WCDMA Radio Theory

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Hi-Tech Industrial Park,
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P. R. China
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800-9830-9830
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URL: http://support.zte.com.cn
E-mail: doc@zte.com.cn

Contents
Chapter 1........................................................................................1
Overview of WCDMA...................................................................1
Overview ......................................................................1
WCDMA Tec hnical Standards Development Trends ...............3
3GPP Standard Development Status ............................................ 3
Analysis on 3GPP standard Version Evolution ............................... 6
Analysis on Evolution of 3GPP Technologies ................................. 7

IMT2000 Frequency Band Allocation ................................ 13

Composition of WCDMA System ...................................... 14
UE (User Equipment )................................................................ 15
UTRAN (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network ) ...................... 15
CN (Core Network) .................................................................... 16

Chapter 2..................................................................................... 19
WCDMA Technology Basics ................................................... 19
Concept of WCDMA Realizing Broadband Communication .... 19
Basic Concepts of CDMA ............................................................ 20
Basic Concepts of Spread Spectrum Communication .................. 22

Transmission of Electric Waves in Mobile Environment ........ 24

Features of Land Mobile Communication Environment ................ 24
Signal Fading in Radio Path ....................................................... 25

Fundamentals of the WCDMA Technology ......................... 26

Channel Coding/Decoding.......................................................... 26
Principles of Interleaving/Deinterleaving .................................... 26
Spread Spectrum ...................................................................... 27
Modulation and Demodulation ................................................... 29

Cha p te r

Overview of WCDMA

Overview
The 3rd Generation Mobile Communication System (3G) is put
on agenda when the 2nd generation (2G) digital mobile
communication
market
is
booming.
The
2G
mobile
communication system has the following disadvantages: limited
frequency spectrum resources, low frequency spectrum
utilization, and weak support for mobile multimedia services
(providing only speech and low-speed data services). Also,
thanks to incompatibility between 2G systems, the 2G mobile
communication system has a low system capacity, hardly
meeting the demand for high-speed bandw idth services and
impossible for the system to implement global roaming.
Therefore, the 3G communication technology is a natural result
in the advancement of the 2G mobile communication.
As the Internet data services become increasingly popular
nowadays, the 3G communication technology opens the door to
a brand new mobile communication world. It brings more fun to
the people. In addition to clearer voice services, it allows users
to conduct multimedia communications with their personal
mobile terminals, for example, Internet browsing, multimedia
database access, real-time stock quotes query, videophone,
mobile e-commerce, interactive games, wireless personal audio
player, video transmission, know ledge acquisition, and
entertainments. What more unique are location related services,
which allow users to know about their surroundings at anytime
anywhere, for example, block map, locations of hotels and super
markets, and weather forecast. The 3G mobile phone is bound
to become a good assistant to peoples life and work.
The 3G mobile communication aims at meeting the future
demand for mobile user capacity and providing mobile data and
multimedia communication services.
Initially, mobile communication technologies were developed
separately, as various count ries and technical organizations
continued to develop their own technologies. Thus, the USA has

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Basal Theory

AMPS, D-AMPS, IS-136, and IS-95, Japan has PHS, PDC, and
the EU has GSM. On one hand, this situation helped to meet the
needs of the users at the early stage of mobile communication
and expand the mobile communication market. On another hand,
it created barriers between the regions, and made it necessary
to unify the mobile communication systems globally. Under such
a context, ITU launched the standardization of t he 3G mobile
communication system in 1985.
The 3G mobile communication system, IMT -2000, is the general
term for the next generation communication system proposed
by ITU in 1985, when it was actually referred to as Future Public
Land Mobile Telecommunicat ions System (FPLMTS). In 1996, it
was officially renamed to IMT-2000. In addition, the 3G mobile
communication technology extends the integrated bandw idth
network service as far as it can to the mobile environment,
transmitting multimedia information including high quality
images at rates up to 10 Mbps.
Compared with the existing 2G system, the 3G system has the
follow ing characteristics as summarized below:
1. Support for multimedia services, especially Internet services
2. Easy transition and evolution
3. High f requency spectrum utilization
Currently, the three typical 3G mobile communication
technology standards in the world are CDMA2000, WCDMA and
TD-SCDMA. CDMA2000 and WCDMA work in the FDD mode,
while TD-SCDMA works in the TDD mode, where the uplink and
downlink of the system work in different timeslots of the same
frequency.
The 3G mobile communication is designed to provide diversified
and high-quality multimedia services. To achieve these purposes,
the wireless transmission technology must meet the follow ing
requirements:
1. High-speed transmission to support multimedia services

Indoor environment: >2 Mbps

Outdoor walking environment: 384 Mbps

Outdoor vehicle moving: 144 kbps

2. Allocation of transmission rates according to needs

3. Accommodation to asymmetrical needs on the uplink and
downlink
In the concept evaluation of the 3G mobile communication
specification proposals, the WCDMA technology is adopted as
one of the mainstream 3G technologies thanks to its own
technical advantages.

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Chapter 1 Overview of WCDMA

WCDMA Technical
Standards Development
Trends
WCDMA was originated by standardization organizations and
manufacturers in European countries and Japan. WCDMA
inherits the high standardization and openness of GSM, and its
standardization progresses smoothly. WCDMA is the third
generation mobile communication standard developed by 3GPP,
with the GSM MAP as its core and UTRAN (UMTS Terrestrial
Radio Access Network) as its wireless interface. Using the chip
rate of 3.84 Mbps, it provides data transmission rate up to 14.4
Mbps within 5 MHz bandwidth.
The WCDMA technology has the following characteristics:

Supporting both asynchronous and synchronous BTSs, for

easy and flexible networking
Using QPSK modulation mode (the HSDPA services also use
the 16QAM modulation mode)
Using pilot assisted coherent demodulation
Accommodating transmission of multiple rates, and
implementing multi-rate and multimedia services by
changing the spread spectrum ratio and using multi- mode
concurrent transmission
Rapid and efficient power control of uplink/downlink greatly
reduces multiple access interference of the system, but
increases the system capacity while reducing the
transmission power.
The core network is evolving based on the GSM/GPRS
network, and maintains compatibility with the GSM/GPRS
network.
Supporting soft handover and softer handover, w ith three
handover modes, inter-sector soft handover, inter-cell soft
handover, and inter-carrier hard handover

3GPP Standard Development Status

3GPP standard versions include R9 9, R4, R5, R6 and R7.
R99 version was f rozen formally in Mar, 2000, and refreshes
once every three months. Current commercial version of R99 is
based on the version of June, 2001, for in later version, the
number of CR is decreasing rapidly and there are no larger
modifications and non-compatible upgrade.

