extra take over is required as the draft of the crane vessel exceeds the depth at the
fabricator's quay. The advantage however is that sea fastening requires less effort.
Sea transport is a very critical operation, especially for topsides (see Slide 2).
Furthermore, the offshore operation is simpler and quicker, as the most critical and weather
sensitive operation - lift off the barge- is avoided.
4.5.2 Design aspects of sea transport and sea fastening
Several elements of the structure are dominated by the load condition during transport, see
Lecture 15A.1.
All equipment in or on the topside is also subject to heavy loads, e.g. control panels,
generator skids, platform crane, during transport.
Internal bracing of topside for transport is not favoured since it creates obstacles and risk of
damage or fire to cables, instruments, piping and equipment during subsequent removal.
External bracing is also not without problems. The width of the topside requires an extra wide
barge. It is difficult to find "strong" points on the topside exterior. The basic concept is
therefore to fix the topside to the barge by its columns only.
The designer should be aware that the bending stiffness of the topside often exceeds that of
the barge. Considerable "composite" action can result when the barge deflects in heavy head-
on seas.
Page 15 of 22
Page 16 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
When it reached the right position, the topside is set down on the beam grid of the sea
After completion of the load out and full fastening to the barge, the barge is ballasted to its
fastening.
The barge is towed by one or two tugs to the offshore location. There the barge is positioned
close alongside the crane vessel.
When using platform trailers the lower deck should be designed to meet three basic load-out
requirements:
the bottom flange plates of the transverse beams should all be in one plane
the lower deck should be able to take an upward reaction typically in the range of 50-
identification of critical clearances, e.g. (harbour depth, width of bridges or locks, etc
inshore)
A uniform distribution of loads is assumed for platform trailers. Skid systems which are not
provided with a proper load sharing system will lead to a non-uniform load distribution.
There is also the option with some crane vessels to transport the top side on board. Usually
4.5.1 Operations
an extra take over is required as the draft of the crane vessel exceeds the depth at the
fabricator's quay. The advantage however is that sea fastening requires less effort.
Sea transport is a very critical operation, especially for topsides (see Slide 2).
Furthermore, the offshore operation is simpler and quicker, as the most critical and weather
sensitive operation - lift off the barge- is avoided.
4.5.2 Design aspects of sea transport and sea fastening
Several elements of the structure are dominated by the load condition during transport, see
Lecture 15A.1.
All equipment in or on the topside is also subject to heavy loads, e.g. control panels,
generator skids, platform crane, during transport.
Internal bracing of topside for transport is not favoured since it creates obstacles and risk of
damage or fire to cables, instruments, piping and equipment during subsequent removal.
External bracing is also not without problems. The width of the topside requires an extra wide
barge. It is difficult to find "strong" points on the topside exterior. The basic concept is
therefore to fix the topside to the barge by its columns only.
The designer should be aware that the bending stiffness of the topside often exceeds that of
the barge. Considerable "composite" action can result when the barge deflects in heavy head-
on seas.
Page 15 of 22
Page 16 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
It is very important for any sea fastening concept to consider aspects of de-seafastening, i.e.
cutting free, prior to lift off, and the need to remain safe in a moderate sea state.
De-seafastening should not require any handling by cranes. Braces cut loose at one end
should therefore remain stable and safe while fixed at one end only.
Design of the sea fastening should not require any welding in the column joint, since the
topside would not then be ready for immediate set down onto the jacket.
When the tow is more than one or two days long, fatigue may have to be considered on
critical nodes.
4.6 Installation
4.6.1 Operations
Installation on the substructure can be:
Page 17 of 22
Page 18 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
It is very important for any sea fastening concept to consider aspects of de-seafastening, i.e.
cutting free, prior to lift off, and the need to remain safe in a moderate sea state.
De-seafastening should not require any handling by cranes. Braces cut loose at one end
should therefore remain stable and safe while fixed at one end only.
Design of the sea fastening should not require any welding in the column joint, since the
topside would not then be ready for immediate set down onto the jacket.
When the tow is more than one or two days long, fatigue may have to be considered on
critical nodes.
4.6 Installation
4.6.1 Operations
Installation on the substructure can be:
Page 17 of 22
Page 18 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
The use of a spreader frame should only be considered in exceptional cases and does not
prevent module distortion. The padeye/shackle option is limited by the safe working load
(maximum 10MN) of the biggest shackle. The trunnion can accommodate higher loads.
the necessity (or not) for spreader bars or even spreader frames
For economic reasons, the overall construction strategy should keep hook up work to a
minimum. Critical hook up work is the work required immediately to secure the object in order
4.7 Hook up
Hook up is the completion of all joints and connections after installation.
4.8 Commissioning
A basic element in all elevations is the inevitable tolerance in sling length which leads to an
unequal distribution of sling forces (typically 25%-75%) in a four sling lift. The unequal sling
forces lead to significant stresses in the module (see Figure 8).
inspection is only possible when proper access to the area or joint is provided
minimum provisions, e.g. small clamps under the deck, greatly speeds up scaffolding
crack growth through fatigue is slow. A crack is usually detectable before one quarter
of its life is passed.
maximum use should be made of the results of inspection. Evaluation should lead to
modification of the inspection programme where appropriate.
