PREFACE.

THE plan of "Graded and Higher Lessons in English, will perhaps be

better understood if we first speak of two classes of text-books with which
this course is brought into competition.
1\let.hod of One Class of Text-books.-In one class are thop - that
aim chiefly to present a course of technical grammar in thf order of
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. These books give large
space to grammatical Etymology, and demand much memorizing of definitions, rules, declensions, and conjugations, and much formal word
parsing,- work of which a considerable portion is merely the invention
of grammarians, and has little value in determining the pupil's use of
language or in developing his reasoning faculties. This is a revival of the
long-endured, unfruitful, old-time method.
l'Hethod of Another Class of Text-books.- In another class are
those that present a miscellaneous collection of lessons in Composition,
Spelling, Pronunciation, Sentence-analysis, Technical Grammar, and General Information, without unity or continuity. The pupil who completes
these books will have gained something by practice and will have picked
pp some scraps of knowledge ; but his information will be vague and disconnected, and he will have missed that mental training which it is the
aim of 11. good text-book to afford. A text-book is of value just so far as
it presents a clear, logical development of its-subject. It must present its
science or its art as a natural growth, otherwise there is no justification
of its being.
The Study of the Sentence for the Proper Use of 'Vords.- It is
the plan of this course to trace with ea~y steps the natural development
of the sentence, to consider the leading facts first and then to descend to
the details. To begin with the parts of speech is to begin with details
and to disregard the higher unities, without which the details are scarcely
intelligible. The part of speech to which a word belongs is determined
only by its function in the sentence, and inflections simply mark the
offices and relations of words. Unless the pupil has been systematically
trained to discover the functions and relations of words as elements of an
3

Preface.

organic whole, his knowledge of the parts of speech is of little value. It

is not because he cannot conjugate the verb or decline the pronoun that
he falls into such errors as " How many sounds have each of the vowels ? "
"Five years' interest are due." " She is older than wie." He probably
would not say -'each have,'''' "interest aj-e," "me am." One thoroughly
familiar with the structure of the sentence will find little trouble in using
correctly the few inflectional forms in English.
The Study of the Sentence for the Laws of Discourse. Through
the study of the sentence we not only arrive at an intelligent knowledge
cl the parts o2 speech and a correct use of grammatical forms, but we
In the sentence the student
disco \''T the laws of discourse in general.
should tiu^ the law of unity, of continuity, of proportion, of order. All
good writing consists of good sentences properly joined. Since the sentence is the foundation or unit of discourse, it is all-important that the
He should be able to put the principal
pupil should know the sentence.
and the subordinate parts in their proper relation ; he should know the
exact function of every element, its relation to other elements, and its
He should know the sentence as the skillful
relation to the whole.
engineer knows his engine, that, when there is a disorganization of parts,
he may at once find the difficulty and the remedy for it.
The Study of the Sentence for the Sake of Translation. The
laws of thought being the same for all nations, the logical analysis of the
sentence is the same for all languages. When a student who has acquired
a knowledge of the English sentence comes to the translation of a foreign
language, he finds his work greatly simplified. If in a sentence of his
own language he sees only a mass of unorganized words, how much
greater must be his confusion when this mass of words is in a foreign
tongue 1 A study of the parts of speech is a far less important preparation for translation, since the declensions and conjugations in English do

not conform to those of other languages. Teachers of the classics and of

modern languages are beginning to appreciate these facts.
The Study of the Sentence for Discipline. As a means of discipline nothing can compare with a training in the logical analysis of the
sentence.
To study thought through its outward form, the sentence, and
to discover the fitness of the different parts of the expression to the parts
of the thought, is to learn to think.
It has been noticed that pupils
thoroughly trained in the analysis and the construction of sentences come
to their other studies with a decided advantage in intellectual power.
These results can be obtained only by systematic and persistent work.
Experienced teachers understand that a few weak lessons on the sentence

Preface.

and a few at the end can afford little disciIcnowledge that will endure, and that a knowledge of the
sentence cannot be gained by memorizing complicated rules and labored
forms of analysis. To compel a pupil to wade through a page or two of
such bewildering terms as "complex adverbial element of the second
class" and "compound prepositional adjective phrase," in order to comprehend a few simple functions, is grossly unjust it is a substitution of

at the beginning of a course

pline

and

little

form for content, of words for ideas.

