John Comenius Philosophy of Education

John Comenius was a Moravian teacher, educator, bishop, and writer in the seventeenth
century. He is considered the father of modern education because he advocated universal
education in his bookThe Great Didactic (Laurie, 36). Comenius authored over forty works,
and he introduced pictorial textbooks, gradual learning of comprehensive concepts, equal
opportunities for poor children and women, and practical, universal education.
Comenius revolutionized education in three ways: school systems, educational theories, and
educational methods. First, Comenius outlined the school system prominently used in
America today: kindergarten, elementary school, secondary school, college, and
university. Secondly, he created a general theory of education around the idea of education
according to nature whereby children learned at a natural pace from simple concepts to
challenging theories (Schwarz & Martin, 46). Thirdly, he wrote a series of textbooks on
educational methods and teaching subject matter. His work included applications for and
illustrations of how to teach children. He wanted children to learn in their native language
with hands-on activities (Schwarz & Martin, 49).
Comenius is rightly called the father of modern education because of the wealth of reforms
he advocated for public education. One educator remarked that even Christians should
appreciate Comenius contributions, especially his desire to make educational experiences
developmental, holistic, experiential, natural, and enjoyable and his commitment to opening
up these educational experiences to everyone (Schwarz & Martin, 56). However, another
critic stated that Comenius falsely believed that men could be manufactured by social
regeneration in the schools (Laurie, 216). People still debate the question of applying
Comenius ideas to modern schools.
Comenius has some exceptional ideas that have been implemented by modern
education. Children should learn on a gradual level based on what they can comprehend
and remember. Education should be taught in the primary language if possible, which is a
leading argument for multiculturalism in America today. Comenius theories are interrelated
with Christian education since he was a Christian educator himself, but he still advocated for
a public Christian education. This raises the issue of open-enrollment versus closedenrollment, a topic of much debate among Christians today.
- Amelia Lloyd-Jones

THE EDUCATIONALISTS
The "Educationalists" believed that children were born as "blank slates", beginning
their lives morally neutral. From this point of view, infants were neither inherently
good or inherently evil. A child's nature and personality would
develop over childhood, a period of time during which the
educationalists believed a child was particularly impressionable.
Adults surrounding a child could potentially have a very lasting
effect on his personality.
Perhaps the man most influential to educationalist theory was John
Locke. As Margaret J. M. Ezell puts it, his 1693 book Some Thoughts concerning
Educationpresents the basic argument that "a child's mind must be educated before he
is instructed, that the true purpose of education is the cultivation of the intellect rather
than an accumulation of facts." According to Locke, the ideal education would instill
a strong moral sense. In particular, a child should be taught virtue, wisdom, breeding,
and learning. 34
This was possible because, among other reasons, a child's mind was a "tabula rasa", or
blank slate (Locke originally used the term in his earlier work An Essay concerning
Human Understanding, considered by modern philosophers to be his most influential
work). Since the child's mind was so malleable, a parent could mold him with careful
diligence. After all, one could write good moral sense upon a blank slate as well as
numerous faults.30
Some Thoughts concerning Education was an extremely popular book. While earlier
thinkers had espoused similar ideas, educationalist theory was largely ignored until
Locke's publication. By 1750 over a dozen editions had been published, and the book
was translated into French, German, Italian, Dutch, and Swedish. The huge popularity
of Locke's book helped make popular the discussion of childhood as a separate stage
of development from adulthood. Not only were parents influenced by his work, but so
were other thinkers and writers of the time.
Even Locke's supporters, however, did not always agree with him. His opinion of the
use of imaginative literature and the fine arts, for instance, was not particularly
positive. He advocated two forms of literature for instruction, fables and religious
works. In particular, he promoted the use of Aesop' s Fables. As to other literature (as
well as other arts), however, Locke believed that they served no didactic purpose.31 In
addition, he thought that passionate music would intensify emotions in the child, and
that would damage the cultivation of reason. On the other hand, later educationalists
saw the cultivation of the imagination a worthwhile pursuit, and encouraged the use of
literature such as poetry and mythology.