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Basal Theory

R4 version was frozen in Mar, 2001. It passed in Mar, 2002 and

is stable currently. R5 version was frozen in June, 2002 and is
stable currently. Most R5 versions that providers support are the
version of June, 2004. R6 version was frozen in June, 2005 and
may be stable in a year. At present, R7/LTE has started up and
its functional features are still in initial phase.
R99 and R4 versions are put into commercial use maturely. R6
version protocols are in developing status.

Basic Network Structure Based on R99

FI G U R E 1

B AS I C NE TW O R K S TR U C TU R E OF R99

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Chapter 1 Overview of WCDMA

The R99 is the first phase version of 3GPP in 3G network

standardization. The R99 was already frozen in June 2001, and
subsequent revision is made on the R4. The basic configuration
structure of the R99 is illustrated in Figure 1 . To guarantee the
invest ment interests of telecom operators, the network structure
of the R99 is designed w ith 2G/3G c ompatibility fully in mind, for
smooth evolution to 3G. Therefore, the core network in the basic
network structure remains unchanged. To support 3G services,
some NEs are added with appropriate interface protocols, and
the original interface protocols are also improved by different
degrees.

Network Structure Based on UMTS R4

Same as the R99 network, the basic structure of the R4 network
consists of the core network and wireless access network, and
there are the CS domain and PS domain on the core network
side. The basic NE entities and the interfaces are largely
inherited from the def initions of entities and interfaces of the
R99 network. The network entities w ith the same definitions as
the R99 network remain unchanged in basic functionality, and
the related protocols are also similar.
Compared with the R99, the R4 network structure has
tremendous changes in the structure of the CS domain of the
core network, while those of the PS domain of the core network
and of the UTRAN also remain the same.
According to the idea of separation between call control, bearer
and bearer control, the network entity (G) MSC of the CS
domain of the R99 network evolves to the MGW and (G)
MSCServer in the R4 stage, with R-SGW and T-SGW added. In
addition, related interfaces are also changed, with the Mc
interface added between the MGW and MSC Sever, the Nc
interface between the MSC Sever and GMSC Sever, and the Nb
interface between MGWs, and the Mh interface between the
MR-MGW and HLR.

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Basal Theory

FI G U R E 2

B AS I C NE TW O R K S TR U C TU R E OF TH E R4

Gi

PSTN

PSTN PSTN

T-SGW

CSMGW

Mc

GMSC
server

GGSN

Mh

Gc

HSS(HLR) H AuC

Nc
PSTN
Nb

G
B

MSC server

VLR

Gn

Gr

EIR

VLR

Gf
Gs

SGSN

MSC server

Nc

Gp

R-SGW

Mc

Mc

CN

CS-MGW

CS-MGW
Nb
A

Gb

IuPS

IuCS

RNS

BSS
BSC
Abis

BTS

Iur

RNC

RNC

Iub

BTS

Node B

Node B

cell

Um

Uu
ME
SIM-ME i/f

or

SIM

Cu

USIM
MS

Analysis on 3GPP standard Version

Evolution
During the evolution from GSM/GPRS to 3GPP R99, brand
UTRAN introduced includes such key technologies as WCDMA,
power control, multipath Ra ke receiver. In addition, four QoS
service types are put forward and cell peak rate supports up to 2
Mbps. CN basically develops from GSM/GPRS CN. It reduces the
influence on GSM/GPRS CN caused by the introduction of UT RAN
CN furthest. Most representative features of R4 from R99:
Separation of CS domain control layer and transmission layer,

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Chapter 1 Overview of WCDMA

convergence of transmission resources in CS and PS domains,

and increase of resource transmission efficiency.
UTRAN in R4 version does not have substantive evolution and
only performs some optimizations.
During the evolution from R4 to R5, IP multimedia subsystem is
introduced into CN and the interface connecting GERAN is added.
There is great change in UT RAN: IP transmission technology and
HSDPA are introduced, which makes peak rate of the cell up to
about 10 Mbps, much greater than the peak bandw idth that R4
and R99 versions can support (in the field, WCDMA supporting
HSDPA is called 3.5 G). R5 also supports Iu Flexible, allow ing a
RNC to access several MSCs or SGSNs simultaneously, w hich
saves invest ment on access network resources for operators.
intercommunication of WLAN and UMTS. UTRAN evolution
includes: MBMS, HSUPA, enhanced HSDPA, wave cluster
figuration technology to increase coverage capacity, 3GPP RET
and MOCN.
In R7 plans. WCDMA will be developing in tot al IP direction. In
addition, intercommunication of UTMS with other networks (such
as, VLAN) and enhanced MBMS w ill be increased.

Analysis on Evolution of 3GPP

Technologies
Evolution of CN Technology

Total IP CN
Brand UT RAN is introduced in initial phase of 3GPP R99, to
reduce the influence of UTRAN on CN. Introduction policy of
CN is developed from GSM/GPRS CN.
During the evolution from R99 to R4, CN realizes the
separation of CS domain control layer and transmission layer,
realizes voice packet and signaling packet, transmits CS and
PS domains application in CN based on one IP.
During the evolution from R4 to R5, 3GPP CN introduced IMS
based on packet domain. IMS adopts Session Initiation
Protocol (SIP) that IETF defines and provides IP services that
Qos is sensitive to (such as, VoIP) in packet switching
domain, to intercommunicate fixed IP terminal and 3G
mobile terminal.
In R6 version, functions of IMS are enhanced greatly,
including the intercommunication of local IP multimedia
network and other IP mult imedia networks,
intercommunication of IMS and CS, intercommunication of
IMS based on IPV4 and IPV6, multi-party conference service,
IMS group management and SIP appended to IMS. As a

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Basal Theory

result, wider and more flexible IP-based multimedia services

are provide d for operation.
During the evolution from R99 to R7, CN may absolutely
abandon circuit switching domain in the future and develops
into a total IP service mobile network.