Teachers
Subdivisions and Modifications after tlie Sentence.
familiar with text-books that group all grammatical instruction around
the eight parts of speech, making eight independent units, will not, in the
following lessons, find everything in its accustomed place. But, when it

of connection unifying this work is the

be seen that the lessons fall into their natural order of
sequence. When, through the development of the sentence, all the offices
of the different parts of speech are mastered, the most natural thing is to
continue the work of classification and subdivide the parts of speech.
The inflection of words, being distinct from their classification, makes a
separate division of the work. If the chief end of grammar were to enable
one to parse, we should not here depart from long-established precedent.
In tracing the growth of the
Paragraplis.
Sentences in Groups
sentence from the simplest to the most complex form, each element, as
it is introduced, is illustrated by a large number of detached sentences,
chosen with the utmost care as to thought and expression. These compel
the pupil to confine his attention to one thing till he gets it well in hand.
Paragraphs from literature are then selected and are used at intervals,
with questions and suggestions to enforce principles already presented, and
The
to prepare the way informally for the regular lessons that follow.
lessons on these selections are, however, made to take a much wider
is

remembered that the thread

sentence,

it

will

They lead the pupil to discover how and why sentences are
grouped into paragraphs, and how paragraphs are related to each other
and they lead him on to discover whatever is most worthy of imitation
in the style of the several models presented.
The Use of tlie Diagram. In written analysis, the simple map, or
diagram, found in the following lessons, will enable the pupil to present
directly and vividly to the eye the exact function of every clause in the
sentence, of every phrase in the clause, and of every word in the phrase
to picture the complete analysis of the sentence, with principal and
subordinate parts in their proper relations.
It is only by the aid of such
a map, or picture, that the pupil can, at a single view, see the sentence
scope.

Preface.

whole made up of many parts performing various funcand standing in various relations. Without such a map he must
labor under the disadvantage of seeing all these things by piecemeal
as an organic

tions

or in succession.

But, if for any reason the teacher prefers not to use these diagrams,
they may be omitted witliout causing the slightest break in the work.
The plan of this book is in no way dependent on the use of the diagrams.
The Objections to the Diagram. The fact that the pictorial diagram groups the parts of a sentence according to their offices and relations, and not in the order of speech, has been spoken of as a fault.
It
is, on the contrary, a merit, for it teaches the pupil to look through the
literary order and discover the logical order.
He thus learns what the
literary order really is, and sees that this may be varied indefinitely, so
long as the logical relations are kept clear.
The assertion that correct diagrams can be made mechanically is not
borne out by the facts. It is easier to avoid precision in oral analysis
than in written.
The diagram drives the pupil to a most searching
examination of the sentence, brings him face to face with every difficulty,
and compels a decision on every point.
The Abuse of the Diagram. Analysis by diagram often becomes
so interesting and so helpful that, like other good things, it is liable to
be orardone. There is danger of requiring too much written analysis.
When the ordinary constructions have been made clear, diagrams should
be used only for the more difficult sentences or, if the sentences are
In both oral and written
long, only for the more difficult parts of them.
When
analysis there is danger of repeating what needs no repetition.
the diagram has served its purpose, it should be dropped.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
TWENTY-FIVE CAREFULLY GRADED STEPS IN GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION; AND RULES FOR CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION
AS NEEDED.
FAGC
1.

Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Simple Subjects

and Predicates
Capital Letters, Period, Interrogation Point,

Parts of Speech, Nouns, Verbs, Pronouns

....

2.

9-33
Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Subjects modified
by Adjectives
33-44

3.

Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Predicates modified

4.

Analysis and

by Adverbs

44-60

Composition of Sentences with Subjects and

Predicates modified by Prepositional Phrases
The Para-

60-66

graph, Prepositions
5.

Expansion of Adjectives and Adverbs into Phrases, and Contraction of Phrases into Adjectives and Adverbs
66, 67
Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Compound SubConjunctions, Interjections, Exclamajects and Predicates
.

6.

tion Point
7.

70-79

Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Nouns, Pronouns,

and Adjectives as Complements

Object Complement, Attribute Complement, Narration, Position and Use of ilodifiers
.

79-84, 95-97
8.

Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Participles and

9.

Analysis and Composition of Sentences with Nouns and Pro-

Infinitive Phrases

nouns

The

as Modifiers

Participle, Descriptive

Comma, Argument

Writing

102-108

115-120

10.

Analysis and Composition of Complex Sentences containing

124-128
Adjective Clauses

11.

Analysis and Composition of Complex Sentences containing

Adverb Clauses
129-132
7

Table of Contents.

PAGE
12.

13.

Analysis and Composition of Complex Sentences containing

Koun Clauses
136-139
Analysis and Composition of Compound Sentences
Inde-

pendent Clauses

140, 141

14.

Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory Sen-

15.
16.

Continued
Expansion and Contraction
Classes of Nouns and Pronouns in Sentences

17.

Classes of Adjectives in Sentences

18.

Classes of Verbs in Sentences

162-165

19.

Classes of Adverbs in Sentences

166, 167

20.

Classes of Conjunctions and of Other Connectives in Sentences

21.

Nouns and Pronouns with

22.

Adjectives and Adverbs with their one Modification in Sen-

23.