The Educational Theory of Jean Jacques Rousseau

Theory of Value
The sciences and the arts, while brilliant, are not a genuine expression of
fundamental human needs but the result of pride and vanity EP 219
Man's fundamental first duty is to learn the art of living; man's first duty is to be
human EP 221
Keep harmful influences away from the young child; a child should grow in
accordance with his own nature; no early childhood education EP221
Goals of education recognizes a progressive education that respects that the child has
his own special needs as a being who exists in his own right EP221
Children should be children before being men" (EP221)
Well regulated freedom provides the only valid basis and aim of sound education EP
221
Necessity is captible with controlled freedom since it lets the human being exercise
his powers within the limits prescribed for him by nature EP221
Object of education is to make a man, not a soldier, priest etc; improvement of inner
self as worth as an end to itself MP 114
Theory of Knowledge
Knowledge constitutes the ability to reason and use our senses to learn; if we use
books in place of nature and our senses it teaches us to believe much and know little
F1 189
The instruments of knowledge is our own body. EP 221
Education should be rooted in man's moral nature EP 220
Educate to be a man, not one profession, he will be able to do whatever is needed in
any situation B 18:37
A lie: ... in society man cherishes as virtues what are really vices, i.e. the lie of
politeness CE 20:245
Theory of Human Nature
Human nature is sacrificed by the demands of the focus on the development of an
intellectual culture EP219 Human Nature is in constant conflict with expectations of
society EP219
Virtue confers stability and unity upon the human existence because it subordinates
the idle speculation to the active needs of the moral life; it induces strength and vigor
to the soul; allows for fall expression of man's genius; existence is solid and
permanent EP219
The original nature of man is good but corrupted by society EP220

Theory of Learning
He stresses the importance of a progressive education adapted to the individuals
developing needs so to follow "the natural progress of the human heart.' EP221
Starts from a fundamental principle (man's natural goodness) derived initially from
personal intuition and is verifiable by observation and psychological analysis EP 221
Early education is based primarily on the senses; promotes direct contact with the
physical world; no book learning for early education EP221
Learning is done through trial and error, experimentation through concrete medium
EP221
Theory of Transmission
Teachers will teach outside of society in the realm of nature B 18:37
Students are provided with concrete materials, objects and situations for learning to
take place B18:37
To teach a child you must understand him E:59
Theory of Society
European civilization sacrificed the moral demands of human nature by artificial
needs due to the allure of a purely intellectual culture EP219
Artificial Uniformity of Behavior causes man to ignore 'the duties of man and the
needs of nature" so that appearance and reality are at constant variance in social life
EP 219
Rapid growth of luxury and idleness serves to increase corruption of the contemporary
situation; thus genuine human relationships become weaker EP219
Theory of Opportunity
Education of girls similar to boys in regard to naturalness but different because of
gender B 18:37
A girl cannot be educated to be a man. Studies must be on the practical side because
a woman should be the center of the family, a housewife, and mother; should strive to
please her husband and have a good reputation B 18:37
Theory of Consensus
Man disagrees because of wants, avidity, oppression, desires, pride GB 38:333
Legitimate authority : each man giving himself to all, gives himself to nobody; allows
security and natural freedom B 18:681
Rule by the general will; expressed in laws to which all submit; represents the public
spirit seeking the common good; assumes that everyone's true interests must must
coincide B 18:506
Total sovereignity of the state guided by the general will

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi: Theory & Impact on Education

A Swiss education reformer, Pestalozzi encouraged an approach to education that focused on the whole child. In
this video, we will take a look at how his contributions and philosophy have had lasting effects.