4.10 Removal
Removal requirements are different from country to country. In some depths of water full
The use of spreader bars leads to a fully balanced lift without distorting the module. However
the spreader bar is quite expensive and usually leads to a requirement for a higher hook
elevation.
removal is required in some countries from the mudline upward. Elsewhere only the structure
75 m or more above the mudline must be removed.
Extensive engineering of removal is required to achieve a safe and effective operation. In the
Gulf of Mexico removed structures are dumped in the form of reefs. It is very difficult and
inefficient at present to include conceptual removal engineering in the design phase. When
Page 19 of 22
Page 20 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
The use of a spreader frame should only be considered in exceptional cases and does not
prevent module distortion. The padeye/shackle option is limited by the safe working load
(maximum 10MN) of the biggest shackle. The trunnion can accommodate higher loads.
the necessity (or not) for spreader bars or even spreader frames
For economic reasons, the overall construction strategy should keep hook up work to a
minimum. Critical hook up work is the work required immediately to secure the object in order
4.7 Hook up
Hook up is the completion of all joints and connections after installation.
4.8 Commissioning
A basic element in all elevations is the inevitable tolerance in sling length which leads to an
unequal distribution of sling forces (typically 25%-75%) in a four sling lift. The unequal sling
forces lead to significant stresses in the module (see Figure 8).
inspection is only possible when proper access to the area or joint is provided
minimum provisions, e.g. small clamps under the deck, greatly speeds up scaffolding
crack growth through fatigue is slow. A crack is usually detectable before one quarter
of its life is passed.
maximum use should be made of the results of inspection. Evaluation should lead to
modification of the inspection programme where appropriate.
4.10 Removal
Removal requirements are different from country to country. In some depths of water full
The use of spreader bars leads to a fully balanced lift without distorting the module. However
the spreader bar is quite expensive and usually leads to a requirement for a higher hook
elevation.
removal is required in some countries from the mudline upward. Elsewhere only the structure
75 m or more above the mudline must be removed.
Extensive engineering of removal is required to achieve a safe and effective operation. In the
Gulf of Mexico removed structures are dumped in the form of reefs. It is very difficult and
inefficient at present to include conceptual removal engineering in the design phase. When
Page 19 of 22
Page 20 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
re-use of the facility is planned, then removal engineering should be developed early in the
design.
American Petroleum Institute, 1st ed., 1987.
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Valuable specialist addendum to API-RP2A.
Structural systems for each type of topside structure were introduced, i.e. truss,
[5] D.v.d. Zee & A.G.J. Berkelder: Placid K12BP biggest Dutch production platform.
In the section on construction the different phases were presented in more detail, i.e.
i. fabrication
ii. weighing
vii. hook-up
[7] ANON: Gullfaks C platform deckmating.
viii. commissioning
A brief discussion on inspection and repair and on platform removal concluded the
lecture.
6. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2A: Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing fixed
platforms.
Page 21 of 22
Page 22 of 22
Lecture 15A.11
Lecture 15A.11
re-use of the facility is planned, then removal engineering should be developed early in the
design.
American Petroleum Institute, 1st ed., 1987.
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Valuable specialist addendum to API-RP2A.
Structural systems for each type of topside structure were introduced, i.e. truss,
[5] D.v.d. Zee & A.G.J. Berkelder: Placid K12BP biggest Dutch production platform.
In the section on construction the different phases were presented in more detail, i.e.
i. fabrication
ii. weighing
vii. hook-up
[7] ANON: Gullfaks C platform deckmating.
viii. commissioning
A brief discussion on inspection and repair and on platform removal concluded the
lecture.
6. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2A: Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing fixed
platforms.
Page 21 of 22
Page 22 of 22
Lecture 15A.12
Lecture 15A.12
1. INTRODUCTION
Large offshore deck structures have traditionally been built up using modular components,
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
see Lectures 15A.10 and 15A.11; a module support frame is built on top of the deck legs of
To outline and explain the best methods for forming structural connections in offshore deck
the jacket structure on which the various modules are installed. With the high lifting capacities
structures; to discuss the importance of a proper choice of connection type to achieve both
currently available, the topsides of light to medium offshore structures can now be installed in
one lift. This development has had a considerable influence on the fabrication and design of
deck structures, and has resulted in heavier modules, constructed of larger and heavier
PREREQUISITES
Another aspect influencing fabrication, and thus the design, was the development of cleaner
steels, with modified chemical compositions and good through-thickness properties. This so-
called TTP steel (i.e. steel with through-thickness properties, see Lecture 2.4) has a low
sulphur content to avoid lamellar tearing. Furthermore, if the carbon and carbon equivalent
(CEV) is low, the preheat temperature of the steel can be lowered, resulting in easier welding
(without preheating) which again influences the connection design.
The increase in lifting capacity, and the exploration for gas and oil in deeper water, have both
resulted in larger structures, and have stimulated the use of higher strength steels, with yield
strengths above 355 N/mm2.
