Power Engineering 2014 09 DL

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EMISSIONS CONTROL
THE BENEFITS OF DRY SORBENT INJECTION
CONDENSER PERFORMANCE
IDENTIFYING THE CAUSE
OF PERFORMANCE DEGRADATION
FLEXIBLE COAL
MANAGEMENT STRATAGIES
FOR MAXIMIZING FLEXIBILITY
the magazine of power generation
118
YEARS
Internal
Combustion
Engines
September 2014 www.power-eng.com
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FEATURES 118
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A Low-Cost Pollutant Control

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Power Engineering
Improving the Flexibility of

Coal-Fired Power Plants
As more renewable power is added to the grid, increasing

the flexibility of coal-fired plants will become an important
priority. A management strategies expert examines the
flexibility of todays fleet of coal-fired plants.
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No.9, September 2014
VOLUME
46
Condenser Performance: Assigning

Monetary Losses to Sources of Degradation
Many plants fail to understand the nuances of condenser operation. Read about
how one plant dug deep into condenser data to isolate degradation during a
significant performance degradation event.
56
Gas Turbine Technologies

for the Transition
Power Engineering examines innovations in gasturbine technologies to accommodate wind and solar.
DEPARTMENTS
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4
6
Opinion
Clearing the Air
Gas Generation
8
10
View on Renewables
Energy Matters
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OPINION
Why Should You

Care About Coal?
BY RUSSELL RAY, CHIEF EDITOR
s masses of arctic air swept down

from the North Pole to engulf
much of the U.S. last winter, the
nations fleet of coal-fired power plants
was called on to keep us warm amid frigid temperatures spawned by whats popularly known as the polar vortex.
Demand for electricity to heat homes
and businesses soared in January and
February. Nearly all of the increased demand was met with power produced
by coal-fired plants, many of which are
scheduled to be retired in a few short
years. During the cold spell, power plants
fueled with natural gas ran at much lower
capacities or sat idle as gas supplies were
re-routed to end users for home heating.
Two of the largest coal-burning utilities in the country AEP (American
Electric Power) and Southern Co. told
us that more than three quarters of the
required demand that they met this past
January and February came from coal
plants that are going to get retired in the
next couple of years, said Ben Yamagata,
executive director of the Coal Utilization
Research Council.
Last winters cold spell is just one example of how coal-fired power has played
a critical role in maintaining a reliable
U.S. grid and why it should be preserved.
Coal is the cheapest and most abundant fuel in the world. It fosters economic
stability by providing low-cost power to
manufacturers and has long been a buffer to the volatility of fluctuating natural
gas prices. Yet, the U.S. is expected to retire about 54 GW of coal-fired capacity by
2016 amid a campaign by environmental
groups to end the use of coal in the U.S.
As the U.S. discourages the use of coal
through misguided regulation, the rest of
the world is turning to coal to stabilize
chaotic power markets and provide electricity to regions of the world in desperate
2
need of reliable and affordable power. In

Germany, where renewable power supplies are sold at guaranteed prices and
dispatched to the grid before conventional resources, power prices have skyrocketed, utilities have recorded huge financial losses and reliability has suffered. To
mitigate these problems, Germany plans
to add more than 7,000 MW of coal-fired
power by 2015.
Meanwhile, Africa, India and China
continue to build coal-fired generation
to meet the energy needs of millions.
Imposing unrealistic limits for carbon dioxide emissions from new and
existing coal-fired plants in the U.S.
will do little, if anything, to reduce climate change.
If we eliminate all of the coal plants
in the U.S., we will have effectuated 3
percent of the total global greenhouse
gas emissions, Yamagata said last
month during the keynote session at
COAL-GEN 2014. By 2019, in China
and India, coal plants planned or under construction will emit annually as
much or more CO2 than the entire U.S.
coal fleet currently emits annually.
The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agencys Clean Power Plan, unveiled
in June, would require existing power
plants to reduce carbon dioxide emissions 30 percent below 2005 levels by
2030. By EPAs own estimates, the rule
would force power producers to close
more than 60 percent of the nations
coal-fired generation. Debate over the
timeline, the cost and the methods for
compliance will continue for months or
even years as the industry challenges
the rule in court.
One thing is certain. If the rule is not
withdrawn or redesigned, costs will rise
and jobs will be lost over a plan that
will have little or no effect on global
greenhouse gas emissions.

A 10-percent increase in electricity
costs leads to a 1-percent decrease in
GDP (gross domestic product) and a
loss of as much as 1.5 million jobs, Yamagata said. There are all kinds of projections about the consequences of the
111(d) rule. I dont know what the right
answer is. What I know for certain is its
going to cost money. Price matters.
But the costly requirements of EPAs
proposal may never be realized, said Jeff
Holmstead, former assistant administrator of the EPA and one of the nations
leading climate change lawyers. The rule
will likely be overturned by the courts
because the EPA has no authority to
regulate greenhouse gas emissions from
power plants under section 111(d) of the
Clean Air Act, Holmstead said.
If the Supreme Court stays the way
it is today, Im 100 percent confident
there are at least five votes that would
say this goes well beyond what the EPA
is authorized to do under the Clean Air
Act, Holmstead said last month during
a forum in Nashville, Tenn. The idea
that this 111(d) somehow gives the EPA
authority to require all states to fundamentally change the way electricity is
produced and consumed in their state
is a real stretch. This is something that
wont withstand judicial scrutiny.
Whats more, the controversial rule
could easily be scuttled by a Republican
administration, Holmstead said.
There are some EPA regulations that
are very difficult to undo. But this is not
one of those, he said. It will be very
easy for a new administration to come
in and say this isnt consistent with our
view of the agencys authority.
If you have a question or a comment,
contact me at russellr@pennwell.com.
www.power-eng.com
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CLEARING THE AIR
Just the
Facts Maam
BY ROBERT NICOLO, DIRECTOR OF AIR QUALITY CONTROL SYSTEMS, MITSUBISHI HITACHI POWER SYSTEMS
oe Friday, the no nonsense-cop

in the TV series Dragnet, sought
out misconduct to protect the innocent. The country certainly could
use him in todays battle over coal,
where there are declarations about
coals contributions to global temperature change and the industrys ability
to meet stringent emission standards
within the current coal-fired generation fleet. Today, coal fired units retrofitted with commercially available
state-of-the-art emissions controls are
a far cry from what was technically
achievable in past decades. In order to
achieve extremely low emissions, the
last few coal plants that were built and
operated prior to the war on coal have
been supplied with the most advanced
emission control technologies available. Using these proven and reliable
control technologies, pollutants such
as particulates, sulfur, nitrogen, mercury and many other combustible exhausts can be controlled to near zerooutlet emissions.
By 2020, it is predicted that the current 324 GW of US coal-fired units
within the countrys utilities fleets
will amount to only 70 percent of todays capacity. This 97-GW decrease is
largely driven by strict Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) regulations
that leave coal-fired units with but a
few options. Some utilities may purchase custom-made air quality control
systems (AQCS) from original equipment manufacturers (OEM); others
are considering converting their existing assets to natural gas, or replacing
them with natural gas combined cycle
units (NGCC). In the end, utilities may
4
remove some of their generation mix