197-217
Verbs with all their Modifications in Sentences
Composition of Sentences in Paragraphs and of Paragraphs

....

tences

.....
.

141-144

147-150
157-160
161, 162

167-170
all

their Modifications in Sentences

176-192
193-197

tences

24.

in

Themes

56-60, 86-89. 108-113, 12-'-124, 133-136, 145, 146,

152-156, 171-174
25.

Composition of Paragraphs
Syntax, Proof Marks

Review of Graded Lessons

......
.......

Arbkeviations

Index

in Letters

Summnary

A TALK ON LANGUAGE.
The
least

teacher

recommended

is

two or three

occupy the time of

to

recitations, in talking

at

with his pupils

about language, always remembering that, in order to

secure the interest of his class, he must allow his pupils to

The

take an active part in the exercise.

guide the thought of his class

all

has been

We

do

left to

all

but,

if

when he

the talking, he will find,

teacher should

he attempts to do
concludes, that he

the thinking.

give below a few hints in conducting this talk on

language, but the teacher

He

them.

self to

is

not expected to confine him-

will, of course,

be compelled, in some

instances, to resort to various devices in order to obtain

from the pupils answers equivalent to those here suggested.

LESSON
Teacher.
distinctly,
letter,

and not

Pupil.
T.

three

signs to

P.

Give

them,

I will

thus

its

1.

pronounce these three sounds very slowly and

Notice,

b-u-d.

it

name, that I give.

is

the power, or sound, of the

What

did you hear?

heard three sounds.

them.
letters

I will write

b-u-d.

on the board, so that you can see

Are these

letters,

taken separately,

you of anything?
Yes, they are signs to

me

just heard.
9

of the three sounds that I have

Graded Lessons

10

in English.

What then do
taken
your eye?
They
the sounds that came
my

then
what
Letters are the signs sounds.

pronounce the same sounds

uniting them more
hud. These
form a spoken word.
Of
what do you think when you hear the word hud?
think a
round thing that grows
branch
be a
a
Did you the thing when you were thinking
No.
Then you must have had a
We
your mind.
mental picture an
What
up
was
up by the word hud, which
A spoken word then the
what
A spoken word the sign an

write
another way.
up the same
and
them thus hud. What do you
the word hud.
we the
we
word hud a spoken word, what
This a written word.
they stand the same
how do they

heard
and
T.

these letters,

P.

Letters

T.

to

are the signs of

ear.

of

P.

T.

I will

rapidly,

sounds, so united,

closely

P.

or

separately, picture to

picture

of

to

little

leafy

flower.

T.

of

see

it ?

P.

picture of

T.

idea.

call this

P.
T.

of

is

unite

P.

I see

T.

If

call

idea.

I will

idea in

I will call

three letters

see

shall

other

P.

is

for

T.

If

P.

I see this,

T.

sign of

is

P.

call this

this idea?

I heard.

called

It

T.

in

it

called

You

ent tilings

differ?

idea,

that.

we have called attention to four differbud your mental picture of the bud,
idea and the two words, which we have

will observe that

viz.,

the real

which we have called an

called signs of this idea, the one addressed to the ear,

and the other

to the eye.
If the

pupil be brought to see these distinctions,

observe more closely and express himself more clearly.

it

may

aid

him

to

Talk on Language.

LESSON
Teacher.

What

Pupil.

sounds

that a written word

;

2.

did you learn in the previous Lesson

learned that a spoken

signs of sounds

11

word

is

composed of

is

and that spoken and

letters

Avritten

composed of certain
that letters are

words are the signs of

ideas.

This question should be passed from one pupil to another

till all

of

these answers are elicited.

All the written words in all the English books ever

made

ters

and these sounds make up what

Of

these twenty-six letters, a,

are called vowels,

o, u,

may

and sometimes "w and

called

y,

consonants.

understand what kind of sounds the vowels

will tell

you

breathed out from your lungs beats against two

flat

human

something about the

air

let-

verbal language.

and what kinds the consonants represent, I

for,

The

i,

and the remainder are

In order that you

stand

e,

is called

are formed

These

of twenty-six letters, representing about forty -four sounds.

voice.

muscles, stretched like strings across the top of the windpipe, and

them

causes

to vibrate.

Put one end

This vibration makes sound.

of a thread between your teeth, hold the other end of

fingers,

voice

is

draw
made.

it

tight

and

strike

if

the voice

is

will

it

in your

understand

without voice, and

is

is

formed which we

call

how

vowel sounds.

held back by your palate, tongue, teeth, or

one kind of consonant sounds

is

made.

If the breath

is

lips,

driven out

held back by these same parts of the mouth,

the other kind of consonant sounds

and you

If the voice thus produced comes out through the

open mouth, a class of sounds

But,

it,

is

formed.