Network sharing
In 3GPP R99/R4, one RNC can only connect one MSC or
SGSN, resulting in low utilization ratio of resources.
In R5, Iu-Flex is introduced between CN and UTRAN,
realizing the UT RAN resources sharing among several nodes
of one operator. It saves the cost on UTRAN and
substantially develops the network sharing technology.
In R6, network sharing function is expanded continuously,
which provides the configuration mode of Multiple Operator
Core Network (MOCN). MOCN allows several operators to
share one radio access network in sharing area. As a result,
operators can save invest ment on UTRAN.

Amalgamation with other networks

In 3GPP R6, intercommunication and amalgamation of UMTS
and WLAN are fulfilled (Phase I), which is strengthened in R7
plans (Phase II). In addition, in R7, def ines feasibility of total
IP
network
operation.
Intercommunication
and
amalgamation of CN w ith other networks is future
development trend.

Evolution of Radio Access Network Technologies

High-speed broadband access

Compared with GSM/GPSR RAN, R99 introduced new UT RAN.
UTRAN is based on WCDMA radio interface t echnology. Its
signal bandw idth is 5 MHz. Its code chip rate is 3.84 Mbps.
Its cell downlink service bandwidth is about 2 M.
R4 version has no large change in radio access.
In R5 version, HSDPA is introduced. It adopts 16 QAM
modulation mode, which greatly increases spectrum
utilization ratio. Cell downlink peak rate reaches 14 Mbps. In
the field, the system supporting HSDPA is defaulted as 3.5 G
system.
In R6 version, HSUPA is introduced, which makes cell uplink
peak rate up to 5.7 Mbps.
In R7 version, Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO)
antenna technology is introduces, which enables several
transmitting and receiving antennas to send and receive
signals in same band. As a result, system capacity and
spectrum utilization ratio is increased in germination. MIMO
antenna technology meets the requirements for high speed
services in future mobile communication system. In Long

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Chapter 1 Overview of WCDMA

Term Evolution (LTE) items, Orthogonal Frequency Division

Multiplexing (OF DM) is introduced, which makes cell
downlink peak rate up to 39 Mbps. It may develop as the
core technology base of 3G advanced system (such as,
Beyond 3G, 3.9G and E3G). With continuous development of
3GPP standardization, OF DM will be applied to broadband
mobile communication field more widely in the near future.
In the future, MIMO and OF DM technologies will combine.
System test results improve that MIMO-OFDM system w hich
has two transmission antennas and two receiving antennas
can provide the data transmission rate from score to a
hundred million.
In a word, evolution process of radio access network on
access bandwidth is: 2 Mbps (R99) HSDPA DL 14 Mbps
(R5) HSDPA DL 14 Mbps/HSUPA UL 5.7 Mbps (R6) -->
MIMO (R7) OF DM (LTE). Its evolution is to introduce all
kinds of technologies, increasing spectrum utilization ratio
furthest and meeting the requirements for high speed data
transmiss ion.

Mobile management
From R99 version, WCDMA has differences from GSM/GPRS
in mobile management, including soft handover, Iur interface,
re-positioning, handover and reselection between 2/3G.
From R4 version, Iur interface has introduced such flows as
public measurement and radio link congestion, which makes
radio resource management and load control of Iur interface
be organic part of UTRAN. At the same time, amalgamation
criteria with GERAN are under way, including Iur-g, cell
change that network aids.

IP transmission
UTRAN in R99/R4 versions adopts TDM and ATM. CN in R4
version successfully introduces the base of IP transmission
technology.
3GPP UT RAN in R5 version also introduces IP transmission
technology. IP transmission is a selective technology of
UTRAN and it makes UTRAN transmit based on IP core
switching network. As a result, flexibility of transmission
networking is increased and construction cost of operators is
reduced. IP transmission is also UT RAN transmission
development trend.
In transmiss ion, R4/R5 versions added transmission bearer
modification and reconfiguration, to further optimize the
performance of transmission bearer.

Antenna technology
During the evolution of 3GPP standards, 3GPP also has
evolution in antenna technology and antenna evolution
process is: Two projects of wave cluster figuration (R5)
Fixed wave cluster figuration project and 3GPP electronic
modulation antenna (R6) MIMO (R7).

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Basal Theory

The evolution is to improve link performance of the system

by introducing all kinds of antenna technologies, increasing
system capacity.
In R5 version, radio wave cluster figuration technology is
introduced to increase system link performance and capacity.
Two projects are put forward: f ixed wave cluster figuration
and user special wave cluster figuration. In R6 version, user
special wave cluster figuration project is deleted and fixed
wave cluster figuration project is decided.
In mobile BS network planning and optimization, common
measure is to remotely modulate antennas of BS system.
Most operators purchase antennas from third party. In these
years, Antenna Interface Standard Group (AISG) has put
forward AISG interface standards. However, since 3GPP does
not definite antenna interfaces in R99/R4/R5 phases, it is
difficulty for manufacturers to have same antenna interface,
antenna type and network optimization. Therefore, in R6
version, 3GPP uniforms interface of RET and introduces Iuant
antenna interfaces. Standardization of RET interfaces makes
remote network optimization possible on condition that
several manufacturers provide antennas.
In R7 version, 3GPP puts forward MIMO, which increases
system capacity
and
spectrum utilization
ratio
in
germinations. Although MIMO is not mature at present, it is a
great breakthrough of antenna technology in mobile
communication field and also a developing direction of future
intelligent antenna technology.