by retiring coal units. Many predict
that this retirement scenario will contribute to higher, less reliable energy
for all Americans. Additionally, it can
safely be assumed that approximately
6 GW of U.S. nuclear power will be
shut down by 2022. When coupled
with coal shutdowns, this will spell
bad news for U.S. power prices and reliability.
Even if coal units retire as predicted,
coal-fired power generation will remain an integral and major source of
energy for the country in the generations to come,
no matter which
natural gas infrastructure or
renewable technologies are implemented. No
one
disagrees
that energy efficiency is key to making the planet a
better place in the future. Using modern equipment, the industry continues
to implement controls on the existing
fleet of coal-fired units. However, if
the country began to replace its oldest,
least upgradeable coal units with high
efficiency, ultra-supercritical cycles
utilizing the most technologically advanced emission controls, the United
States overall contribution to greenhouse gases would be much lower
than currently achievable. Attractive
as this may be, this scenario will not
be possible under the current EPA provisions. Without these provisions, the
country could put more Americans to
work, regain home-grown industries,
utilize its natural resources, reduce its

reliance on foreign powers, and keep
its energy assets balanced. This would
allow the country to compensate for
other uncontrolled energy variables
such as natural gas pricing or wind
and sun dependency. The U.S. coal industry generates over 40 percent of the
countrys energy today. It is a stable
fuel with a stable price and, best of all,
it is a natural resource that is native to
this country.
The latest blow to a balanced U.S.
energy portfolio is the new Clean Power Plan (CPP). As a result of this plan,
Americans will
see the price of
energy dramatically impacted
due to additional forced retirements of coalfired
plants.
To combat this
problem, the country should be exploring all resources available to it,
including building newer coal plants
which use advanced technologies that
lower carbon exhausts. The CPP takes
these options away, even though these
options make a lot of sense. The EPA
should adopt the goal of keeping the
lights on at an affordable price, while
delivering outcome certainty with a
positive economic future.
The EPA seems to be out of step
with the common-sense solutions that
many Americans endorse. For this reason, a dozen states have filed a lawsuit
against the EPA over its current plans.
One can only hope that Joe Friday is
on the case.
The EPA seems to

be out of step with
the common-sense
solutions that many
Americans endorse.
www.power-eng.com
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Energy Reform Package to

Increase Competition And
Private Sector Opportunities
in the Mexican Power Industry
Jessica Adkins
Andrew Farris
Manuel Vera
BY JESSICA ADKINS, ANDREW FARRIS AND MANUEL VERA, BRACEWELL & GIULIANI
n April, Mexican President Enrique

Pena Nieto proposed a legislative reform package that was approved by
the Mexican Congress, overhauling the
nations energy industries. The legislation contains eight new laws and amendments to 13 existing laws that will affect
the energy industry.
The legislation addresses economic
and public policy challenges in the Mexican power industry, which is currently
managed by the state. The Ministry of
Energy estimates that without subsidies
provided by the government, the average cost of electricity would be 73 percent
higher than in the United States. The legislation will address these challenges and
potentially lower costs, expand access
and promote economic growth.
Under the old regime, the Federal Electricity Commission (CFE) controlled the
entire power industry. Consequently, facilities owned by the CFE account for approximately 68 percent of electrical power generation. The remaining 32 percent
of generation belongs to independent
generators; however, these generators
have not been permitted to sell electricity
directly to users. As a result, more than
half of this generated electricity is sold to
the CFE. The remainder is generated for
self-consumption or export under special
permits. In addition to barriers created by
the inability of generators to market and
sell power, private participation in power
generation has lagged for two other reasons. First, development of generation
projects has required the participation
and planning of the CFE, but due to
budgetary constraints, these potential
development projects have been unable
to commence. Second, the transmission
network is outdated and not sufficiently
6
interconnected.
The newly enacted reforms are designed to create greater competition and
private sector involvement in the power
industry, including in power generation
and transmission and distribution, while
also transforming the CFE into a productive state enterprise.
Working in partnership or competition
with the state, private parties will have
the opportunity to:
generate power for sale in a competitive market
enter into public-private partnerships with the federal government
for generation-related business
enter into contracts and joint ventures with the state for the construction, financing, operation and
maintenance of transmission and
distribution infrastructure
Additionally, the legislation grants authority to the Energy Regulatory Commission (CRE) to issue rules governing
transactions between power generators
and affiliates selling electricity, and to
impose rules on market participants regarding accounting, operational or functional separation. The legislation stipulates that generators will not be permitted
to own interests in entities that operate
oil and gas pipelines or storage facilities
within the same markets that the generators operate.
A wholesale electricity market will be
created and operated by the National
Energy Control Center (CENACE). Additionally, CENACE will maintain open
access to transmission and distribution
networks and ensure that electricity rates
are kept low, pursuant to new market
rules. The market rules have not been
proposed, but will ultimately be promulgated by the CENACE. Following implementation of the legislation, CENACE
will be a separate entity from the CFE.
The wholesale electricity market will
connect three players in the power sector: Generators, Qualified End Users and
Marketers. Generators, including private parties and the CFE, will be able to
access the wholesale market to sell their
electricity. Qualified end users, defined
as entities that exceed a threshold level of
electricity consumption, will be able to
purchase electricity from suppliers other
than the CFE. Marketers, defined as entities that have entered into a market participation agreement with the CENACE
for buy and sell activities, will be able to
trade and market electricity.
The CFE will no longer be subject to
stringent government control, but will
be managed by its own board of directors. The primary function of the CFE
will be to supply retail electricity at regulated rates to retail customers. Its other
functions will be spun off into separate
state-owned operating companies. The
newly created companies responsible for
transmission and distribution of electricity will be subsidiaries of the CFE but will
not be authorized to buy or sell electricity. These entities will be allowed to enter
into agreements with private parties for
the financing, management and expansion of transmission and distribution
networks.
In the coming months, regulations,
guidelines, administrative rules and
forms of agreements will be issued to
make the legislation fully effective. This
new framework will set Mexico on a new
course, creating opportunities for private
investment in the power industry.
www.power-eng.com
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VIEW ON RENEWABLES
Profling Geothermal
Energy in North America
BY LESLIE BLODGETT, GEOTHERMAL ENERGY ASSOCIATION
orth America holds diverse

geologic conditions, economic
and political contexts, and geothermal experiences. In the geothermal
energy market, scientists and developers
successes have energized wide parts of
the Western U.S. and Mexico. Projects are
kicking off in new states and countries
every year.
The Western U.S. Experience
Drives Global Innovation
Geothermal companies will exhibit
their latest innovations this month at the
Geothermal Energy Expo, held by the
Geothermal Energy Association (GEA) in
tandem with the Geothermal Resources
Council (GRC) Annual Meeting in Portland, Oregon. Portland was chosen as
the site for this meeting because it is the
gateway to a new geothermal frontier in
the U.S. Pacific Northwest, said GRC Executive Director Steve Ponder.
California is the national and world
leader in geothermal production. The
state market has taken hits due to subsidies aimed at intermittent renewables
(geothermal is considered baseload)
and competition with natural gas, but is
considering two pieces of legislation that
could bring about a geothermal revival in
the state. Nevada is also a strong market
with plans to retire coal plants and replace them with renewables, including
geothermal.
Nationwide, capacity shot past 3,440
MW by the end of 2013, with new or
refurbished power plants in Utah, Nevada, California, and New Mexico. The
industry is robust and innovative but not
without its challenges, including policy
barriers, inadequate transmission infrastructure, and a stiff energy market. Geothermal experts work to resolve these
issues and increase the collective understanding of the unique values that make
8
renewable geothermal power a boon to