The joints have to be designed to withstand the various loading conditions (see Lectures
15A.2 and 15A.3) experienced during fabrication, load-out, transport, installation and the inplace condition (operation and storm). In order to allow redistribution of stresses it is important
that the joints are stronger than the connected members; if this is not the case the joints
Lecture 4A.5: Corrosion Protection in Offshore Structures and Sheet Piling
The connection design should take account of all the aforementioned aspects and should be
considered as an interactive procedure involving the choice of the structural layout, the
fabrication sequence and the steel grades and qualities to be used. Other aspects such as
inspection and corrosion protection requirements must also be considered.
Since the fabrication costs are mainly governed by the costs of welding, the connections
SUMMARY
Various forms of structural connections in steel offshore deck structures are discussed; these
cover the connections between deck stringers and main beams, between main beams
themselves, between main beams and deck legs, truss connections and connections between
columns and beams. The importance of designing and dimensioning to minimise fabrication
and maintenance is emphasised.
Page 1 of 19
truss types
Page 2 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
Lecture 15A.12
1. INTRODUCTION
Large offshore deck structures have traditionally been built up using modular components,
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
see Lectures 15A.10 and 15A.11; a module support frame is built on top of the deck legs of
To outline and explain the best methods for forming structural connections in offshore deck
the jacket structure on which the various modules are installed. With the high lifting capacities
structures; to discuss the importance of a proper choice of connection type to achieve both
currently available, the topsides of light to medium offshore structures can now be installed in
one lift. This development has had a considerable influence on the fabrication and design of
deck structures, and has resulted in heavier modules, constructed of larger and heavier
PREREQUISITES
Another aspect influencing fabrication, and thus the design, was the development of cleaner
steels, with modified chemical compositions and good through-thickness properties. This so-
called TTP steel (i.e. steel with through-thickness properties, see Lecture 2.4) has a low
sulphur content to avoid lamellar tearing. Furthermore, if the carbon and carbon equivalent
(CEV) is low, the preheat temperature of the steel can be lowered, resulting in easier welding
(without preheating) which again influences the connection design.
The increase in lifting capacity, and the exploration for gas and oil in deeper water, have both
resulted in larger structures, and have stimulated the use of higher strength steels, with yield
strengths above 355 N/mm2.
The joints have to be designed to withstand the various loading conditions (see Lectures
15A.2 and 15A.3) experienced during fabrication, load-out, transport, installation and the inplace condition (operation and storm). In order to allow redistribution of stresses it is important
that the joints are stronger than the connected members; if this is not the case the joints
Lecture 4A.5: Corrosion Protection in Offshore Structures and Sheet Piling
The connection design should take account of all the aforementioned aspects and should be
considered as an interactive procedure involving the choice of the structural layout, the
fabrication sequence and the steel grades and qualities to be used. Other aspects such as
inspection and corrosion protection requirements must also be considered.
Since the fabrication costs are mainly governed by the costs of welding, the connections
SUMMARY
Various forms of structural connections in steel offshore deck structures are discussed; these
cover the connections between deck stringers and main beams, between main beams
themselves, between main beams and deck legs, truss connections and connections between
columns and beams. The importance of designing and dimensioning to minimise fabrication
and maintenance is emphasised.
Page 1 of 19
truss types
Page 2 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
frame types
stressed skin
Lecture 15A.12
As discussed in more detail in Lectures 15A.10 and 15A.11, the structural system for a deck
includes several of the following elements:
deck beams
Depending on their function, loading, and availability of sections, these elements can be
made of rolled I or H-sections, rolled circular or rectangular hollow sections, or welded
sections; for the larger sizes, welded I or box plate girders or welded tubular members are
used.
These elements have to be connected together; since the modules are generally fabricated
under controlled conditions at the fabrication yard, welded connections are common
practices. The main connection types are discussed more in detail below. Although it is
common practice in offshore design to use the API-RP2A [1] or the AISC rules [2], the basic
joint behaviour is discussed in this lecture without reference to the safety factors to be used.
3. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN DECK STRINGERS AND BEAMS
The deck floor structure can be designed as a floor plate with stringers, or as an orthotropic
plate. The floor plate with stringers is the most common type as it gives design flexibility for
later changes (local loads, deck penetrations, etc). Orthotropic plate structures, are generally
used in helidecks, see Lectures 15A.10 and 15A.11.
The use of stacked stringers, as shown in Figure 1, facilitates fabrication and is, therefore to
be preferred to the use of continuous connections, as shown in Figure 2.
For ease of fabrication, stiffeners should be avoided if possible. This means that the vertical
loads have to be transmitted by the webs, as shown in Figure 1, over length ls for the stringer,
Page 3 of 19
Page 4 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
frame types
stressed skin
Lecture 15A.12
As discussed in more detail in Lectures 15A.10 and 15A.11, the structural system for a deck
includes several of the following elements:
deck beams
Depending on their function, loading, and availability of sections, these elements can be
made of rolled I or H-sections, rolled circular or rectangular hollow sections, or welded
sections; for the larger sizes, welded I or box plate girders or welded tubular members are
used.
These elements have to be connected together; since the modules are generally fabricated
under controlled conditions at the fabrication yard, welded connections are common
practices. The main connection types are discussed more in detail below. Although it is
common practice in offshore design to use the API-RP2A [1] or the AISC rules [2], the basic
joint behaviour is discussed in this lecture without reference to the safety factors to be used.
3. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN DECK STRINGERS AND BEAMS
The deck floor structure can be designed as a floor plate with stringers, or as an orthotropic
plate. The floor plate with stringers is the most common type as it gives design flexibility for
later changes (local loads, deck penetrations, etc). Orthotropic plate structures, are generally
used in helidecks, see Lectures 15A.10 and 15A.11.
The use of stacked stringers, as shown in Figure 1, facilitates fabrication and is, therefore to
be preferred to the use of continuous connections, as shown in Figure 2.
For ease of fabrication, stiffeners should be avoided if possible. This means that the vertical
loads have to be transmitted by the webs, as shown in Figure 1, over length ls for the stringer,
Page 3 of 19
Page 4 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
Lecture 15A.12
and lb for the deck beam; web crippling failure is also possible and should be checked. These
are common details which are dealt with in Eurocode 3 [3] and other codes.
For the continuous connections, shown in Figure 2, the moment is assumed to be transferred
by the flange connection and the shear by the web connection.
The type of full penetration weld at the top flange for continuous connections depends on the
fabrication sequence and should be decided by the fabricator. The bottom flange and web
can generally be connected by fillet welds. A full penetration weld of the flange, without a
'mouse hole', is preferred because of corrosion protection although this results in a small weld
defect at the neck between flange and web. However, even under fatigue loading such a
defect can be accepted [4] the same is also valid for static loading. Only in cases where very
high strength steel (fy > 500N/mm2) is used and a high yield to ultimate stress ratio, e.g. fy/fu >
0,9 occurs should this detail be evaluated rigorously. Since all loading cases are not always
checked, the welds have to be designed to have at least the same strength as the connected
parts, i.e. as the flange or web.
It should be recognized that the shear stress distribution (Figure 2) for a detail with a 'mouse
hole' is more severe than that without a 'mouse hole'. Special attention should be given to the
unsupported upper side of the web in Figure 2b, as local buckling may be a problem, see
Lecture 6.2 and [5].
As an expensive alternative solution, a plate connecting the flanges can be slotted through
the web, as shown in Figure 4. Haunched alternatives are given in Lectures 15A.10 and
15A.11.
Page 5 of 19
Page 6 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
Lecture 15A.12
and lb for the deck beam; web crippling failure is also possible and should be checked. These
are common details which are dealt with in Eurocode 3 [3] and other codes.
For the continuous connections, shown in Figure 2, the moment is assumed to be transferred
by the flange connection and the shear by the web connection.
The type of full penetration weld at the top flange for continuous connections depends on the
fabrication sequence and should be decided by the fabricator. The bottom flange and web
can generally be connected by fillet welds. A full penetration weld of the flange, without a
'mouse hole', is preferred because of corrosion protection although this results in a small weld
defect at the neck between flange and web. However, even under fatigue loading such a
defect can be accepted [4] the same is also valid for static loading. Only in cases where very
high strength steel (fy > 500N/mm2) is used and a high yield to ultimate stress ratio, e.g. fy/fu >
0,9 occurs should this detail be evaluated rigorously. Since all loading cases are not always
checked, the welds have to be designed to have at least the same strength as the connected
parts, i.e. as the flange or web.
It should be recognized that the shear stress distribution (Figure 2) for a detail with a 'mouse
hole' is more severe than that without a 'mouse hole'. Special attention should be given to the
unsupported upper side of the web in Figure 2b, as local buckling may be a problem, see
Lecture 6.2 and [5].
As an expensive alternative solution, a plate connecting the flanges can be slotted through
the web, as shown in Figure 4. Haunched alternatives are given in Lectures 15A.10 and
15A.11.
Page 5 of 19
Page 6 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
Lecture 15A.12
All welds should be designed to have the strength of the connected parts.
Stiffened Connections
As a consequence the connection is as strong as the member; only in case of large 'mouse
The shear loads are transferred by the connection of the web plates to the tube walls. The
holes' the shear stress and possible local buckling of the unsupported web part [5] have to be
moment is transmitted by the diamond plate in combination with an effective ring width of the
checked.
tubular "can". The design resistance, for factored loading, is normally checked with the
experimental Kamba formula, which is simplified by Kurobane [6] as follows:
NRd =
legs, which are normally fabricated tubular members. For a frame type structure, this
connection should be rigid and capable of transmitting the yield moment resistance of the
Where,
NRd is the design resistance for the flange for factored loading
beams, as shown in Figure 5. This type of connection requires special material specifications
fy is the yield stress of deck leg "can"
bf =
Validity ranges:
The axial force in the flange N, is derived from N = Mcw/(h1 - t1) (see Figure 5). This formula is
based on the test results for a ring-stiffened joint with two opposite loads; more detailed
research is currently being carried out [7]. In the case of multi-planar loading, for four loads
acting in the same sense, the joint strength will be greater. However, if the two loads in one
direction are tensile and the two in the direction perpendicular to that are compressive, the
joint strength may be decreased. Reference [7] reports that this decrease was found to be a
maximum of 30%. Furthermore, if the deck leg is loaded by axial compressive stress
Page 7 of 19
Page 8 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
Lecture 15A.12
All welds should be designed to have the strength of the connected parts.