Called respectively sonants and surds.

We

suggest that you have

the pupils give the sounds of the vowel a in ale, care, am, arm, ask, and

Graded Lessons

12
The teacher and

English.

in

pupils should practice on these sounds

till

the three

kinds can easily be distinguished.

You

are

now

prepared to understand what I mean when I say

vowels

that the

are the letters which stand for the

open sounds

of the voice, and that the consonants are the letters which stand
for the

sounds made by the obstructed voice and the obstructed

breath.

The teacher can here

how

ideas

profitably spend a few minutes in showing

may be communicated by Natural Language,

the language

of sighs, groans, gestures of the hands, attitudes of the body, expres-

He

sions of the face, tones of the voice, etc.

versation,

we sometimes

can show that, in con-

couple this Natural Language of tone and

make a

gesture with our language of words in order to

impression.

Let the pupil be told that,

ing, he should do the

Let,

same

in

if

stronger

the passage contain

feel-

Reading and Declaiming.

the following definitions be learned, and given at the next recitation.

Definition.

Verbal

language, or language proper, consists

of the spoken and written words used to communicate ideas

and thoughts.
Definition.

English grammar

the science which teaches

is

the forms, uses, and relations of the words of the English

language.

aU ;

the sounds of e in ye, end, and fern

orb,

and odd; and

of

the sonants b, d, g in gin, g

in

Xenophon,

tJie

surds, c

in wax.

x
in

in exact,
cent,

of

i in ice

in ufe, rude, full, up,

z
in

in get,

j,

in zero,

cut,

i,

1,

m,

and z

n,

and

and urn.
r,

s in

h, k, p,

s in vision, v,

and the sounds

of

and

is,

in seizure;

o in old,
The sounds of

ill; of

q, s, s in sure, t,

A Talk on Language.

LESSON
Let

pupils be required to tell

tlie

13

3.

what they learned

in the

previous

Lessons.

When

Teacher.
star bud,
Pupil.

how many

Two.

two words star and bud, thus

jironounce the

ideas, or

mental pictures, do

I call

up

to

you

Do you any connection between

ideas?
P. No.
T. When
the two words bud and swelling thus
bud
do you
any connection
the
they stand
P.
imagine that
a bud expanding,
growing
T.

these

see

swelling,

utter

see

.Yes,

ideas

in

for

see

or

larger.

T.

thought:

Avill
'^

when

I say,

thing

is

we

call

connect two words more closely, so as to express a

Buds
^'

swell."

thought has been formed in

my mind

JBuds swell" ; and these two words, by which some-

said of something else, express that thought,

and make what

In the former expression, bud swelling,

a sentence.

assumed, or taken for granted, that buds perform the act

latter,

the swelling

Leaves

associated, or

it

is

in the

asserted as a fact.

Do

these

two words express two ideas merely

do they express a thought?

They
"Leaves
A
Why?
P.
When

P.

express ideas merely associated.

T.

P.

is

falling.

fall."

What

do these two words express

thought.

T.

Because, in these w^ords, there

is

something said or asserted of

leaves.

T.

I say,

thought of leaves

P. No.

"Falling leaves rustle," does /a/^*f/

tell

what

is

Graded Lessons

14
T.

P.
T.

P.
T.

What

What word

You

in English.

does falling do ?

It tells the kind of leaves

does

tell

you are thinking and speaking

what

is

thought of leaves

of.

Rustle.

see then that in the thought there are

thing of which

we

think,

two parts

and that which we think about

some-

it.

Let the pupils give other examples.

LESSON
Commit

to

Definition.

memory

4.

all definitions.

A Sentence^

is

the expression of a thought in

words.

Which

of the following expressions contain

words that

have no connection,^ which contain words merely

ated,

'

and which are sentences

associ-

1.

Flowers bloom.

12. Sugar graze.

2.

Ice melts.

13.

3.

Bloom

4.

Grass grows.

15.

Smoke

5.

Brooks babble.

16.

Serpents

Babbling brooks.

17.

Smoke

7.

Grass soar.

18.

Serpents sparkles.

8.

Doors open.

19. Melting babble.

30. Landscape piano.

9.

Open
Cows

doors.

20. Eagles soar.

31.

Serpents crawl.

graze.

21. Birds chirping.

32.

Eagles clock.

22. Bird are chirping.

33. Serpents crawling.

'6.

10.
^11.

'14.

ice.

Curling smoke.

Or,

if

preferred,

Dew

sparkles.

Hissing serpents.

Sentence

is

curls.
hiss.

curling.

23. Birds chirp.

24. Gentle cows.
25. Eagles are soaring.
"26.

Bees

^27.

Working

ice.

bees;

28. Bees work.

29. Crawling serpents.

a group of words expressing a thought.