Meet Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

In today's educational landscape, it is quite common to hear a discussion of the concept of inclusion, or the idea
that all students deserve equal opportunity regardless of any perceived difference. There are a number of talented
and dedicated individuals who have fought to make that conversation possible, but perhaps one of the most
dedicated was Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi.
Pestalozzi, often referred to as 'the Father of Modern Education', was born in Zurich, Switzerland and lived from
1746 until 1827. Like so many other people who eventually find their niche, Pestalozzi's path to becoming an
educational reformer was a bumpy one. He bumbled as a clergyman, a politician, and a farmer before combining
his experiences and his passions to focus on educational reform. Actually, modern education should probably be
thankful for Pestalozzi's early failures and struggle. These struggles and experiences are what shaped his views on
educational reform.
Pestalozzi's grandfather was a clergyman, and Pestalozzi pursued this path as well. In this role, Pestalozzi was able
to witness intense poverty. Particularly, he was struck by the poor conditions of peasant children working in
factories. In the 1700s, helping these people would become Pestalozzi's focus.
His first attempt at reforming education would be the creation of a school for poor peasant children known as
Neuhof. This first attempt at reform focused on the production of goods as a means of obtaining financial stability.
At Neuhof, children would receive an education funded through their own work. Pestalozzi believed that this
education, focused on teaching these children to produce and sell their own textile products, would allow them to
escape the clutches of poverty. Neuhof, however, failed financially, causing Pestalozzi to reconsider much of his
approach.
As this school failed, Pestalozzi was able to reflect on his philosophy. Through this reflection and a continued
effort to reform schooling for the poor, Pestalozzi eventually developed his approach to schooling now known as
the Pestalozzi method. The Pestalozzi method is a whole-child approach that emphasizes the development of all
aspects of a person, including the head, heart, and hands. When studying Pestalozzi, this is the most important
concept to grasp, so let's take a more in-depth look at his philosophical standpoint and his method of schooling.

Pestalozzi's Method And Philosophy

Pestalozzi was heavily influenced by the work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Now, Rousseau is quite a complex
character, and we don't have time to unpack all of his ideals in this video. Let's just say that when it comes to
education, at least, Rousseau believed that human beings were good by nature, and that education should serve to
empower people to cooperate in society. If you really want to study Rousseau, his most famous work on education
is entitled Emile. Check it out.
Pestalozzi felt the same way as Rousseau about the role of education and the nature of human beings. He believed
that all children deserved an appropriate education regardless of background. Of course, given his experiences, he

Froebel's Kindergarten Curriculum Method & Educational

Philosophy
Kindergarten was the first organized early-childhood educational method. As a keen observer of nature and
humanity, Froebel approached human education from both a biological and a spiritual perspective. Froebel
discovered that brain development is most dramatic between birth and age three, and recognized the importance of
beginning education earlier than was then practiced. The number of innovations that Froebel pioneered through his
research is startling, and includes multiple intelligences (different learning styles), play-based, child-centered, holistic
education, parent involvement/training, educational paperfolding, use of music, games, and movement activities for
education.
Humans Are Creative Beings
From a spiritual perspective, Froebel understood that what separates us from other life forms is that we alter our
environment. More than simple tool-building, our brains allow us to visualize in 3-D and imagine a different future.
True education therefore must help children to understand their role as creative beings.
Play Is the Engine of Real Learning
Froebel concluded that play is not idle behavior but a biological imperative to discover how things work. It is
pleasurable activity, but biologically purposeful. Froebel sought to harness this impulse and focus a child's play
energy on specific activities designed to lead them to create meaning from their experiences.

The Educational Theory of Herbert Spencer

1. Theory of Value: What knowledge and skills are worthwhile learning? What are
the goals of education?
... importance of study of nature and fundamentals of science (Eiseman, p. 153);
development of independent thought; importance of presenting the "natural history of
society" (Eiseman, p. 153); sociology; goals of education-promote competition,
individualism, "survival of the fittest"; learning as an individual effort; education
should be directed to self-preservation, care of offspring, preparing adults to enjoy
nature, literature, fine arts, prepare to be good citizens; knowledge of science worth
more than any other knowledge (Spencer, p. ix); train the memory, cultivate
judgment, impart an admirable moral and religious discipline; advocacy of instruction
in public and private hygiene
2. Theory of Knowledge: What is knowledge? How is it different from belief.? What
is a mistake? A lie?
... knowledge as the scientific study of education, psychology, sociology, and ethics
from an evolutionary point of view (Eiseman, p. 153); two fundamental beliefs -importance of science, sanctity of political and economic laissez-faire; philosophy is
knowledge of highest generality; knowledge of lowest kind is reunified knowledge,

science is partially unified knowledge; philosophy is completely unified knowledge;