Stiffened Connections
As a consequence the connection is as strong as the member; only in case of large 'mouse
The shear loads are transferred by the connection of the web plates to the tube walls. The
holes' the shear stress and possible local buckling of the unsupported web part [5] have to be
moment is transmitted by the diamond plate in combination with an effective ring width of the
checked.
tubular "can". The design resistance, for factored loading, is normally checked with the
experimental Kamba formula, which is simplified by Kurobane [6] as follows:
NRd =
legs, which are normally fabricated tubular members. For a frame type structure, this
connection should be rigid and capable of transmitting the yield moment resistance of the
Where,
NRd is the design resistance for the flange for factored loading
beams, as shown in Figure 5. This type of connection requires special material specifications
fy is the yield stress of deck leg "can"
bf =
Validity ranges:
The axial force in the flange N, is derived from N = Mcw/(h1 - t1) (see Figure 5). This formula is
based on the test results for a ring-stiffened joint with two opposite loads; more detailed
research is currently being carried out [7]. In the case of multi-planar loading, for four loads
acting in the same sense, the joint strength will be greater. However, if the two loads in one
direction are tensile and the two in the direction perpendicular to that are compressive, the
joint strength may be decreased. Reference [7] reports that this decrease was found to be a
maximum of 30%. Furthermore, if the deck leg is loaded by axial compressive stress
Page 7 of 19
Page 8 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
Lecture 15A.12
amounting to 60% of the yield value, the strength of the connection has to be reduced by
The static design resistance for factored load of the unstiffened connection is determined by
20%.
the strength of the flange to tube connection, which can be based on Togo's ring model, see
Non-Stiffened Connections
Lecture 13.2. The design resistance for flange loads in one direction (X-joint loading) is given
For truss type frames, the beam to deck leg connection has to transfer mainly axial loading
and an unstiffened connection, as shown in Figure 6, could be used; this is, however, not yet
NRd =
common practice. If sufficient deformation capacity exists, the secondary bending moments
can be neglected for static loading. If fatigue loading has to be checked, however, care should
where:
be taken with these secondary bending moments, because the stress concentration factors at
the flange to tubular connection are rather high. For practical cases these stress
concentration factors can be in the order of 10 for
, see
[8].
NRd is the design strength for the flange for factored loading
fyo is the yield stress of joint "can"
to is the wall thickness of joint "can"
is the flange width b1 to "can" diameter do ratio
kp is the influence function for additional stress in the chord.
Validity ranges:
0,4 1,0
For bending moments in-plane, the axial force N is derived from N = Mcw/(h1 -t1) as shown in
Figure 5.
For an axial loading the flange connections can interact such that the connection strength (I to
tubular) is not twice the strength of one flange connection but:
NRd .
Consequently the beam to deck leg connection has to be checked for:
NSd NRd
Mipsd NR.d (h1 - t1)
Page 9 of 19
Page 10 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
Lecture 15A.12
amounting to 60% of the yield value, the strength of the connection has to be reduced by
The static design resistance for factored load of the unstiffened connection is determined by
20%.
the strength of the flange to tube connection, which can be based on Togo's ring model, see
Non-Stiffened Connections
Lecture 13.2. The design resistance for flange loads in one direction (X-joint loading) is given
For truss type frames, the beam to deck leg connection has to transfer mainly axial loading
and an unstiffened connection, as shown in Figure 6, could be used; this is, however, not yet
NRd =
common practice. If sufficient deformation capacity exists, the secondary bending moments
can be neglected for static loading. If fatigue loading has to be checked, however, care should
where:
be taken with these secondary bending moments, because the stress concentration factors at
the flange to tubular connection are rather high. For practical cases these stress
concentration factors can be in the order of 10 for
, see
[8].
NRd is the design strength for the flange for factored loading
fyo is the yield stress of joint "can"
to is the wall thickness of joint "can"
is the flange width b1 to "can" diameter do ratio
kp is the influence function for additional stress in the chord.
Validity ranges:
0,4 1,0
For bending moments in-plane, the axial force N is derived from N = Mcw/(h1 -t1) as shown in
Figure 5.
For an axial loading the flange connections can interact such that the connection strength (I to
tubular) is not twice the strength of one flange connection but:
NRd .
Consequently the beam to deck leg connection has to be checked for:
NSd NRd
Mipsd NR.d (h1 - t1)
Page 9 of 19
Page 10 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
Lecture 15A.12
Currently, for multi-planar loading with loads and moments acting in the opposite sense, the
The "joint can" should have about the same diameter and thickness as the column. In Figure
7 longitudinal beams and a cantilever beam are also connected to this can. The bending
investigations indicate that this may be conservative [10]. No reduction has to be applied if the
moment resistance is here determined by the connection of the bottom flange to the tubular
7. TRUSS CONNECTIONS
Columns between decks are necessary where external surfaces of the modules are clad, or
Since the chords of the trusses are part of the deck floors, they are almost always made from
where cantilevers or laydown areas are provided. The connection with the deck beams can
an I or H-section; in exceptional cases, welded box sections are used. The diagonals are
be flexible in the longitudinal direction if these columns have only to withstand lateral loading.
tubular, rectangular hollow sections, or H sections; all have their advantages and
If, however, they are used to transfer loadings from cantilevers to both decks, the connections
disadvantages with regard to material costs, maintenance and fabrication. Where these
should have the same strength as the column or they should have sufficient deformation
diagonals are connected to an I section chord, the chord should be stiffened to obtain a full
capacity.
strength connection; it should be kept in mind that intermediate beams may have to be
connected to the chord at this location. The connection should be designed in such a way that
Figure 7 shows a possible full strength detail for columns connected to a plate girder, with
possible connecting side beams and an extended cantilever. Here the web of the plate girder
is ended before the flange to allow a tubular section to be welded between the flanges. I-
beam sections, even with different depths, can be easily welded to this tubular section, and
the columns can be welded to the flanges.