grid systems.
Mexico Opens Doors to Private
and Foreign Industry Participation
The Mexican Department of Energys
goal is to have 35 percent of Mexicos
energy production come from renewable sources by 2024. Until recently, the
Federal Commission of Electricity (CFE)
controlled generation, dispatch, transmission and commercialization of electric energy for the public service. With
one-third of the energy being produced
by private producers through agreements
with the CFE, Mexico created the Energy
Reform to open the electricity market
to private and foreign companies that
passed in late 2013. It is a promising sign
of renewal and potential growth to a
market that is well established but needs
private investment to grow.
CFE managed to successfully add geothermal capacity in the last two years;
however, there had been no new greenfield developments in 14 years. Along
with the Energy Reform, several secondary laws have been passed, including the
Geothermal Energy Law, which is based
on a concessions regime.
Luis C.A. Gutirrez-Negrn, president
of the Mexican Geothermal Association, said he considers the new regulatory
frame for geothermal a way to leverage
the Mexican potential for conventional
hydrothermal resources, estimated at
more than 2,000 MW. The geothermal
law and the recent foundation of the
Mexican Center for Innovation in Geothermal Energy (CEMIE-Geo), which
will conduct 30 projects in the following
four years, are two key pieces for the geothermal boom the country sees as possible in the next decade and beyond.
GEAs April 2014 international projects
list showed five geothermal projects in
Mexico. Los Azufres and Los Humeros

were both under construction, while Cerritos Colorados, and Ceboruco Phases 1
and 2 were all listed as prospects.
Canada Building
a Fledgling Market
Canada could have up to 5,000 MW lying in wait and accessible with currently
available technology, but hasnt had its
first power-level commercial operation.
GEAs April 2014 international projects
list showed nine current geothermal
power generation projects, all in early or
prospective stages: six in British Columbia, two in Saskatchewan, and one in Alberta.
Island Model Ideal in Caribbean
Central American countries such as
Costa Rica and Caribbean islands such
as Nevis and St. Lucia are devoting interest and economic future in geothermal
energy, attracted by the fact that it is a
local resource and fragile environments
are preserved. Islands that have long been
leaders in geothermal energy include Hawaii and Iceland.
Geothermal companies cross borders
and technologies within North American and beyond. Geologists working in
the field and engineers who specialize
in geothermal power have worked with
a variety of resource sites and are able to
implement lessons learned into international work. The GEA along with the U.S.
State Department held a Best Practices
for Risk Reduction Workshop in April
2014 that created a high-level dialogue
and strategic conversation about the
causes and potential solutions of geothermal risk and how they affect the growth
of geothermal development using examples of many of the types of frameworks
that exist worldwide. The discussion was
captured in a follow-up manual, available
on GEAs Web site.
www.power-eng.com
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ENERGY MATTERS
Security in an Emergent
Threat Environment:
Reading the Tea

Leaves of Change
BY ROBYNN ANDRACSEK, P.E., AND R.J. HOPE, CPP, ABCP, BURNS & MCDONNELL
Editors note: This is Part III of a three-part

series on power plant security.
reparation is the balance point
between hindsight and clairvoyance. In Parts 1 and 2 of this series, recent security events at substations
and new regulations issued in response
were covered. In this, the fnal Part, we
turn to the evolution of threats.
Lets start by defning the language
of security. The threat is the bad guy.
This could be an organization such as
domestic- or foreign- based terrorist
group or it can also be the identifed
lone wolf. Risk is what that threat
may do, such as theft, vandalism, or,
taken to an extreme, asset shooting or
bombing. Vulnerability is what the bad
guy will exploit to execute the event.
This could be a gate that is not locked,
a lost badge that was not deactivated,
poor key control programs or clear
lines of sight to critical assets.
For years the major risk to substations was that of copper theft, vandalism, or trespassing which was generally perpetrated by thieves either
looking for quick cash or with nothing
better to do. In light of the events in
San Jose it appears that the threat/risk
model may have shifted. While these
risks certainly still exist, the nature of
the more spectacular can often drive
additional change. In the past, utilities
would take security actions at substations that had become a common target of copper thieves. These measures
would sometimes catch a few wouldbe thieves and may have deterred others. But the point is that those that
10
were deterred did not go away; they This is not a new concept in security,
went somewhere else. Very rarely does but certainly one that needs to be una threat wake up one morning and de- derstood when developing a security
cide to follow the straight and narrow program within an organization. This
because of the security measures an does not mean that security programs
organization puts in place. This go- should address everything from coping somewhere else
per thieves to oris called a target shift.
ganized assaults. It
Any security
When a target is
program should be means that any secuhardened to a level
rity program should
that the probability fexible enough to
be fexible enough to
of capture or failure adapt as threats
adapt as threats and
outweighs the ben- and risks evolve.
risks evolve.
efts of success a tarIt is very diffcult if
get shift is generated. This target shift not impossible to protect against ALL
can be to another similar site, such as risks to which an organization may
another substation a few miles away be exposed. It is also very diffcult to
without additional security measures, deter a determined adversary- one
or to a different industry all together. who is willing to sacrifce a signifcant
Additionally, new security measures amount to reach the goal. However, it
or a hardened site can also generate a is important to address security. The
method shift, such as what occurred key to successful security in a dynamic
after the San Jose substation shoot- threat and risk environment is awareing and may have led to the Nogales ness.
substation pipe bomb. The natural inThis can be established by effecclination is to eliminate clear lines of tive security education programs for
sight to critical assets when protecting visitors and employees, through liaiagainst an asset shooting event; how- son with local law enforcement, and
ever, it is arguable that some critical through being active in peer assoassets are close enough to the perim- ciations. While these actions cannot
eter that a pipe bomb or similar device guarantee success in a changing threat
could be hurled over the top. If the and risk environment, they can certhreat is determined to disable that tainly go a long way to establish a separticular asset and security measures curity posture that is proactive rather
eliminate one method of attack, a new than reactive.
method of attack may surface.
It is not possible to know when,
Threats by their nature are dynamic, where, or how the next attack on transchanging quickly to suit the environ- mission infrastructure will occur; only
ment. Regulation by nature is static and that there will be more attacks. Prepaslower to respond to the environment. ration is the key.
www.power-eng.com
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NUCLEAR REACTIONS
Smoke Alarms and