universal truths v. particular truths (used for proof); man can only know from
experiences; all thought founded on relations -- humans think in terms of differences
and likenesses; ideas are expressions of relationships between things (Frost, p. 260)
3. Theory of Human Nature: What is a human being? How does it differ from other
species? What are the limits of human potential?
... notion of intelligence as mental capacity (Borgatta, p. 941); individual organisms,
species, political systems, and entire societies are alike in that all tend to evolve from
relatively simple and homogeneous entities into complex and heterogeneous ones;
only the fittest survive and perpetuate their kind; concept of organic evolution--all
nature moves from the simple to the complex -fundamental law seen in the evolution
of human society as it is seen in the geological transformation of the earth and in the
origin and development of plant and animal species, natural selection; "If they are
sufficiently complete to live, they do live, and it is well they should live. If they are
not sufficiently complete to live, they die, and it is best they should die." (Eiseman, p.
154); man if of the universe -- result of evolutionary processes; man is result of
adaptation to the environment; man is what he is because his universe, his
environment, makes certain consistent and definite demands upon him (Frost, p. 77);
man as a part, a stage of evolution
4. Theory of Learning: What is learning? How are skills and knowledge acquired?
...learning as an individual effort; learning as synthesis of all thought; learning should
be collaborative; good training of the senses to observe accurately; "rational
explanation of phenomena" (Spencer, ix); pupil sees and records for self-, children
habitually experience the normal consequences of their conduct; importance of
motivation and interest of students; variety of instruction
5. Theory of Transmission: Who is to teach? By what methods? What will the
curriculum be?
... science as the most important subject matter; curriculum to be a synthesis of
thought based on science (especially evolution), and including philosophies of
education, biology, psychology, sociology, ethics, and politics (Magill); sciences are
superior in all respects to languages as educational material; history -- nature and
action of government, intellectual condition of the nation, description of people's
food, shelters, and amusements, importance of drawing in education (Spencer, p. xiv);
individual to teach self, aided by teachers, books, observation, laboratory work

6. Theory of Society: What is society? What instruments are involved in the

educational process?
Society evolves from relatively simple and homogeneous entities into complex and
heterogeneous ones; should include unbridled competition; progress of all kinds
should be maximized by societies and governments that allow free competition to
reign in all spheres of activity; unregulated free enterprise; survival of the fittest; right
of the individual and non-interference; society as an individual organism (Eiseman, p.
153); competition in harmony with nature and in interest of general welfare and
progress, Social Darwinism (Spencerism): total view of life which justified opposition
to social reform on the basis that reform interfered with the operation of natural law of
survival of the fittest; narrow view of role of state; society as an organism (Magill);
objection to constant exercise of authority and compulsion in schools, families, and
the state; survival of the fittest dependent upon group life, society is essential -- each
individual restricted by rights of others; danger of complete state control-- suppression
of individual (Frost, p. 204); natural selection process guiding force of social
development; in society consciousness exists only in each member (Osborne, p. 137)
7. Theory of Opportunity: Who is to be educated? Who is to be schooled?
All young people should be taught; education open to competent children or adults
without fee; survival of the fittest
8. Theory of Consensus: Why do people disagree? How is consensus achieved?
Whose opinion takes precedence?
No beliefs are wholly false; they are true to the point to which they all agree;
eliminate the discordant elements and observe what remains after; this is truth and
should take precedence

Herbert Spencer: Theory & Social Darwinism

Herbert Spencer was one of the leading sociologists of his time and was an influencer of the structural-functionalist
perspective. Learn more about the man who coined the phrase 'survival of the fittest' and understand the positive
and negative aspects of social Darwinism.

Spencer And The Theory Of Evolution

The idea of something changing naturally isn't a new idea, but one that Charles Darwin explained with
his theory of evolution. Herbert Spencer, an English sociologist, took Darwin's theory and applied it to
how societies change and evolve over time. As a sociologist, Spencer did not feel the need to correct or
improve society, for he felt that societies were bound to change automatically.

Spencer took the theory of

evolution one step beyond
biology and applied it to say
that societies were organisms
that progress through
changes similar to that of a
living species. It was
Spencer's philosophy that
societies (like organisms)
Societies can be compared to organisms in that both have three main systems

would begin simple and then

progress to a more complex form. Spencer also found similarities between animal organisms and
societies in that both had three main systems.
The first system is the regulative system. In animals, that would be the central nervous system. In
societies, it would be government that regulates everything. The second system is the sustaining
system. For animals, that's the giving and receiving of nourishment. For societies, that would be industry
- jobs, money, economy and those sorts of things. The third system would be the distribution system. In
animals, that would be the veins and arteries. In societies, it would be roads, transportation, internet anything in which information and goods and services are exchanged.