Positioning technology
In R99 version, UE positioning technology based on cell ID is
introduced. It is a rough positioning technology. In R99
version, frames of OTDOA and A-GPS are introduced, too.
In R4 version, criteria of Iub/Iur interfaces are put forward,
which improves OTDOA and A- GPS positioning technologies.
In R5 version, criteria of SMLC-SRNC interfaces are put
forward and they are open to support A-GPS positioning
technology (not supporting other positioning technologies).
In R4 and R5, lowest performance requirements for A- GPS
measurement are not given. Therefore, in R6 version,
positioning precision of A-GPS is def ined (positioning range
of a mobile station is 30 to 100 m and response time is 2 to
20 s. In R6 version, SMLC-SRNC interfaces are open to
support three positioning technologies (CellID, OTDOA and
A-GPS).
In R7 version, Uplink-Time Difference Of Arrival (U-TDOA) is
put forward. It is hoped to provide solutions that are more
flexible and whose positioning precision is higher.
The evolution process of positioning technology is: Cell ID
OTDOA AGPS U-TDOA. It is a process from rough
positioning technology to the positioning technology with

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Chapter 1 Overview of WCDMA

high precision. All positioning technologies

supplements to each other during the application.

can

be

Evolution of UMTS QoS Technology

With the close combination of radio communication technology
and IP technology, mobile communication network develops
from circuit switching network of GSM to packet switching
network of GSM, and to 3G, 3.5G and UMTS that provide high
speed real-time data services. During the whole evolution of
mobile network, QoS technology develops to mature to provide
satisfactory services according to features of different services.
Analysis on QoS in GSM, GPRS, R99, R4, R5, R6 and R7 tell
development of mobile network QoS.
GSM is based on circuit switching mode. It is simple. Connection
of circuit can ensure QoS. GSM defines a series of circuit bearer
services,
including
parameters
of
synchronization/asynchronization, transparent/non-transparent,
and limited bit rate set. They are continuously effective during
the evolution of mobile network.
GPRS is based on packet switching mode. There is no
Connection concept in GPRS, so QoS assurance of GPRS is
more complicated than that of GSM. QoS parameters that GPRS
defines are: Delay level, confidence level, largest data flow, PRI,
even data flow and retransmission demand. QoS parameters can
be transmitted between UE and SGSN/GGSN.
QoS of UMTS is to provide end-to-end assurance of services,
which is introduced in R99 version, as shown in Figure 3 .
End-to-end QoS covers all NEs, including user terminal, access
network entity and CN entity. Processing of different interface
QoS parameters must be same. The introduction of QoS layered
architecture is a large advancement during the QoS evolution.

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Basal Theory

FI G U R E 3

Q O S FR AME O F UM T S

UMTS
TE

MT

UTRAN

CN Iu
EDGE
NODE

CN
Gateway

TE

End-to-End Service
TE/MT Local
Bearer Service

External
Bearer Service

UMTS Bearer Service

Radio Access Bearer Service

Radio
Bearer Service

Iu
Bearer Service

UTRA
FDD/TDD
Service

Physical
Bearer Service

CN Bearer
Service
Backbone
Bearer Service

Operators decide the bearer mode that UMTS CN adopts. Its

circuit domain can support TDM and ATM bearing modes (in R4
and later version, transmission and control in circuit domain is
separated and IP transmission is selective). Its packet domain
supports IP bearer. TDM and ATM bearers both provide QoS
assurance. IP bearer of CN adopts the QoS technology that IETF
defines, including integrated service/resource preservation
(IntServ/RSVP), Multiple Protocol Label Switching (MPLS),
Differential Service (DiffServ), flow project and constraint -based
path seek, and so on.
In R99 version, four QoS types are introduced: Conversational,
data streaming, interactive and background. It also defines QoS
parameters more than GSM and GPRS. There are new
requirements for transmission delay, retransmission mechanism,
jitter and code error rate of above four types.
In R4 version, QoS that AAL2 connects on Iub and Iur is
optimized, to improve real-time services support. In addition,
QoS negotiation mechanism of radio access bearer is introduced
to make use of radio resources more effectively and to enhance
the construction capability of radio access bearer.
In R5 version, intercommunication and combination of UE local
bearer service, GPRS bearer service and outer bearer service are
defined. They provide QoS assurance for end-to-end services in
packet domain. In UE and GGSN, IP BS Manager may exist. It
usually uses DiffServ and IntServ/RSVP to communicate with
outer IP network. IMS, which is QoS policy control mechanism
based on services, is also introduced in R5 version.

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Chapter 1 Overview of WCDMA

In R6 version, QoS policy control mechanism based on services

is evolved as an independent functional entity, providing
services in all packet domains with QoS policy control
mechanism based on services. This mechanism separates
control and execution of QoS. Network administrator can
consider the whole network, without paying attention to details,
such as, technology and equipment. It reflects the intelligent
management of QoS.
In R7 version, amalgamation of UTMS and WLAN is put forward.
Uniform IP QoS is what future UMTS QoS technology will develop
to.
Evolution process of QoS is: QoS parameters do not transmit in
the network (GSM) QoS parameters transmit between UE and
SGSN/GGSN Number of QoS parameters increase (GPRS)
QoS layered architecture, four QoS types, QoS that IETF defines,
all NEs that QoS parameters cover, new change in parameters,
the number of parameters increase (R99) QoS negotiation
mechanism of radio access bearer (R4) QoS policy control
mechanism based on services in IMS (R5) QoS policy control
mechanism based on services in all packet domain (R6)
Uniform IP QoS in the amalgamation of UMTS and WLAN (R7
and later version).

IMT2000 Frequency Band

Allocation
In 1992, World Radio-communication Conference (WRC-92)
allocated the frequency bands for the 3G mobile communication,
with a total bandwidth of 230 MHz, as shown in Figure 4.

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Basal Theory

FI G U R E 4 FR E Q U E N C Y S P E C TR U M A L L O C ATI O N O F 3G M O B I L E
C O MMU N I C ATI O N

At WRC92, ITU planned the symmetric frequency spectrum

resources of 120MHz (1920MHz ~ 1980MHz, 2110MHz ~
2170MHz) for use by the F DD, and asymmetric frequency
spectrum resources of 35MHz (1900MHz ~ 1920MHz, 2010MHz
~ 2025MHz) for use by the TDD.
At WRC2000, the 800 MHz band (806MHz ~ 960MHz), 1.7GHz
band (1710MHz ~ 1885MHz), and 2.5GHz band (2500MHz ~
2690MHz) were added for use by the IMT -2000 services. These
two combined make the future spectrum for 3G reach over 500
MHz, reserving enormous resource space for future applications.