These connections generally do not develop a strength equal to or larger than the yield
strength of the diagonals. Consequently the connection should have sufficient deformation
capacity. However experimental evidence is only available for the connection according to
Figure 8a.
From a fabrication point of view, the connections with a gap between the braces are
preferred. However the connections with overlapped braces as shown in Figures 8c and 8d
are stronger.
Page 11 of 19
Page 12 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
Lecture 15A.12
Currently, for multi-planar loading with loads and moments acting in the opposite sense, the
The "joint can" should have about the same diameter and thickness as the column. In Figure
7 longitudinal beams and a cantilever beam are also connected to this can. The bending
investigations indicate that this may be conservative [10]. No reduction has to be applied if the
moment resistance is here determined by the connection of the bottom flange to the tubular
7. TRUSS CONNECTIONS
Columns between decks are necessary where external surfaces of the modules are clad, or
Since the chords of the trusses are part of the deck floors, they are almost always made from
where cantilevers or laydown areas are provided. The connection with the deck beams can
an I or H-section; in exceptional cases, welded box sections are used. The diagonals are
be flexible in the longitudinal direction if these columns have only to withstand lateral loading.
tubular, rectangular hollow sections, or H sections; all have their advantages and
If, however, they are used to transfer loadings from cantilevers to both decks, the connections
disadvantages with regard to material costs, maintenance and fabrication. Where these
should have the same strength as the column or they should have sufficient deformation
diagonals are connected to an I section chord, the chord should be stiffened to obtain a full
capacity.
strength connection; it should be kept in mind that intermediate beams may have to be
connected to the chord at this location. The connection should be designed in such a way that
Figure 7 shows a possible full strength detail for columns connected to a plate girder, with
possible connecting side beams and an extended cantilever. Here the web of the plate girder
is ended before the flange to allow a tubular section to be welded between the flanges. I-
beam sections, even with different depths, can be easily welded to this tubular section, and
the columns can be welded to the flanges.
These connections generally do not develop a strength equal to or larger than the yield
strength of the diagonals. Consequently the connection should have sufficient deformation
capacity. However experimental evidence is only available for the connection according to
Figure 8a.
From a fabrication point of view, the connections with a gap between the braces are
preferred. However the connections with overlapped braces as shown in Figures 8c and 8d
are stronger.
Page 11 of 19
Page 12 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
Lecture 15A.12
The connection strength may be governed by various criteria, depending on the geometry, i.e:
The strength of the connection for axial loads at the chord intersection (cross-section A) is
governed by the effective width area:
For connections according to Figure 8a, Eurocode 3 [3] provides design strength formulae
which can be used in a modified way for the connections of Figure 8b to 8d.
and
Within the scope of this lecture it is not possible to deal with all connections in detail, however
one example is given for a connection between tubular braces and an I-section chord as
shown in Figure 9.
The effective widths bm1, bm2, be1 and be2 are given in Eurocode 3 (6.6.8 and Appendix K,
Table K.8.2).
As an additional check the chord cross-section between the braces has to be checked for
shear and shear in combination with axial loading and bending moments, see Table K.8.2 of
Eurocode 3.
The chord and braces have furthermore to satisfy the limits for d/t and h/t to avoid local
buckling.
Weld failure and lamellar tearing should always be avoided by choosing full strength welds
and proper selection of the steel grade and quality.
In these cases where the joint strength is lower than the brace member strength, sufficient
rotation capacity should be available if the bending moments are neglected. Since it is difficult
to show that sufficient deformation capacity exists due to a lack of research evidence, either
the bending moments have to be incorporated in the strength assessment or the joint is
stiffened to such an extent that the joint strength is larger than the brace member strength,
e.g. as shown in Figure 10.
Page 13 of 19
Page 14 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
Lecture 15A.12
The connection strength may be governed by various criteria, depending on the geometry, i.e:
The strength of the connection for axial loads at the chord intersection (cross-section A) is
governed by the effective width area:
For connections according to Figure 8a, Eurocode 3 [3] provides design strength formulae
which can be used in a modified way for the connections of Figure 8b to 8d.
and
Within the scope of this lecture it is not possible to deal with all connections in detail, however
one example is given for a connection between tubular braces and an I-section chord as
shown in Figure 9.
The effective widths bm1, bm2, be1 and be2 are given in Eurocode 3 (6.6.8 and Appendix K,
Table K.8.2).
As an additional check the chord cross-section between the braces has to be checked for
shear and shear in combination with axial loading and bending moments, see Table K.8.2 of
Eurocode 3.
The chord and braces have furthermore to satisfy the limits for d/t and h/t to avoid local
buckling.
Weld failure and lamellar tearing should always be avoided by choosing full strength welds
and proper selection of the steel grade and quality.