Survival Of The Fittest

It was Herbert Spencer, not Darwin, who coined the phrase 'survival of the fittest' due to the fact that
he believed human behavior was designed in a way that strives for self-preservation. Darwin later used
the term 'survival of the fittest' in his edition of Origins of the Species.
The theory of social Darwinism created the thinking of the 'survival of the fittest' as that the strongest
and the fittest should survive and flourish in society, and the weak should be allowed to die out. This
allowed Spencer to believe that the rich and powerful became so because they were better-suited to the
social and economic climate of the time. He believed it was natural or normal that the strong survived at
the cost of the weak.

John Dewey's Philosophy of Experience and Education

John Deweys work in experiential education began in 1896 during his tenure with the University of Chicago
where he founded the University Laboratory School that later became the Dewey School. The laboratory
school became a venue for experiments in educational thinking. Dewey considered his school a community
where the students became active members. He wanted it to be a place where education occurred based on
principles of mental activity and on the processes of growth (Chambliss, J.J. (Ed.), p. 146).
In 1906, when Dewey accepted an appointment with Columbia University, his years of work with the Dewey
School had already set the foundation for his educational philosophy. During his tenure at Columbia, he
continued developing his philosophy through a series of published works that included Democracy and

Education (1916), and Experience and Education (1938).

Deweys philosophy points out that the strict authoritarian approach of traditional education was overly
concerned with delivering preordained knowledge, and not focused enough on students actual learning
experiences. He insists that education requires a design that is grounded in a theory of experience. He sides
neither with traditional education, nor with progressive education, but with the understanding of how humans
have the experiences they do, and how this understanding is necessary when designing effective education.
Because of Deweys insistence on this foundational aspect to his philosophy, he began a movement that
generated the development of experiential education programs and experiments. His philosophy continues to
remain foundational in designing innovative educational approaches and programs today.

Description of Deweys Philosophy on Experience and Education

Deweys philosophy on education, published in Experience and Education (1938), is an analysis of both
traditional and progressive education. Where traditional education focused upon curriculum and cultural
heritage for its content, progressive education focused on the learners interest and impulse, unconstrained
by the educator (p. 9). According to Dewey, neither of these systems is adequate. Traditional education
consists of a rigid regimentation, ignoring the capacities and interests of the learner. Progressive education
allows excessive individualism and spontaneity which Dewey says is a deceptive index of freedom (p. 10).
What Deweys philosophy (1938) proposes is a carefully developed theory of experience and its relation to
education. Sound educational experience involves both continuity and interaction between the learner and
what is learned (p. 10). Thus, Deweys philosophy is that experience arises from the interaction of two
principles:continuity and interaction.
Experience and Education (1938) demonstrates Deweys ideas on education, in a concise statement that
resulted from his observational experience with progressive schools. Written in essay format, it divides
Deweys philosophy into eight chapters that are organized so that each one presents a definitive aspect of his
philosophy.
The following links provide a brief description of each of the chapters in Deweys philosophy summarized
from his publication Experience and Education (1938).
1. Traditional vs Progressive Education
2. The Need of a Theory of Experience
3. Criteria of Experience
4. Social Control
5. The Nature of Freedom
6. The Meaning of Purpose
7. Progressive Organization of Subject-Matter
8. Experience The Means and Goal of Education
Traditional vs Progressive Education

Dewey (1938) opens the first chapter with a statement about the opposition that exists in educational theory:
the contrast between traditional and progressive education. He depicts traditional education as a system that
consists of bodies of information, skills, developed standards, and rules of conduct that worked historically,
and that encourages a student attitude of docility, receptivity, and obedience. The task of educators in
traditional education is to communicate knowledge and skills, and to enforce rules of conduct onto the new
generation.

Montessori:

Maria Montessori was born in Italy in 1870. In her work at the University of Rome's psychiatric clinic, Dr.
Montessori developed an interest in the treatment of children and for several years wrote and spoke on their behalf.
At age twenty-eight, she became the director of a school for mentally-disabled children. After two years under her
guidance, these children, who formerly had been considered uneducable, took a school examination along with
normal children and passed successfully. Educators called Dr. Montessori a miracle worker. What was her response?
If mentally disabled children could be brought to the level of normal children, Dr. Montessori wanted to study the
potential of "normal" children. She went back to school to study anthropology and psychology and finally, in 1907,
was asked to take charge of fifty children from the dirty, desolate streets of the San Lorenz slum in the city of Rome.