Insurance Policies
BY BRIAN SCHIMMOLLER, CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
hat do the following

items have in common:
fire extinguishers, smoke
alarms, and insurance policies? Pretty
easy one, right? They are all items most
of us own, but items that all of us hope
we never have to use. Their use implies
the existence of a dangerous condition,
a life-threatening fire, or a real accident
that could impact your home, vehicles,
or personal health.
According to a survey conducted by
the National Fire Protection Association, 96 to 97 percent of U.S. households have at least one smoke alarm in
their residences, which is a testament
to the successful efforts by fire departments, insurance companies, and consumer safety groups to promote their
use. The death rate per 100 reported
fires is twice as high in homes without
a working alarm as it is in homes with
a working alarm.
The nuclear industry has long recognized the importance of emergency preparedness. Defense-in-depth strategies,
robust structural designs, highly trained
workers, and close relationships with
local and regional emergency response
agencies are just some of the features
that nuclear power plants are equipped
withbut dont expect to deploy. In
laymans terms, they are all part of the
nuclear power industrys accident insurance policy.
In May, the U.S. industry added another arrow to its public protection and
emergency preparedness quiver with the
opening of a regional response center
in Phoenix. A second response center
in Memphis opened in late June. These
response centers, devised and developed
as part of the industrys post-Fukushima
safety strategy, can deliver emergency
12
equipment to nuclear plants to support

their response to extreme events.
Although individual nuclear power
plants are already equipped with safety
equipment, the response centers expand
the pool of resources to ensure nuclear
plant operators can protect reactors and
spent fuel pools until power and cooling
systems can be restored. The Phoenix
and Memphis facilities will be able to deliver equipment to any U.S. nuclear plant
within 24 hours using air and ground
transportation. The centers are operated
by the Strategic Alliance for FLEX Emergency Response (SAFER), which is an
alliance between the Pooled Equipment
Inventory Co. (PEICo) and AREVA. PEICo has managed a nuclear industry joint
inventory storage and maintenance program for more than 30 years.
Five sets of equipment are available to
support multiple events if needed. The
locations are totally redundant, said
Deanna McCombs, SAFER project manager. Each center has the same quantity
of equipment: enough to support four
units plus one redundant set that is assumed to be in maintenance. The idea
is that if one of the response centers is
disabled, the other center would provide
the equipment to the affected plants.
Equipment housed at the response
centers includes portable backup generators, high-pressure pumps, low-pressure
pumps, diesel fuel transfer pumps, diesel
fuel tanks, diesel powered light towers,
water treatment components, booster
pumps, electrical distribution cabinets,
cables, and hoses. Moreover, the equipment sets are intentionally generic to
guarantee that they can interface with
systems in place at U.S. nuclear facilities.
Everything in the response centers is
preloaded onto trailers to speed delivery.
The equipment also can be airlifted by

helicopter if road access is not available.
Procedures have been developed to coordinate an effective, timely response. For
example, an off-site location has been
identified near each nuclear site where
equipment can be dropped if access is
not possible. Tie-in and hookup locations also have been identified to ensure
rapid installation when the equipment
gets to the site.
At the Phoenix dedication ceremony,
Exelon Chief Nuclear Officer Mike Pacilio commented on the versatility afforded by the response center: It adds
tremendously to our ability to combat
any type of accident thats thrown at us,
either by Mother Nature or by man. In
other words, if a Fukushima-like scenario happened at a U.S. plant, the industry will be prepared. The extreme event
likely wont be a tsunami as it was for Fukushima, but an earthquake or a flood
could present similar challenges.
Like a smoke alarm that needs to be
tested periodically, or a homeowners insurance policy that needs to be reviewed
to ensure adequate protection against
new risks, the equipment at the emergency response centers will be diligently
maintained. Response center staff will
maintain the equipment according to
industry test and maintenance protocols
to ensure its functionality when called
upon. SAFER also intends to conduct at
least one annual drill to ensure readiness, said McCombs. These drills may
be fairly simple such as staffing the
SAFER Control Center and the Response
Centers or much more involved, such
as actually moving equipment.
In short, as with all insurance, the
idea is the same: better SAFER than
sorry.
www.power-eng.com
This Wrtsil plant in Texas is known locally as The Wind

Enabler. Due to the modular solution of 24 combustion
engines, the plant is able to follow wind turbine output
precisely, sustaining top fuel efficiency at any load.
Photo Courtesy: Wrtsil
The Flexibility
Internal Combu
Engines
BY MATTI RAUTKIVI, WRTSIL
n recent years, renewables have

quickly moved from a muchhyped, yet small, contributor
to total electric capacity into
one of comparative significance. If the most ambitious renewable
portfolio standards are realized, clean
power could make up as much as 70
percent of total power generation by
2030. While this should be applauded,
14
and the role of renewables acknowledged as key to the energy transition,

power systems cannot be decarbonized
in the absence of fossil fuels, which will
increasingly be called upon to provide
peaking power when wind and solar
generation is not available.
PART-LOADING PRICE TAG

Up until now, peaking power has
predominately been provided by

part-loading open cycle (OCGT) and
combined cycle (CCGT) gas turbines,
which have adapted to this role by
ramping up over a number of hours
and then quickly flexing their output
when required to support renewables.
This may have been efficient in the
past, but is not likely to be the optimum way to provide the increased
amount of flexibility needed in future.
It should be noted that the cost associated with renewable energy integration
differs from system to system, and varies
depending on how well different components of the system fit together. However,
there are number of costs associated with
www.power-eng.com
Author
Matti Rautkivi is the general manager
of the Liaison Office and is responsible
for electricity market development in
Wrtsil Power Plants.
its latest research and projects to uncover the cost implications of part-loading
and assess whether future power system
strategies have adequately considered
other feasible alternatives. The key thread
running consistently through Wrtsils
work is that another mature gas technology internal combustion engines (ICEs)
exists and could provide more effective
flexible back up in comparison to OCGTs
and CCGTs operating at part-load.
RESURGING GAS
TECHNOLOGY
of
ustion
part-loading that are consistent across all

geographical areas including increased
carbon costs, reduced fuel efficiency, increased number of generators needed on
the system and costly wind generation
curtailment to maintain system balance.
Given these costs, if part-loading is used
in a system with a high level of renewables, the full benefits of decarbonization
may not be achieved and consumers will
end up paying higher prices. Put simply,
as a result of burgeoning renewables, the
power industry will soon be priced out
of part-loading, and it will no longer be
a viable option to creating flexibility in
power systems.
With this in mind, Wrtsil is using
www.power-eng.com
Although mostly known from the

transport industry, ICE technology has
been rapidly developed into a plausible
option in large-scale power generation,
displaying notable synergies with renewable energy generators. When combined
in the future energy mix, renewables and
ICEs can unlock greater emissions reductions and cost savings together than
either technology is capable of in isolation. This is due to renewables inherent need to be backed up by alternative
highly flexible energy sources when there
is neither enough sun or wind to generate renewable power, married with ICEs
ability to provide a solution; through a
fast-reacting system that can ramp up
from zero to 100 percent output in less
than five minutes regardless of plant
size. Another key advantage is the superior part-loading efficiency, which derives
from modular plant design and allows
each engine to operate independently.
ICEs can increase fuel security through
the capability to burn any gaseous and
liquid fuels and additionally come with
a short construction time of less than one
year. In many locations, a significant added value is the superior efficiency in extreme temperatures and high altitudes, in
comparison to OCGT and CCGT plants.
With ICE plants in the capacity mix,
conventional fossil fuel plants no longer
have to part-load to balance fluctuations

in renewables and can instead operate
efficiently at full load, leaving ICEs to
handle normal system variations as well
as production forecast errors of wind and
solar. This creates additional carbon savings, promotes fuel efficiency, reduces
instances of renewables curtailment and
decreases the number of total generators
needed on the system.
Investigations by the International Energy Agency (IEA) shows growth in ICE
plants exceeds that of gas turbines and
furthermore revealed the technology is
cost competitive with OCGTs. However,
challenges remain when selecting ICEs.
According to the IEA, this is due in part to
the electricity utilities workforce, many of
who have particular expertise in OCGT
and CCGT and perceive the switch to a
new technology to be a risk that should
be avoided unless the investment opportunity is considerable. As a result,
even some of the most pro-renewable regions have been slow take up ICEs.
THE EUROPEAN CASE UK