In these cases where the joint strength is lower than the brace member strength, sufficient
rotation capacity should be available if the bending moments are neglected. Since it is difficult
to show that sufficient deformation capacity exists due to a lack of research evidence, either
the bending moments have to be incorporated in the strength assessment or the joint is
stiffened to such an extent that the joint strength is larger than the brace member strength,
e.g. as shown in Figure 10.
Page 13 of 19
Page 14 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
Lecture 15A.12
Special provisions are necessary for lifting the modules; padeyes or trunnions, for example,
can be provided for this purpose, as shown in Figure 12; nowadays these devices are
sometimes made of cast steel. It is important that these lifting devices are designed in such a
way that they can be connected to the deck structure at a later stage when the precise
location of the centre of gravity of the module, and the lifting method, are known.
8. SPECIAL CONNECTIONS
The previous sections dealt with the most common types of connection; however, depending
on the platform layout, other types of connections may be necessary. Figure 11, for example,
shows the connection between two panels of stiffened plates. Here both panels are made by
(semi) automatic welding processes. Allowance is made for welding tolerances by welding the
ends of the stringers after the fitting together of the panels. This procedure can be used for
modules which are designed using the stressed skin method.
Strength of padeyes is often assessed by means of "Lloyds" formulae, which are presented in
the SWL (safe working load) format.
The SWL is the least of the following values of Ni:
N1 = 0,60 (a tL + 2 b tE) fy
N2 = 1,08 (c tL + (D - d) tE) fy
N3 = 0,87 d (tL + 2 tE) fy
Page 15 of 19
Page 16 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
Lecture 15A.12
Special provisions are necessary for lifting the modules; padeyes or trunnions, for example,
can be provided for this purpose, as shown in Figure 12; nowadays these devices are
sometimes made of cast steel. It is important that these lifting devices are designed in such a
way that they can be connected to the deck structure at a later stage when the precise
location of the centre of gravity of the module, and the lifting method, are known.
8. SPECIAL CONNECTIONS
The previous sections dealt with the most common types of connection; however, depending
on the platform layout, other types of connections may be necessary. Figure 11, for example,
shows the connection between two panels of stiffened plates. Here both panels are made by
(semi) automatic welding processes. Allowance is made for welding tolerances by welding the
ends of the stringers after the fitting together of the panels. This procedure can be used for
modules which are designed using the stressed skin method.
Strength of padeyes is often assessed by means of "Lloyds" formulae, which are presented in
the SWL (safe working load) format.
The SWL is the least of the following values of Ni:
N1 = 0,60 (a tL + 2 b tE) fy
N2 = 1,08 (c tL + (D - d) tE) fy
N3 = 0,87 d (tL + 2 tE) fy
Page 15 of 19
Page 16 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
Lecture 15A.12
10. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2A "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
1,0
and if
8,0
[2] AISC "Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for
1,0
dHOLE/dPIN 1,05
[3] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General Rules and
Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.
[4] Dijkstra, O.D., Wardenier, J. "The Fatigue Behaviour of Welded Splices with and without
Tubular connections are not dealt with in this lecture since these are discussed in more detail
in Lectures 13.2 and 13.3.
For offshore deck structures, built up from stiffened plate panels, reference should be made to
Lectures 8.3 and 8.4.
sections.
The optimal design of offshore deck structures depends, to a large extent, on the
coordination between structural, mechanical, electrical, fabrication, load out and
installation engineers is important.
coordination between the specialists for the various disciplines; for the layout,
[5] Lindner, F. and Gietzeit, R. "Zur Tragfhigkeit ausgeklinkter Trger" Stahlbauwz. 1985.
[7] Rink, H.D., Wardenier, J. and Winkel, G.D. de "Numerical Investigation into the Static
9. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
[6] Kurobane, Y. "New Developments and Practices in Tubular Joint Design". IIW doc. XV-
For living quarters and helicopter decks, use can be made of the information in the previous
Mouseholes in IPE 400 and HEM 320 beams". Paper 14 Int. Conference Weld Failures,
The structural designer has to consider the fabrication sequence; the conditions for
[8] Hertogs, A.A., Puthli, R.S. and Wardenier, J. "Stress Concentration Factors in Plate to
Tube Connections". Proceedings ASME/OMAE Conference, March 1989, Vol. II, pp. 719-727
[9] Wardenier, J. "Hollow Section Joints". Delft University Press, Delft, 1982
welding and inspection (e.g. can it be welded properly?); the consequences of the
[10] Broek, T.J. van der, Puthli, R.S. and Wardenier, J. "The Influence of Multiplanar Loading
choice of material grade and quality on the fabrication; and the various load
conditions.
In general, most connections can be designed with the basic formulae used for
tubular connections and beam-to-column connections. Background information is
[11] DNV "Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Fixed offshore Structures"
Recently a study has been carried out to investigate the use of RHS in deck
structures [16]. This shows that the use of RHS, instead of beams, for deck trusses
can be economical. However, due to restrictions in available sizes, economical
solutions are mainly found for smaller platform sizes and for secondary steelwork
such as staircase towers, access platforms and equipment supports.