Motessoris Idea of conducive Learning:

Multi-aged Grouping, based on Periods of Development: Children are grouped in three or sixyear spans and have the same teacher for this period. The first group is called the "Nido" and
consists of children in necessary daycare for working parents. This is age 0-1, or "until walking".
The second group is known as the "Infant Community" and is from around one year to age 2-3.
The third group is the "casa dei bambini" and is from 2.5-6 or 3-6, depending on the training of
the teacher. The forth group is from 6-12, a larger age span because the children for this 6 years
exhibit the same tendencies and learning habits. The emotional and physical growth is steady
and the intellectual work strong. The 6 year old learns from and is inspired by children much
older, and the teaching is done by older to younger as well as younger to older. This large age
span helps to avoid the tendency of some teachers to over-schedule and over-direct students
who need ever more freedom of time-planning and research. Sometimes this age group is
divided into 6-9 ad 9-12, but this is a new development and still questioned by many. The next
group is the 12-15 which is, at least in the West, a more emotional time with less ability to focus
on intellectual work. Dr. Montessori called this time the Erdkinder CHildren, and proposed a farm
school with real work close to the earth. The high school years are, as in traditional schools, a

time of much more intellectual work, but with a different kind of child who has been through
years of critical thinking, caring for the earth and other people, and independent research.
The 3-Hour Work Period: Aft every age, a minimum of one 3-hour work period per day, uninterrupted by
required attendance at group activities of any kind is required for the Montessori method of education to produce the
results for which it is famous.
The Human Tendencies: The practical application of the Montessori method is based on human
tendencies to explore, move, share with a group, to be independent and make decisions,
create order, develop self-control, abstract ideas from experience, use the creative
imagination, work hard, repeat, concentrate, and perfect one's efforts
The Process of Learning: There are three stages of learning:

(Stage 1) introduction to a concept by means of a lecture, lesson, something read in a book, etc.

(Stage 2) processing the information, developing an understanding of the concept through work,
experimentation, creation.

(Stage 3) "knowing", to possessing an understanding of, demonstrated by the ability to pass a test with
confidence, to teach another, or to express with ease.

Indirect Preparation: The steps of learning any concept are analyzed by the adult and are
systematically offered to the child. A child is always learning something that is indirectly
preparing him to learn something else, making education a joyful discovery instead of drudgery.
The Prepared Environment: Since the child learns to glean information from many sources,
instead of being handed it by the teacher, it is the role of the teacher to prepare and continue
to adapt the environment, to link the child to it through well-thought-out lessons, and to facilitate
the child's exploration and creativity. The Prepared Environment is essential to the success of
Montessori. There must be just the right amount of educational materials to allow for the work of
the child. However, one thing that has become very obvious in our materialistic society in the
west, is that TOO MUCH is worse than TOO LITTLE. The basic collection of didactic materials (such
as that approved by the materials committee of AMI, The Association Montessori International)
has been thoroughly tested over many years and has been shown to engage the children as
much today as it has, as much in the USA as in other countries. Therefore it is very important to
only supplement these materials with essential books and materials that are chosen only by an
experienced teacher. The Michael Olaf Company is a well-known source for these tested
supplementary books and materials. Instead of constantly adding to their collection of products
offered, they continually refine and reduce their list, based on feedback from master teachers
and Montessori teacher trainers. www.michaelolaf.net