Composition of WCDMA
System
The Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS) is a 3G
mobile communication system adopting WCDMA air interface.
Therefore, the UMTS is usually called a WCDMA system.
In terms of functions, the network units comprise the Radio
Access Network (RAN) and Core Network (CN). The RAN
accomplishes all the functions related to radio communication.
The CN handles the exchange and routing of all the calls and
data connections within the UMTS with external networks. The
RAN, CN, and the User Equipment (UE) together constitute the
whole UMTS.

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Chapter 1 Overview of WCDMA

UE (User Equipment )
The UE is an equipment which can be vehicle installed or hand
portable. Through the Uu interface, the UE exchanges data with
network equipment and provides various CS domain and PS
domain services, including common voice services, broadband
voice services, mobile multimedia services, and Internet
applications (such as E-mail, WWW browse, and FTP).

UTRAN (UMTS Terrestrial Radio

Access Network )
The UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UT RAN) comprises
Node B and Radio network Controller (RNC).
1) Node B1.
As the base station (wireless transceiver) in the WCDMA
system, the Node B is composed of the wireless transceiver
and baseband processing part. Connected with the RNC
through standard Iub interface, Node B processes the Un
interface physical layer protocols. It provides the functions of
spectrum spreading/despreading, modulation/demodulation,
channel coding/decoding, and mutual conversion between
baseband signals and radio signaling.
2) RNC
The RNC manages various interfaces, establishes and
releases
connections,
performs
handoff
and
macro
diversity/combination, and manages and controls radio
resources. It connects with the MSC and SGSN through lu
interface. The protocol between UE and UTRAN is terminated
here.
The RNC that controls Node B is called Controlling RNC
(CRNC). The CRNC performs load control and congestion
control of the cells it serves, and implements admission
control and code word allocation for the wireless connections
to be established.
If the connection between a mobile subscriber and the
UTRAN uses many RNS resources, the related RNC has two
independent logical functions:
Serving RNC (SRNC). The SRNC terminates the transmission
of subscriber data and the Iu connection of RANAP signaling
to/from the CN. It also terminates the radio resource
controlling signaling (that is the signaling protocol between
UE and UT RAN). In addition, the SRNC performs L2
processing of the data sent to/from the radio interface and
implements some basic operations related to radio resources
management.

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Basal Theory

Drift RNC (DRNC) All the other RNCs except the SRNC are
DRNCs. They controls the cells used by the UEs.

CN (Core Network)
The CN is in charge of the connections with other networks as
well as the management and communication with UEs. The CN
can be divided into CS domain and PS domain f rom the aspect of
logic.
The CS domain equipment refers to the entities that provide
circuit connection or related signaling connection for subscriber
services. The specific entities in the CS domain include:
1. Mobile switching center (MSC)
2. Gateway mobile switching center (GMSC)
3. Visitor location register (VLR)
4. Interworking function (IWF).
The PS domain provides packet data services to subscribers.
The specific entities in the PS domain include:
5. Serving GPRS support node (SGSN)
6. Gateway GPRS support node (GGSN)
Other equipment such as the home location register (HLR) or
HSS, authentication center (AuC), and equipment identity
register (EIR) are shared by the CS domain and PS domain.
The major functional entities are as follows:
1) MSC/VLR
As the functional node in the CS domain of the WCDMA core
network, the MSC/VLR connects with the UTRAN through Iu
CS interface, with external networks (PSTN, ISDN, and other
PLMNs) through PSTN/ISDN interface, with the HLR/AUC
through C/D interface, with the MSC/VLR, GMSC or SMC
through E interface, with the SCP through CAP interface,
and with the SGSN through Gs interface.
The MSC/VLR accomplishes call connection, mobility
management, authentication, and encryption in the CS
domain.
2) GMSC
As the gateway node between the CS domain of WCDMA
network and external networks, the GMSC is an optional
entity. It connects with the external networks (PSTN, ISDN,
and other PLMNs) through PST N/ISDN interface, with the
HLR through C interface, and with the SCP through CAP
interface.
The GMSC accomplishes the incoming and outgoing routing
of the Visited MSC (VMSC).
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Chapter 1 Overview of WCDMA

3) SGSN
As the functional node in the PS domain of WCDMA core
network, the SGSN connects with the UTRAN through Iu_PS
interface, with GGSN through Gn/Gp interface, with the
HLR/AUC through Gr interface, with the MSC/VLR through Gs
interface, with the SCP through CAP interface, with the SMC
through Gd interface, with the CG through Ga interface, and
with the SGSN through Gn/Gp interfac e.
The SGSN accomplishes the routing forward, mobility
management, session management, authentication, and
encryption in the PS domain.
4) GGSN
The GGSN connects with the SGSN through Gn interface and
with the external data networks (Internet /Intranet) through
Gi interface.
The GGSN provides routes to the data packets between the
WCDMA network and external data networks, and
encapsulates these data packets. The major function of the
GGSN is to provide the interface to the external IP
packet-based network, thus the UEs can access the gateway
of the external packet -based network. To the external
networks, the GGSN seems like the IP router that can be
used to address all the mobile subscribers in the WCDMA
network. It exchanges routing information with external
networks.
5) HLR
The HLR connects with the VMSC/VLR or GMSC through C
interface, with the SGSN through Gr interface, and with the
GGSN through Gc interface. The HLR stores subscriber
subscription information, supports new services, and
provides enhanced authentication.