According to Energy Trends statistics
published by UKs Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) in
June 2014, renewables generation in the
UK reached a record of 19.4 percent in
the first quarter of 2014. Notably, clean
power generation was up 43 percent on
the same period last year. The rise, attributed to high wind speeds, is a welcome
boost to the countrys decarbonisation
programme, however usage of weatherdependent energy such as wind power
is coming at a cost to the UK. Between
2012 and 2013 the country paid out 7.6
million in constraint payments made to
sites generating at times when there was
a high availability of wind power, but low
demand for electricity; the case of the so
called windy weekday night, for example. While it is important to remember
15
The new 250 MW Kiisa power plant in Estonia will be

used for peak shaving and emergency operation. This
is possible with the capability of fast startup and ability
to reach full load within 10 minutes. Photo Courtesy:
Wrtsil
wind farms are not the main beneficiaunder two wind energy scenariries of the UKs constraint costs, the figure os: one with a high wind based
does raise important questions around
on National Grids Gone Green scenario
the National Grids
of around 20GW
struggle to keep up with The UK has a gas
of offshore wind
a fast-growing renewable strategy in place
in 2020 (and close
sector. Industry body
to 40 GW in 2030)
that advocates
Scottish Renewables ar and the second
gues that the way to re- part-loading,
a base wind, conduce constraint costs is through the
sistent with the
to increase investment
Central
scenario
installation of 4.8
in grid infrastructure,
of the UK Governwhich is an approach GW of new efficient ments
Updated
Wrtsil concurred with combined cycle
Emissions Projecin its research, conduct- gas turbines.
tions,
including
ed by Redpoint Energy.
10 GW of offshore
Currently, the UK has a gas strategy wind in 2020 and around 15 GW
in place up to 2030 that advocates partin 2030. Incredibly, the overall findings
loading, through the installation of 4.8 revealed that the UK could save between
GW of new efficient combined cycle gas 381 million and 545 million per year
turbines (CCGT), enough to power the by 2020, increasing to between 587 milequivalent of five million UK homes. lion and 1.5 billion by 2030 (based on
When this strategy is weighed up against base wind and high wind calculations
the installation of an equivalent amount respectively).
of ICEs, the cost savings are considerable
- up to 1.5 billion per year by 2030, ac- THE U.S. CASE - CALIFORNIA
cording to Redpoint Energy.
In California, the states Renewable
The study investigated the UKs Portfolio Standard (RPS) programme regas
generation
capacity
mixes quires utilities to obtain a progressively
16
larger proportion of their electricity from

renewable energy sources. Legislation
mandates the renewable energy generation mix rising from approximately 14
percent in 2010 to 33 percent by 2020. In
keeping with the UK study, a California
equivalent, conducted by KEMA DNV,
also compared the transmission system
operators chosen gas strategy through
to 2020 with the equivalent amount
of ICEs. This involved comparing ICE
technology with the California Independent System Operators (CAISO) policy
to install 5.5 GW of new capacity, split
equally between CCGTs and OCGTs. The
results revealed that the former gas capacity mix could save California up to $890
million per year by 2020. In a further
study published by Wrtsil and leading global energy market modeling firm
Energy Exemplar in April 2014, it was
concluded that, in addition to cost savings, California could reduce its annual
water consumption by 25.5 million gallons and reduce CO2 emissions by more
than half a million tons per year by 2022
by adopting ICEs in the states Long-Term
Planning and Procurement Plan. These
savings are due to engine design features
www.power-eng.com
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such as closed loop radiator cooling that

eliminates the need for process water
consumption, single cycle efficiency of
between 46 percent and 48 percent and
minimum stable loads of as low as 1 percent for a large multi-engine facility.
THE MIDDLE EAST

CASE JORDAN
The energy industry may be slow to
implement technical change. However,
new opportunities for ICEs arise. This
upbeat tone is driven by the unprecedented uptake of ICEs in Jordan. The
country has transitioned from a region
taken in by heavily-marketed CCGT solutions to one that has commissioned
and is now constructing the largest ICE
plant in the world; track back five years,
and Jordan had never contemplated
this technology.
The new plant, named IPP3, has 38
Wrtsil 50DF engines with a total capacity of 573 MW even in the extreme
This is an artists rendering of what will be the largest

Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) power plant in the world.
With a capacity of 573 MW, the IPP3 plant is being built in
Jordan and is expected to be completed this month.
ambient conditions of Jordan (and

632 MW in ISO conditions). Baseload
power for the countrys national grid
is provided by 22 engines with a 60
percent capacity factor, while the rest,
16 engines, serve peak load with an
expected 40 percent capacity factor. Additionally the entire plant is capable of
being operated in any load depending

on Jordans needs.
Jordan has three reasons for adopting ICEs. Firstly, the county has a strong
baseload capacity from CCGT but no
load-following power plants capable
of starting in less than 10 minutes and
meeting demand exactly as required;
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a particular issue in a country that experiences huge differences in demand

between winter and summer. Secondly,
the limited flexibility possible through
part-loading has proved particularly
costly over the last five years, due to
Jordans inherent need to rely on imported gas from Egypt where supplies
have been disrupted by political instability. The result of this is that Jordan
has often used expensive diesel to run
its plants when sufficient gas is not
available. Not only is the upfront cost
of diesel more expensive, but also the
fuel is less efficient than gas when operated at part-load, further adding to
fuel costs. Thirdly, amid concern over
imported supplies, Jordan has set the
tough target of energy independence
by 2020. This will require sourcing energy from up to 400MW of renewables
and a variety of local reserves, meaning
flexibility to back up intermittent wind
and solar and generate baseload power
from a range of fuels will be of critical
importance.
IPP3 received the green light after

not only a thorough market analysis
provided by Wrtsil, but additionally
a further study undertaken by the National Electric Power Company (NEPCO) of Jordan to rigorously assess how
advantageous an ICE plant would be
in comparison to CCGT. At the time,
CCGT were so heavily integrated into
the Jordan energy industry that local
environmental regulations supported
its installation, but had to be amended
at ministerial level to support ICEs; a
move that went against environmental
norms in the region. Now, IPP3 is currently under construction and is due to
be completed in September 2014. Until
2015, it will run on heavy fuel oil before transitioning to natural gas.
OBJECTIVE
DECISION-MAKING
The theoretical examples from
the UK and California and practical example from Jordan show that
ICEs unequivocally provide cost and