Observation: Scientific observations of the child's development are constantly carried out and
recorded by the teacher. These observations are made on the level of concentration of each
child, the introduction to and mastery of each piece of material, the social development,
physical health, etc. on.
Work Centers: The environment is arranged according to subject area, and children are always
free to move around the room, and to continue to work on a piece of material with no time limit.
Teaching Method: There are no text books, and seldom will two or more children be studying the
same thing at the same time. Children learn directly from the environment, and from other
childrenrather than from the teacher. The teacher is trained to teach one child at a time, with
a few small groups and almost no lessons given to the whole class. She is facile in the basic
lessons of math, language, the arts and sciences, and in guiding a child's research and
exploration, capitalizing on interests and excitement about a subject. Large groups occur only in
the beginning of a new class, or in the beginning of the school year, and are phased out as the
children gain independence. The child is scientifically observed, observations recorded and
studied by the teacher. Children learn from what they are studying individually, but also from the
amazing variety of work that is going on around them during the day.
Class Size: The most successful 3-6 or 6-12 classes are of 30-35 children to one teacher, with one
non teaching assistant, this number reached gradually over 1-3 years. This provides the most
variety of personalities, learning styles, and work being done at one time. This class size is possible
because the children learn from each other and stay with the same teacher for three to six
years. This size help to create much independent work, and peer teaching, and eliminates the
possibility of too much teacher-centered, teacher-directed work.
Basic Lessons: A well-trained Montessori teacher spends a lot of time during training practicing
the many basic lessons with materials in all areas. She/he must pass difficult written and oral
exams on these lessons in order to be certified. She is trained to recognize a child's readiness
according to age, ability, and interestfor a specific lesson, and is prepared to guide individual
progress. Although the teacher plans lessons for each child for each day, she will bow to the
interests of a child following a passion.
Areas of Study Linked: All subjects are interwoven; history, art, music, math, astronomy, biology,
geology, physics, and chemistry are not isolated from each other and a child studies them in
any order he chooses, moving through all in a unique way for each child. At any one time in a
day all subjectsmath, language, science, history, geography, art, music, etc.are being
studied, at all levels.

The Schedule: There is at least one 3-hour period of uninterrupted, work time each day, not
broken up by required group lessons or lessons by specialists. Adults and children respect
concentration and do not interrupt someone who is busy at a task. Groups form spontaneously
but not on a predictable schedule. Specialists are available at times but no child is asked to
interrupt a self-initiated project to attend these lessons.
Assessment: There are no grades, or other forms of reward or punishment, subtle or overt.
Assessment is by portfolio and the teacher's observation and record keeping. The real test of
whether or not the system is working lies in the accomplishment and behavior of the children,
their happiness, maturity, kindness, and love of learning, concentration, and work.
Requirements for Age 3-6: There are no academic requirements for this age, but children are
exposed to amazing amounts of knowledge and often learn to read, write and calculate
beyond what is often thought usual for a child of this age.
Requirements for Ages 6-18: Requirements for ages 6-18: There are no curriculum requirements
except those set by the state, or college entrance requirements, for specific grades and these
take a minimum amount of time. Students of K-12+ age design 1-2 week contracts with the
teacher to balance their work, and learn time management skills. The work of the 6-12 class
includes subjects usually not introduced until high school.
Learning Styles: All intelligences and styles of learningmusical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, intuitive, natural, and the traditional linguistic and logicalmathematicalare nurtured and respected.
Character Education: Opportunities for the valorization of the personality is considered at least as
important as academic education. Children are given the opportunity to take care of
themselves, each other, and the environmentgardening, cooking, building, moving gracefully,
speaking politely, doing social work in the community, etc.
The Results of learning in this way: In looking at the results one must be sure they are judging a
class run by a fully trained teacher. Using Montessori without this training will not have the same
results. When the environment meets all of the needs of children they become, without any
manipulation by the adult, physically healthy, mentally and psychologically fulfilled, extremely
well-educated, and brimming over with joy and kindness toward each other.

Erikson:

Erik Erikson recognized the basic notions of Freudian theory, but believed that Freud misjudged some important
dimensions of human development. Erikson said that humans develop throughout their life span, while Freud said
that our personality is shaped by the age of five. Erikson developed eight psychosocial stages that humans encounter
throughout their life. The stages are Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry
vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, and Integrity vs.
Despair.

8 Stages of Development:
Stage

Basic
Conflict

Important
Events

Outcome

Feeding

Children develop a sense of trust when

caregivers provide reliabilty, care, and
affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.

Early
Childhood (2
to 3 years)

Autonomy vs. Toilet

Shame and
Training
Doubt

Children need to develop a sense of personal

control over physical skills and a sense of
independence. Success leads to feelings of
autonomy, failure results in feelings of
shame and doubt.

Preschool (3
to 5 years)

Initiative vs.
Guilt

Exploration

Children need to begin asserting control and

power over the environment. Success in this
stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children
who try to exert too much power experience
disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.