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Cha p te r

WCDMA Technology
Basics

Concept of WCDMA
Realizing Broadband
Communication
WCDMA (Wideband CDMA) is CDMA radio communication mode
cased on direct spread-spectrum technology. WCDMA has an
obvious advantage over GSM and IS-95 in subscriber capacity
and radio transmission performance, for it adopts a series of key
technologies.
WCDMA bears following two meanings literally:
1. WCDMA adopts CDMA communication technology1.
CDMA tec hnology is the most advanced communication
technology in the world at present. It takes advantage of
different codes to divide different channel and then
distinguish different subscriber.
2. WCDMA adopts wider spectrum
Narrow band power signals are sent out after being spread as
broadband
signals
(spread-spectrum)
with
WCDMA
technology.Broadband
signals
have
stronger
anti-interference ability than narrowband signals. Wider
bandw idth realizes RAKE receiving at subscriber end and
increases communication quality.
Figure 5 shows WCDMA communication. Bandw idth of
original signals increases and power density decreases after
spread-spectrum. Signals meet with noise during the
transmission. Power density of the noise decreases after the
dispreading, for spectrum dispreading is the same as
spectrum spreading. However, power density of original

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Basal Theory

signals is much larger than that of noise (that

signal-to-noise ratio is high) and it is easy to resume.
FI G U R E 5

is,

WCDM A C O M MU N I C ATI O N P R I N C I P L E

Power
Density

Power
Density

(1) Original Signal

Power
Density

(2) Signal after spread

spectrum

Power
Density

(3)Meeting noise during

signal transmission

F
(4) Signal and noise after spectrum
dispreading

Signal

Noise

WCDMA adopts such advanced technologies as soft handover,

diversity and power control to enlarge system capacity and
increase communication quality greatly.

Basic Concepts of CDMA

Mobile communication systems can be classified in multiple ways.
For example, there are analog and digital by the nature of the
signals; FM, PM, and AM by the modulation mode; and FDMA,
TDMA and CDMA by the multiple access mode. CDMA (Code
Division Multiple Access) is a new while mature w ireless
technology developed from the spread spectrum communication
technology, a branch of the digital technology.
Currently, the GSM mobile telephone networks of China Unicom
and China Mobile are built with the combination of FDMA and
TDMA. GSM has tremendous advantages over the analog mobile
telephone system. However, its spectrum efficiency is only three
times of the analog system. With a limited capacity, it has
difficulty in offering voice quality equivalent to wired telephone.
TDMA terminals support an access rate of only 9.6 kbps. The
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Chapter 2 WCDMA Technology Basics

TDMA system does not support soft handover, so calls may

easily be dropped, affecting the service quality. Therefore, TDMA
is not the best technology for modern cellular mobile
communication. On the other hand, CDMA fully meets the
requirements of modern mobile communication networks for
large capacity, high quality, and integrated services, so it is well
received by increasingly more operators and users.
CDMA emerges from the needs for wireless communications of
higher quality. In the CDMA communication system, the signals
used by different users for information transmission are
distinguished not by frequencies or timeslots, but by different
code sequences. CDMA allocates one pseudo random binary
sequence for each signal for frequency spreading, and different
signals are allocated with different pseudo random binary
sequences. In the receiver, correlators are used to separate the
signals. The correlator of each user only receives the specified
binary sequences and compresses their frequency spectrums,
while ignoring all the other signals.
The code division multiple access concept of CDMA can be
illustrated with a party of many persons. At the party, many
users talk at the same time in a room, and every conversation in
the room is in a language you do not understand. From your
perspective, all these conversations sound like noise. If you
know these codes, that is, relevant languages, you can ignore
the conversations you do not want to hear, and focus on only
these you are interested in. The CDMA system filters the traffic
in a similar way. However, even if you understand all the
languages used, you do not necessarily hear clearly all the
conversations you are interested in. In this case, you can tell the
speakers to speak louder, and/or ask others to lower their voices.
This is similar to the power control in the CDMA system. In the
frequency domain or time domain, multiple CDMA signals
overlap. The receiver can sort out the signals that use the preset
code pattern from multiple CDMA signals by using correlators.
Other signals using different code patterns are not demodulated,
since their code patterns are different from those generated
locally at the receiver.
One of the basic technologies of CDMA is spectrum spreading.
CDMA is a multiple access technology featuring high
confidentiality. It was first developed in the Second World War
to prevent interference from the enemies. CDMA found wide
application in anti-interference military communications during
the war. After 1960s, it had been used in military satellite
communication. Later, it was developed by Qualcomm into a
commercial mobile communication technology.
After the first CDMA system was put into operation for
commercial purpose in 1995, the technical advantages of the
CDMA in theory were tested in practice, so it has seen rapid
application in North America, South America and Asia. In many
countries and regions in the world, including China, Hong Kong,
South Korea, Japan, and USA, CDMA is the major mobile
communication technology used. CDMA is superior to TDMA in

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Basal Theory

system capacity, anti-interference, communication quality, and

confidentiality, so IMT -2000 (3G) launched by ITU and
subsequent standards all employ CDMA.

Basic Concepts of Spread Spectrum

Communication
The basic characteristic of spread spectrum communication is
that it uses a bandwidth for information transmission much
wider than that of the information itself. In other words, the
data for transmission with certain signal bandw idth is modulated
with high-speed pseudo random codes having a bandwidth wider
than the signal bandw idth. Thus, the bandwidth of the original
data signals is spread, before the signals are transmitted
follow ing carrier modulation. The receiving end uses exactly the
same pseudo random c odes to process the received bandwidth
signals, converting the broadband signals into the original
narrowband signals, that is, despreading, thus achieving
information communication.
In addition, spread spectrum communication also
follow ing charac teristics:
1. It is a d1.

has the

igital transmission mode.

2. Bandwidth spreading is implemented by modulating the

transmitted information with a function (spread spectrum
function) irrelevant to the transmitted information.
3. At the receiving end, the same spread spectrum function is
used to demodulate the spread spectrum signals, restoring
the transmitted information.
C.E. Shannon found the channel capacity formula in his research
in information theory, as below:
C = W Log2 (1+S/N)
Where:
C Information transmission rate
S Available signal power
W Bandw idth of the line
N Noise power

As can be seen from the formula:

To increase C, you can either increase W or increase S/N. In other
words, when C is constant, W and S/N are interchangeable, where
the increase of W reduces the requirement for S/N. When the
bandwidth increases to a certain level, the S/N is allowed to further
decrease, making it possible for the useful signal power to decrease
to a level close to the noise power or even inundated in the noise.
Spread spectrum communication uses the bandwidth transmission
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Chapter 2 WCDMA Technology Basics

technology to obtain the benefit in S/N, which is the basic idea and
theoretical basis of spread spectrum communication.
Spread spectrum communication has many outstanding
performances insuperable by narrowband communication, enabling
it to find wide application rapidly in various public and private
communication networks. Its advantages are outlined as below:
1. Powerful anti-interference and low bit error rate
The spread spectrum communication system spreads the
signal spectrum at the transmitting end and restores the
original information at the receiving end, producing spread
gains, thus greatly increasing the anti-jamming margin.
Depending on the spread spectrum gains, signals can be
extracted from noise even when the S/N is negative. In the
current commercial communication system, spread spectrum
communication is the only communication mode that can
work in the negative S/N enviro nment.
2. Easy same
utilization

frequency

use

for

higher

radio

spectrum

Radio spectrum is very valuable. Although all waves from

long wave and micro wave have been developed and used,
the need of the society is not satisfied. For this reason,
frequency spectrum management authorities were set up all
over the world. Users can only use the frequencies granted,
and divide them into channels to avoid mutual interference.
As spread spectrum communication uses the correlation
reception technology, the signal transmission power is
extremely low (<1 W, usually 1 mW ~ 100 mW), and can
work in channel noise and hot noise background. Therefore,
a frequency can be easily reused in the same area, and the
frequency can also be shared w ith the now various
narrowband communications.
3. Anti multipath interference
In the wireless communication, anti multipath interference is
a persisting problem that is difficult to solve. With the
correlation between spread spectrum codes, the most
powerful useful signals can be extracted from multipath
signals at the receiving end with a related technology. Also,
the same code sequence waveform from multiple paths can
be added for reinforcement, to achieve effective anti
multipath interference.
4. Spread spectrum communication is a form of digital
communication,
particularly
suitable
for synchronous
transmission of digital voice and data. Spread spectrum
communication offers the encryption function for good
confidentiality,
making
it
easy
to
launch
various
communication services.
Using multiple new technologies including code division
multiple access, and voice compression, spread spectrum

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Basal Theory

communication is more suitable for transmission of computer

network and digitized voices and images.
5. Spread spectrum communication involves mostly digital
circuitry. Its equipment is highly integrated, easy to install
and maintain, compact, and reliable and easy to
mount/expand, and has a long MTBF.

Transmission of Electric
Waves in Mobile
Environment
The target of mobile communication system is to gradually
realize personal communication using the always existent radio
channel as transmission media. However, the radio channel has
poor transmission features. Firstly, there is serious and
complicated fading, including path fading, shadow fading, and
multipath fading. Secondly, the radio transmission path may be
direct or obstructed by mountains or buildings. It is difficult to
analyze the unknown and unpredictable elements in radio
channels. Even the relative moving speed may greatly affect the
fading of signal level.
Although the features of electromagnetic waves change a lot
during transmission, the major changes fall into perpendicular
incidence, reflection, diffraction (inf lection), and scattering. In
cities, there is no direct path between transmitters and receivers.
The high buildings and large mansions cause serious diffraction
loss. Reflected by objects by many times, the electromagnetic
waves reach the receiver through different paths. The
interaction of these electromagnetic waves cause multipath
fading at specific place. In a word, the strength of
electromagnetic waves decreases with the extension of the
distance between the transmitter and receiver.

Features of Land Mobile

Communication Environment
1. Low Antenna of MS
Because the transmission path is always affected by
topography and man- made environment, and the MS moves
in various topographical environment and buildings, it makes
the signal received by the MS become the increment of a
large number of scattered and reflected signals.
2. Mobility of MS

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Chapter 2 WCDMA Technology Basics

The MS is always moving. Even the MS is not moving, the

surroundings always change, for example, people and
vehicles move, and w ind blows leaves. The mobility makes
the transmission path between the base station and MS
always change. In addition, the moving direction and speed
of the MS will cause the change of signal level.
3. Random Change of Signal Level
Varying with the time and locations, the signal level can be
described by the probability distribution in random process
only.
4. Wave Guide Effect in Metropolitan Environment
The wave guide effect caused by the high buildings on both
sides of the street make the signals received in the direction
parallel to the street enhanced and the signals received in
the vertical direction weakened. There is about 10 dB
difference between the two signals. This effect is attenuated
8 km away from the base stations.
5. Loud Man-Made Noise
The man- made noise includes noise of vehicles and electric
power lines, as well as industrial noise.
6. Strong interference
The common interferences include co-channel interference,
adjacent-channel interference, intermodulation interference,
and near-far interference.

Signal Fading in Radio Path

As the MS moves further from the base station, the signal
received becomes weaker and weaker. The reason is that path
loss occurs to the signal. The factors causing the path loss
include carrier frequency, transmission speed, and the
topography and physiognomy where the signal is transmitted.
Shadow effect: T he semi-dead zone in the coverage area caused
by the obstruct of high buildings and other objects.
Near-far effect: Because the mobile subscribers move at free will,
the distance between the subscriber and the base station
changes. If the MSs have the same transmit power, the signal
strength at the base station is different. If the MS is nearer to
the base station, the signal received by the base station is
stronger. The non-linearity of the communication system will be
worsened, making the stronger signal stronger, the weaker
signal weaker, and the stronger signal suppress the weaker
signal.
Doppler effect: The shift in frequency which results from the
move of the signal received at high rate. The degree of shift is in
direct ratio with the velocity of the mobile subscriber.

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Basal Theory

Fundamentals of the
WCDMA Technology
Channel Coding/Decoding
A radio channel is an adverse transmission channel. When digital
signals transmitted over a radio channel, bit errors may occur in
the transmission data flow due to various reasons, causing
image jumps and disconnection at the receive end. The step of
channel coding can be used to process the data flow
appropriately, so that the system can have error correction
capability and anti-interference capability to certain extent, thus
greatly avoiding bit errors in the code flow. Therefore, channel
coding aims at increasing data transmission efficiency by
reducing bit error rate.
Ultimately, channel coding intends to increase the reliability of
the channel, but it may reduce the transmission of useful
information data. Channel coding works by inserting some code
elements, usually referred to as overhead, into the source data
code flow, for error detection and correction at the receiving end.
This is like the transport of glasses. To ensure that no glasses
are broken during this process, we usually use foams or sponge
to package them. However, such packaging reduces the total
number of glasses. Similarly, over a channel with fixed
bandw idth, the total transmission code rate is fixed. As channel
coding increases data amount, the useful information code rate
is reduced. This is the cost. The number of usef ul bits divided by
the total number of bits derives the coding efficiency, which
varies slightly from one coding mode to another.
The coding/decoding technology and interleaving technology can
work together to increase the bit error performance. Compared
with the case without coding, the traditional convolution code
can increase the bit error rate by two orders of magnitude, to
10-3 ~ 10-4 , and the Turbo code can further increase the bit error
rate to 10-6 . Because the Turbo code has a coding performance
close to the limit of Shannon theorem, it is adopted as the data
coding/decoding technology for 3G. The convolution code is
mainly used for voice and signaling of low data rates.