[12] Lloyd's Register "Rules and Regulations for the Classification of Fixed Offshore
Installation". London, July 1988
[13] IIW-XV-E "Design Recommendations for Hollow Section Joints - Predominantly Statically
Loaded - 2nd edition". 1989, IIW doc XV-701-89
Page 17 of 19
Page 18 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
Lecture 15A.12
10. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2A "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
1,0
and if
8,0
[2] AISC "Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for
1,0
dHOLE/dPIN 1,05
[3] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General Rules and
Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.
[4] Dijkstra, O.D., Wardenier, J. "The Fatigue Behaviour of Welded Splices with and without
Tubular connections are not dealt with in this lecture since these are discussed in more detail
in Lectures 13.2 and 13.3.
For offshore deck structures, built up from stiffened plate panels, reference should be made to
Lectures 8.3 and 8.4.
sections.
The optimal design of offshore deck structures depends, to a large extent, on the
coordination between structural, mechanical, electrical, fabrication, load out and
installation engineers is important.
coordination between the specialists for the various disciplines; for the layout,
[5] Lindner, F. and Gietzeit, R. "Zur Tragfhigkeit ausgeklinkter Trger" Stahlbauwz. 1985.
[7] Rink, H.D., Wardenier, J. and Winkel, G.D. de "Numerical Investigation into the Static
9. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
[6] Kurobane, Y. "New Developments and Practices in Tubular Joint Design". IIW doc. XV-
For living quarters and helicopter decks, use can be made of the information in the previous
Mouseholes in IPE 400 and HEM 320 beams". Paper 14 Int. Conference Weld Failures,
The structural designer has to consider the fabrication sequence; the conditions for
[8] Hertogs, A.A., Puthli, R.S. and Wardenier, J. "Stress Concentration Factors in Plate to
Tube Connections". Proceedings ASME/OMAE Conference, March 1989, Vol. II, pp. 719-727
[9] Wardenier, J. "Hollow Section Joints". Delft University Press, Delft, 1982
welding and inspection (e.g. can it be welded properly?); the consequences of the
[10] Broek, T.J. van der, Puthli, R.S. and Wardenier, J. "The Influence of Multiplanar Loading
choice of material grade and quality on the fabrication; and the various load
conditions.
In general, most connections can be designed with the basic formulae used for
tubular connections and beam-to-column connections. Background information is
[11] DNV "Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Fixed offshore Structures"
Recently a study has been carried out to investigate the use of RHS in deck
structures [16]. This shows that the use of RHS, instead of beams, for deck trusses
can be economical. However, due to restrictions in available sizes, economical
solutions are mainly found for smaller platform sizes and for secondary steelwork
such as staircase towers, access platforms and equipment supports.
[12] Lloyd's Register "Rules and Regulations for the Classification of Fixed Offshore
Installation". London, July 1988
[13] IIW-XV-E "Design Recommendations for Hollow Section Joints - Predominantly Statically
Loaded - 2nd edition". 1989, IIW doc XV-701-89
Page 17 of 19
Page 18 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
[14] UEG "Design of Tubular Joints for Offshore Structures". UEG, London, 1985 (3 volumes)
[15] Voss, R.P. "Lasteinleitung in geschweisste Vollwandtrger aus Stahl im Hinblick auf die
Bemessung von Lagersteifen". Ph.D-Thesis, TU Berlin D83, 1983
[16] Guy, H.D. "Structural Hollow Sections for Topside Constructions". Steel Construction
Today, 1990, 4
11. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Marshall, P.W. "Design of Welded Tubular Connections: Basis and Use of AWS
Provisions". Elsvier, 1991
2. Schaap, D., Pal, A.H.M. v.d., Vries, A. de., Dague. D. and Wardenier,J. "The Design
of Amoco's 'Rijn' Production Platform". Proceedings of the International Conference
on Steel and Aluminium Structures, Cardiff, UK, 8-10 July 1987, Vol. Steel Structures
3. Paul, J.C., Valk, C.A.C. v.d., and Wardenier, J. "The Static Strength of Circular
Multiplanar X-joints". Proceedings of the third IIW International Symposium on
Tubular Structures, Lappeenranta, September 1989
Page 19 of 19
Lecture 15A.12
[14] UEG "Design of Tubular Joints for Offshore Structures". UEG, London, 1985 (3 volumes)
[15] Voss, R.P. "Lasteinleitung in geschweisste Vollwandtrger aus Stahl im Hinblick auf die
Bemessung von Lagersteifen". Ph.D-Thesis, TU Berlin D83, 1983
[16] Guy, H.D. "Structural Hollow Sections for Topside Constructions". Steel Construction
Today, 1990, 4
11. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Marshall, P.W. "Design of Welded Tubular Connections: Basis and Use of AWS
Provisions". Elsvier, 1991
2. Schaap, D., Pal, A.H.M. v.d., Vries, A. de., Dague. D. and Wardenier,J. "The Design
of Amoco's 'Rijn' Production Platform". Proceedings of the International Conference
on Steel and Aluminium Structures, Cardiff, UK, 8-10 July 1987, Vol. Steel Structures
3. Paul, J.C., Valk, C.A.C. v.d., and Wardenier, J. "The Static Strength of Circular
Multiplanar X-joints". Proceedings of the third IIW International Symposium on
Tubular Structures, Lappeenranta, September 1989
Page 19 of 19