School Age (6
to 11 years)

Industry vs.
Inferiority

School

Children need to cope with new social and

academic demands. Success leads to a sense
of competence, while failure results in
feelings of inferiority.

Adolescence
(12 to 18
years)

Identity vs.
Role
Confusion

Social
Teens need to develop a sense of self and
Relationships personal identity. Success leads to an ability
to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to
role confusion and a weak sense of self.

Infancy (birth Trust vs.

to 18 months) Mistrust

Intimacy vs.
Yound
Adulthood (19 Isolation
to 40 years)

Relationships Young adults need to form intimate, loving

relationships with other people. Success
leads to strong relationships, while failure
results in loneliness and isolation.

Generativity
Work and
Middle
Adulthood (40 vs. Stagnation Parenthood
to 65 years)

Maturity(65 to Ego Integrity

vs. Despair
death)

Adults need to create or nurture things that

will outlast them, often by having children or
creating a positive change that benefits other
people. Success leads to feelings of
usefulness and accomplishment, while failure
results in shallow involvement in the world.

Reflection on Older adults need to look back on life and

Life
feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this
stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while
failure results in regret, bitterness, and
despair.

Piaget:

Jean Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development
involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes
based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations.

Key Concepts of Piaget

Schemas - A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing.
Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.

In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that
knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously
existing schemas.
For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole
experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs.
Suppose then that the child encounters a very large dog. The child will take in this new information,
modifying the previously existing schema to include this new information.

Assimilation - The process of taking in new information into our previously existing schema's is known as
assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective, because we tend to modify experience or information somewhat
to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is an example of
assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.
Accommodation - Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of new
information, a process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves altering existing schemas, or ideas, as a
result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process.

Equilibration - Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation,
which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress through the stages of
cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation)
and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children
are able to move from one stage of thought into the next.

4 Stages of Development:
1.

Sensorimotor: (birth to about age 2)

During this stage, the child learns about himself and his environment through motor and reflex actions.
Thought derives from sensation and movement. The child learns that he is separate from his environment
and that aspects of his environment -- his parents or favorite toy -- continue to exist even though they may
be outside the reach of his senses. Teaching for a child in this stage should be geared to the sensorimotor
system. You can modify behavior by using the senses: a frown, a stern or soothing voice -- all serve as
appropriate techniques.

2.

Preoperational: (begins about the time the child starts to talk to about age 7)
Applying his new knowledge of language, the child begins to use symbols to represent objects. Early in this
stage he also personifies objects. He is now better able to think about things and events that aren't
immediately present. Oriented to the present, the child has difficulty conceptualizing time. His thinking is
influenced by fantasy -- the way he'd like things to be -- and he assumes that others see situations from his
viewpoint. He takes in information and then changes it in his mind to fit his ideas. Teaching must take into
account the child's vivid fantasies and undeveloped sense of time. Using neutral words, body outlines and
equipment a child can touch gives him an active role in learning.

3.

Concrete: (about first grade to early adolescence)During this stage, accommodation increases. The child
develops an ability to think abstractly and to make rational judgements about concrete or observable
phenomena, which in the past he needed to manipulate physically to understand. In teaching this child,
giving him the opportunity to ask questions and to explain things back to you allows him to mentally
manipulate information.

4.

Formal Operations: (adolescence) This stage brings cognition to its final form. This person no longer
requires concrete objects to make rational judgements. At his point, he is capable of hypothetical and
deductive reasoning. Teaching for the adolescent may be wideranging because he'll be able to consider
many possibilities from several perspectives.

Vygotsky:

Lev Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition, as he
believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of "making meaning."

More Knowledgeable Other

The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to someone who has a better
understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or
concept. Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not necessarily the
case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience.
(For example, who is more likely to know more about the newest teen-age music groups, how to win at the most
recent Playstation game, or how to correctly perform the newest dance craze - a child or their parents?)
In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. Some companies, to support employees in their learning process, are
now using electronic performance support systems. Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to
facilitate and guide students through the learning process. The key to MKOs is that they must have (or be
programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does.

Zone of Proximal Development

The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is integrally related to an important principle of Vygotsky's work,
the Zone of Proximal Development. This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child
can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.
Vygotsky sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance
should be given - allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their own - developing higher mental
functions.

Vygotsky also views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies. He suggests that
teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skilful peers
- within the zone of proximal development