Principles of
Interleaving/Deinterleaving
Interleaving/deinterleaving is an important step of the combined
channel error correction system. The actual errors in the channel
are usually burst errors or both burst errors and random errors.
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Chapter 2 WCDMA Technology Basics

If burst errors are first discretized into random errors, which are
then corrected, the systems anti-interference performance can
be improved. The interleaver works to discretize long burst
errors or multiple burst errors into random errors, that is,
discretizing the errors.
The interleaving technology rearranges the coded signals by
follow ing certain rules. After deinterleaving, burst errors are
dispersed over time, making them similar to random errors that
occur separately.

Spread Spectrum
Spread Spectrum is an information transmission mode. It
modulates information signals with spreading code at sending
end and enables spectrum width of information signals much
wider than bandwidth for information transmission. It dispreads
at receiving end w ith same spreading code, to resume data of
transmitted information.
Figure 6 shows basic operations of spectrum spread/dispread.
Supposing subscriber data rate is R, subscriber data is 101101,
and according to the rule that 1 is mapped as -1, 0 is mapped as
+1, map subscriber data as -1+1-1-1+1-1 and time it with
spreading code. Spreading code is 01101001 in this example.
Time each subscriber data bit to this code series including 8
code chips. Conc luded data rate after spread is 8 R and is
random, like spreading code. Its spread spectrum factors are 8.
Broadband signals after spread spectrum are transmitted to
receiving end via radio channels. Time code sequence with same
spread spectrum code (dispreading code) when dispreading at
receiving end to resume original subscriber data.
Spreading signal speed by 8 times factor may result in
bandw idth spreading of subscriber data signals (therefore, CDMA
system is often called spread spectrum system). Disp reading
resumes signal rate to original rate.

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Basal Theory

FI G U R E 6

S P E C TR U M S P R E AD I N G / DI S P R E AD I N G I N DS- CDM A

Subscriber data
= -1+1-1-1+1-1

Spectrum spreading
1

Spread spectrum =
+1-1-1+1-1+1+1-1

1
1

Spreading signal =
Subscriber data *
Spread spectrum

Spectrum dispreading
1
1

Dispreading data
= Subscriber data
* Spread
spectrum

1
1

Distributing different spread spectrum to different subscriber can

distinguish different subscriber, as shown in above sector.
Supposing that there are three subscribers and that signals they
send are b1, b2 and b3, spread their signals with spreading code
of c1, c2 and c3 and final sending signal is y=b1c1 + b2c2 +
b3c3. Supposing that there is no interference in signal
transmission, the receiving end:

Gets signals after dispread w ith c1

z1 = y * c1 = c1 * (b1c1 + b2c2 + b3c3) = b1 +
(b2c2c1 + b3c3c1)
Gets signals after dispread w ith c2
z2 = y * c2 = c2 * (b1c1 + b2c2 + b3c3) = b2 +
(b1c1c2 + b3c3c2)
Gets signals after dispread w ith c 3
z3 = y * c3 = c3 * (b1c1+b2c2+b3c3) = b3 + (b1c1c3
+ b2c2c3)

All parts in the brackets in above three formulas are interference

of other subscriber signals to this signal. This interference can
be
absolutely
avoided
if
using
orthogonalized
codes.
Orthogonalized code is the code that is 1 after timing itself and
is 0 after timing other codes. So:
z1 = y * c1 = c1 * (b1c1 + b2c2 + b3c3) = b1 + (b2c2c1 +
b3c3c1) = b1 + 0 + 0 = b1
z2 = y * c2 = c2 * (b1c1 + b2c2 + b3c3) = b2 + (b1c1c2 +
b3c3c2) = b2 + 0 + 0 = b2
z3 = y * c3 = c3 * (b1c1 + b2c2 + b3c3) = b3 + (b1c1c3 +
b2c2c3) = b3 + 0 + 0 = b3

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Chapter 2 WCDMA Technology Basics

Modulation and Demodulation

Modulation is the process to use one signal (know as modulatio n
signal) to control another signal of carrier (know n as carrier
signal), so that a characteristic parameter of the later changes
with the former. At the receiving end, the process to restore the
original signal from the modulated signal is called demodulation.
During signal modulation, a high-frequency sine signal is often
used as the carrier signal. One sine signal involves three
parameters: amplitude, frequency and phase. Modulation of
each of these three parameters is respectively called amplitude
modulation, frequency modulation, and phase modulation.
In the WCDMA system, the modulation is Quaternary Phase Shift
Keying (QPSK). If High Speed Downlink Package Access (HSDPA)
is used, the downlink modulation mode can also be 16QAM.
Modulating rate of WCDMA uplinks/dow nlinks are both 3.84
Mcps and modulate complex-valued code chip sequence
generated by spread spectrum in QPSK mode.
Figure 7 shows uplink modulation and Figure 8 shows downlink
modulation.
FI G U R E 7

UP L I N K M OD U L ATI O N

cos(t)

Complex-valued
chip sequence
from spreading
operations

Split
real &
imag.
parts

Re{S}

Pulseshaping

Im{S}

Pulseshaping
-sin(t)

FI G U R E 8

DO W N L I N K M OD U L ATI O N

cos(t)

Complex-valued
chip sequence
from summing
operations

Split
real &
imag.
parts

Re{T}

Pulseshaping

Im{T}

Pulseshaping
-sin(t)

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