20
environmental savings, while promoting the energy independence many

countries are striving for to reduce exposure to volatile energy prices. While
already a mature technology, ICEs
need to be reinvented in the context of
the energy transition in order for the
industry to realise the full benefits.
While previously, ultra fast ramping speeds many have only appealed
to those procuring a plant providing
emergency electricity, the uptake of
renewables creates a new and pressing need for solutions possessing this
capability. Given the learnings from
Jordan, work should be done to reassess the value of CCGT and OCGT in a
decarbonized energy mix.
Despite the heavy marketing of such
solutions, Wrtsil is urging decisionmakers to look objectively and laterally at their options; looking beyond
their areas of expertise and assessing
the performance of solutions in energy
systems soon to be highly integrated
with renewable energy.
www.power-eng.com
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A Low-Cost Pollutant
Control Solution:
Installing a DSI System
at a Midwest Utility
BY ROB BROGLIO, NAES CORPORATION
ry sorbent injection
(DSI) systems have
been in service for
more than 20 years at
coal-fired generating
stations, providing an effective tool for
reducing sulfur dioxide acid gas emission levels. Current and pending environmental regulations have prompted a
revival of interest in DSI as a low capitalcost, multi-pollutant control solution.
This article describes the installation
of a new DSI system at a coal-fired generating station owned by a utility cooperative located in the Midwest of the United
States. It also presents a before-and-after
comparison of emission results.
During preliminary testing and proof
of concept, the utility used sodium bicarbonate (SBC) as the sorbent material.
The results showed that SBC would easily
meet the objective of approximately 82
percent removal of total sulfur dioxide
(SO2), so the utility proceeded with designing and building a system that would
inject SBC.
The project demonstrates an economical solution for enabling certain coalfired energy facilities to comply with
recently enacted air-quality regulations
and thus remain viable. Using SBC, the
DSI system achieves SO2 removal percentages that rival the performance of
scrubbers. DSI thus provides a feasible
22
While DSI systems

do not control for
mercury, they do
remove HCl and other
acid gases.
-NAES Corp.
alternative for units that would not find
it cost-effective to invest in a wet or dry
flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) system.
The Mercury and Air Toxics Standards

(MATS) mandated by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) require that all
U.S. coal- and oil-fired power stations
producing more than 25 MW meet emission limits consistent with the average
performance of the top 12 percent of existing units known as the maximum
achievable control technology.
MATS applies to three pollutants: mercury (Hg), hydrochloric acid (HCl) and
filterable particulate matter (FPM). It has
www.power-eng.com
Author
Rob Broglio is Senior Business Development Manager at NAES Corporation.
DSI and ACI (smaller single silo) systems at

a Midwestern Utility. Photo Courtesy: NAES
a compliance deadline of 2015

mercury, they do remove HCl and
SO2 Removal Efficiencies Required
with opportunities for extended
1 other acid gases. When combined
for Various Fuel Sulfur Levels
compliance times based on casewith a particulate control filter,
by-case circumstances.
they meet the standard for FPM,
Fuel SO2
Removal Efficiency
In light of the Environmental
thus covering two of the three
(lb/mmBtu)
Required to Meet Standard
Drivers and Trends (shown in
MATS-controlled pollutants. The
0.5
84%
Figure 1 on pg. 24), DSI presents
remaining stations that do not
0.7
89%
a cost-effective technology that
have an air-quality control system
0.9
91%
can play a pivotal role in en(AQCS) will need to determine the
abling energy producers to meet Source:
effectiveness of installing either an
newly enacted air-quality standards coal-burning facilities.
FGD scrubber or a DSI system to comply
without having to retire their older
While DSI systems do not control for with MATS.
www.power-eng.com
23
Environmental Drivers and Trends

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
Greenhouse Gasses (GHGs)
National Electricity Sector Trends

Emission Reductions
(Since 1990)
Emission Control Investments

(Coal-fred Units through 2012)
NOx: 73%
SO2: 80%
Hg: 51%
$110 Billion
Both engineering and economic tradeoffs factor into the selection of a DSI or
FGD system. An FGD requires a sizable
upfront capital investment but has relatively low operating costs. A DSI system
usually does not require a large capital
outlay but may consume substantial
quantities of sorbent in order to operate effectively. This in turn drives up the
waste disposal cost for DSI, whereas the
waste products from an FGD system can
be sold for industrial processes. The costeffectiveness of a DSI system thus varies
with the rate of sorbent consumption.
DSI technology will likely prove more
cost-effective than FGD at stations that
burn low-sulfur coal.
DSI and FGD scrubbers will both enable stations to meet the MATS standard
for HCl and other acid gases. As of 2010,
54 percent of U.S. electric generating stations had installed FGDs.
Significant reduction of SO2 emissions
through the same process as HCl removal can be achieved using a DSI system.
Though the MATS rule does not specifically address it, SO2 has qualities similar
to those of HCl and other acid gases that
cause it to respond in the same way to
a DSI system. Because SO2 is regulated
under the Cross State Air Pollution Rule
(CSAPR), installing a DSI system to comply with MATS may also help a station
24
Announced Coal-fred Unit

Retirements/Conversions
meet or exceed its CSAPR emission limits.

While compliance with the MATS rule
was not assumed in the Annual Energy
Outlook (AEO) 2012 Early Release, it was
assumed in the AEO 2012 Full Reference
case, which was released in June 2012.
DSI will be included as a compliance option for coal-fired power stations.
51,000 MW
(330 Units)
new stations, will make up for retirements. However, some specialists believe
the transition will not be so easy. The
number of retirements will depend largely on whether DSI technology can be put
to widespread use by the power sector as a
less costly alternative to scrubbers.
The EPA predicts that the new technology will achieve full penetration of the
Expected Sodium Bicarbonate

Sorbent Consumption Rates
Fuel SO2
NSR
(Best)
0.5 lb/mmBtu
0.7 lb/mmBtu
0.9 lb/mmBtu
2
NSR
(Mid-Range)
NSR
(Worst)
0.85 (4,700 lb/hr)
1.6 (8,900 lb/hr)
2.3 (12,700 lb/hr)
1.0 (7,400 lb/hr)
2.0 (14,800 lb/hr)
3.0 (22,200 lb/hr)
1.3 (12,200 lb/hr) 2.2 (20,700 lb/hr)
3.0 (28,200 lb/hr)
Source:
The fate of older, less efficient coal-fired

power stations will be determined by the
new regulations. Those stations that are
not worth enough to justify the expense
of new pollution controls will be retired.
As the EPA formulates its final rules associated with its emissions rules later, the
agency is taking criticism from industry
lobbyists who say the rules would be expensive enough to kill coal stations that
would otherwise continue producing
electricity at competitive prices.
Advocates of the new rules claim that
existing power capacity, together with
addressable market, but if DSI does not

gain traction, the power sector could lose
more than 50 GW of coal-fired capacity,
according to a new report by FBR Capital
Markets Corporation.
MATERIALS AND
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
The Midwestern utility completed construction of a DSI system in mid-2014,
along with an activated carbon injection (ACI) system to address mercury
emissions. The DSI injects SBC into the
flue-gas stream after passing it through
www.power-eng.com
Power Generation Products

Environmental Control Solutions
After Market Services
Keeping your plant efcient while

maintaining environmental compliance
With over 50 years of experience and many successful projects around the world, Mitsubishi Hitachi
Power Systems America Energy and Environment is an industry leader in Power Generation and Air
Quality Control Systems. Our proven technologies include Fabric Filters, Enhanced All Dry Scrubbers,
Wet Flue Gas Desulfurization, and SCR Systems and Catalyst.
Our Air Quality Control Systems signicantly reduce your emissions to comply with MATS and
upcoming environmental regulations with minimum capital investment, low operating costs, high
reliability and no effect on unit operations like ramp rate or turndown.
Ask us about our total plant solutions. Visit us online to learn more about our world-class capabilities.
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power.info@psa.mhps.com
Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems Americas, Inc.

a preheater. SBC undergoes rapid thermal decomposition to sodium carbonate

when heated to 275F or higher:
or reactor vessel because the sorbent is relief from the Midwestern utilitys fleet
stored and injected dry into the flue duct of coal-fired power stations. It called for
where it reacts with
the station to install
the acid gas. It is then DSI requires no
and operate either a
collected dry, as well
DSI or FGD system as
slury equipment
This dehydration brings unreacted so- by the baghouse or
well as a selective cataor
reactor
vessell
dium carbonate to the particle surface, ESP. When compared
lytic reduction (SCR)
neutralizing the SO2. The two byprod- to a semi-wet or wet because the
system. It also stipulatucts that form sodium chloride and scrubbing system, DSI
ed retirement of three
sorbent is stored
sodium sulfate are collected with fly thus offers a low-cost
of the utilitys older
and
injected
dry
ash. While this station elected to use SBC alternative for removal
units. These measures
as the most economical sorbent for their of SO2.
into the flue duct. were intended to bring
purposes, other facilities use trisodium
the utility into complihydrogendicarbonate dihydrate (trona) BACKGROUND
ance with the following:
or hydrated lime in areas where those
The Midwestern station was built in
Limitations of annual system toncompounds are easily mined and readily the late 1970s at a cost of $179 million
nage for SO2 and NOx
available.
and has been in commercial operation
Optimization of existing particulate
The byproducts are removed by a since November 1979. This single-unit
matter (PM) controls to meet unitdownstream electrostatic precipitator facility has a generating capacity of 400
specific emissions limitations
(ESP) or a baghouse (fabric filter). When MW of electricity.
Annual surrender of any excess
used in combination with DSI, a bagIn 2012, the EPA announced a Clean
SO2 or NOx allowances resulting
house is generally more efficient than Air Act (CAA) settlement with the utilfrom actions taken under the consent decree
2
Dry Sorbent Injection Process
Compliance will reduce SO2 by 23,000
tons and NOx by 6,000 tons per year, as
Storage Silo
compared to the utilitys 2008 levels. It
will also significantly reduce particulate
Boiler
matter emissions.
From
Coal
Pile
Bulk Material
Flue
Gas
SCR
Stack
Air Preheater
Baghouse / ESP
an ESP at reducing overall HCl. For

modeling purposes, the EPA estimates
that a DSI system with a fabric filter
will reduce HCl by 90 percent but will
achieve only a 60 percent reduction
with an ESP. Actual performance will
vary by individual station.
DSI requires no slurry equipment
26
ity, which agreed to invest $150 million

in pollution control technology to protect
public health and resolve violations of the
CAA. It also required the expenditure of
$5 million on environmental mitigation
projects and payment of a civil penalty of
$950,000.
The consent decree secured injunctive
DSI TECHNOLOGY FOR SO2

EMISSIONS REDUCTION
The utility began its DSI operation for
SO2 reduction in April 2014. As illustrated in Figure 2, the system injects the dry
sorbent SBC into the ductwork upstream
of the units fabric filter. After thermal
conversion to sodium carbonate, the sorbent neutralizes the SO2. The byproducts
are then captured by the fabric filter or
baghouse.
The photo on pages 22 and 23 shows
both the DSI (the four taller silos) and
the ACI (the smaller single silo). Working
together, the DSI and ACI systems reduce
SO2 and mercury emissions.
The SBC DSI system has demonstrated the capability of removing moderate
amounts of SO2 from coal-fired emissions with an ESP or baghouse.
This utility, like many others in the
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1) Sorbent particle size (milled versus

unmilled), where smaller particle
size is better
2) Appropriate flue gas temperature,
where injection between 275F and
700F is ideal
3) Maximum contact time between the
solids and flue gas, where injecting
several seconds upstream of the baghouse is best.
The dry sorbents capture ability is a
direct function of particle surface area,
so smaller rather than larger particles are
more effective at capturing SO2. The station therefore specified the milled SBC
material should be approximately 100
m, the particle size at which it is most
reactive.
The reactivity of SBC depends on how
efficiently it absorbs SO2 molecules into
its pores. The greater the SBC particle
surface area, the more sites are available
to capture SO2. Heating the SBC also increases the particles surface area.
At temperatures between 275F and
700F, SBC particles popcorn, becoming more porous and thus more absorbent. Within this range, particle surface
area is maximized. However, if the flue
gas exceeds 700F, the particles will fuse
28
Performance of SBC In SO2 Mitigation

With a Baghouse
100
90
80
SO2 Removal (%)
Midwest, currently fires PRB fuels with a

sulfur content in the 3 percent range, or
0.5 lb SO2/mmBtu. With an emission goal
of 0.08 lb SO2/mmBtu, the DSI system
needed to provide removal efficiency in
the mid to high 80 percent range.
The history of using DSI with SBC is
limited, but the technology continues to
be studied as an alternative to full-scale
FGD. DSI systems have been installed
and operated on a limited number of
coal-fired boilers for SO2 control. These
boilers have been relatively small (< 200
MW) and located in older units that have
little remaining service lives.
When designing its DSI system, the
utility focused on three variables it believed would most affect the systems efficiency in controlling SO2 emissions:
89% SO2 removal

with SBC, an NSR of
at least 0.81
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Normalized Stoichiometric Ration (NSR)
1.4
1.6
into a solid mass, reducing

DSI Capital and O&M Costs
3
overall surface area. If injectRequired for 0.5 lb SO2/mmBtu Coal
ed at temperatures above or
SBC
below this range, more SBC
(0.80 NSR, 0.5 lb
is needed to absorb a given
SO2/mmBtu coal)
amount of SO2.
Capital Investment
$17,000,000 upfront
To maximize efficiency,
Fixed O&M Cost
$200,250 annual
the engineering team at
the station decided to inVariable O&M Cost
$11,850,000 annual
ject SBC downstream from
Total O&M Cost
$12,050,250 annual
the air heater. However,
Source:
because
increasing
available
reaction
time between the
flue gas and the sorbent also improves DSI efficiency, the
Based on the curve in Figure 3, it is exteam opted to inject the sorbent as far pected that an NSR of at least 0.81 would
upstream of the particulate collector as be required to achieve 89 percent SO2 repossible while staying within the opti- moval using SBC.
mal temperature range.
The fuel used at the station is low-sulFigure 3 shows the stations DSI fur PRB coal, which produces less than
operational data for SO2 removal ef- 0.5 lb SO2/mmBtu. Table 1 shows the SO2
ficiency as a function of normalized removal efficiencies required for various
stoichiometric ratio (NSR). The NSR PRB fuel sulfur contents. Both 0.5 and 0.7
represents the amount of SBC injected lb SO2/mmBtu ranges require removal efto remove a selected amount of SO2. ficiencies of less than 90 percent, which
NSR is defined as:
are within the range of the utilitys DSI
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operational data. The higher-sulfur

fuel range (0.9) requires over 90 percent removal, which could be a stretch
for this system.
The ultimate criterion for consideration of DSI technology at any given
station is its cost-effectiveness. As these
data indicate, DSI has proven most
cost-effective at the lowest sulfur range.
Table 2 shows best-case, midrange
and worst-case NSR for the removal rate
needed to meet the SO2 emission goal
of 0.08 lb SO2/mmBtu. The actual SO2
emission rate has measured less than
the targeted 0.08 lb SO2/mmBtu. The
station is currently running at approximately 0.05 lb SO2/mmBtu.
The level of SO2 removal required of
the referenced utility by the EPA decree
has not been demonstrated long-term.
However, operational data has so far
shown that a removal rate of up to 89
percent is achievable based on the current performance of the DSI system.
DSI technology presents a number of
risks both environmental and financial when used for SO2 reduction:
NO to NO2 conversion (brown
plume)
Fluctuation of SBC price
Available SBC refining capacity
Disposal of sodium byproduct
Future tightening of emission limits
Oxidation of NO to NO2 can occur
with a DSI system that injects SBC for
SO2 removal. If NO2 concentration in
the flue gas becomes too high, it can
cause a brown plume that increases
stack opacity. The presence of a visible
orange or brown NO2 plume was a concern at this station. NO2 can also impact the capture of mercury by activated
carbon in the ACI system.
In preliminary tests of the newly installed ACI system, station engineers
have not detected any measurable reduction of mercury emissions. However, they are currently installing a realtime mercury process monitor to better
gauge the ACIs performance once it becomes operational.
30
During preliminary testing of DSI SUMMARY AND

injection performed before the per- CONCLUSIONS
manent DSI system began operations,
The efficiency of a DSI system varies
the station had very noticeable brown substantially depending on the fuels
plume issues. However, station engi- sulfur content. With low-sulfur coal,
neers found that injection of unbro- DSI has proven itself cost-effective,
minated activated carbon significantly but at higher sulfur contents, the rate
reduced visible NO2.
of sorbent consumption
With the permanent
can render DSI unecoWith the
system in operation,
nomical.
they are measuring permanent DSI
While the upfront caponly a slight brown system up and
ital investment required
plume around 5 to 6 running, it does
to install a flue-gas depercent opacity that
sulfurization
(FGD)
not appear that system is substantially
is visible only on very
sunny days. This was carbon injection higher than for DSI, FGD
to be expected, as they has much effect technology has a much
are currently injecting
lower operating cost and
on the brown
only half as much SBC
is not sensitive to the fuplume.
as during initial tests.
els sulfur content.
With the permanent
As shown in Table 3,
DSI system up and running, it does not the actual capital and projected annuappear that carbon injection has much, al O&M costs for this station are based
if any, effect on the brown plume. In on injecting SBC at an NSR of 0.8 while
any case, brown plume is not a major firing 0.5 lb SO2/mmBtu coal. The toconcern for this station, as it is currently tal project capital cost includes engiinstalling a selective catalytic reduction neering, construction and equipment
(SCR) system scheduled to begin opera- from unloading to injection. The fixed
tion in late 2015.
O&M costs include operating labor
Sodium-based sorbents such as SBC and maintenance materials.
produce a water-soluble waste. This
The variable O&M costs include
poses an environmental risk for stations sorbent as well as disposal of ash and
that use DSI, which adds a substantial other wastes.
amount of sodium to ash. Management
The utility has not yet tallied final
of possible leaching of these highly hard costs of the DSI, but it has prosoluble sodium salts can seriously com- jected the following comparison:
plicate ash disposal. The station has just
Actual cost of the DSI system
begun characterizing its waste ash and
$17 million including engineering
could not yet provide data. However,
and final installation
initial testing has shown the sodium
Estimated cost of a dry FGD
content to be of concern.
$125 million including studies,
SO2 will continue to be a regulatory
engineering and installation.
focus. The CSAPR could impose more
Data provided by the utility demonstringent limits on SO2 and NOx emis- strate that SO2 removal efficiencies of
sions. If future standards call for emis- 85 to 90 percent are possible with DSI
sions lower than the 0.05 SO2/mmBtu technology for coal-fired boilers firing
currently achieved by this station with low-sulfur PRB coal.
DSI, it could be forced to install a dry
However, the data do not show that
FGD system. If this happens, its costly DSI can match the efficiency of a more
DSI storage and feed equipment could expensive wet or dry utility-grade FGD
end up as deserted assets.
system.
www.power-eng.com
Author
Nikhil Kumar is director of Utilities
Risk and Economics at Intertek AIM.
Increasing the flexibility of coal-fired power plants is

an important priority for most power plant managers
and utility executives. Researchers have discovered
several ways to increase the flexibility of coal.
Improving
the Flexibility
of Coal-Fired
Power Plants
BY NIKHIL KUMAR, INTERTEK
mproving operational flexibility of conventional fossil

generation should be a top
priority for asset owners and
operators. Historically, operators could ignore the impacts of
cycling on equipment, primarily the
risks involved safety, availability and
costs because the need for operational
flexibility was minimal and therefore
the risk was small. Wholesale market
deregulation, increased renewable
generation and environmental pressures have impacted how plants are
operated; but plant cycling is not a
32
new phenomenon. Plants have always

cycled; however, it is the intensity of
cycling which has been impacted.
Larger fossil steam units primarily
ran baseload, with minimal change in
their output. Moreover, the majority
of power plants were designed for this
minimal flexibility and ran largely
baseloaded. However, operating baseloaded does not mean that the unit did
not perform any cycling. Spinning reserves or frequency control has often
been managed by some of these large
steam units. They may not operate
in an on/off mode, but still perform
cyclic or flexible operation.

A first step to understanding operational flexibility is characterizing
cycling operation. Almost all power
plants have cycled historically, whether
in an on/off mode or load following. A
load follow itself could be a small MW
change causing relatively small changes in steam temperatures, or a significant load follow with a unit operating
at minimum loads. Additionally, with
the use of duct firing or supplemental
firing output can be increased beyond
the maximum rating of the plant for
short periods. Each of these flexible
operating modes has varying degree
of impact on equipment reliability and
damage. Figure 1 on pg. 34 provides a
visual representation of these operating modes. Therefore, while units have
always been cycled, the intensity of
cycling has varied from one unit to another depending on economics. Occasionally, existing coal units, which are
usually not subject to extensive flexible generation, have been heavily cycled as highlighted in the report from
the U.S. National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL) and Intertek AIM
for 21st Century Power Partnership.
www.power-eng.com
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Reliable detection of low-combustion oxygen and/or high CO in a fired heater
or boiler is critical to burner management system effectiveness. The WDG-V
analyzer monitors hot, wet flue gas to minimize excess oxygen, lower
NOx emissions, and improve operating efficiency in power generation
and petrochemical refining. It can also monitor methane levels to
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Flexible Operating Modes and Damage

Load Following
Hot Start (24 hrs off line)
Warm Start (24-120 hrs offine)
Cold Start (>120 hrs off line)
Over Maximum
Rating Operation
Mild Load
Follow
Increasing Damage per Cycle

Signifcant Load Follow
FLEXIBLE
GENERATION TRENDS
Before we delve into determining the risks of increased cycling of
fossil steam units, it is important to
determine the historical trend of flexible operation using the cycling characteristics highlighted above. Some of
the questions we seek to answer are
what is the typical cycling profile
of power plants in the U.S., do some

units cycle more than others, if yes,
then why and how; are units performing increased amounts of significant
load following, what is the minimum
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load of operation, etc.

Intertek AIM contributed to a study
performed by Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI) reviewing the cycling
characteristics of almost 1,000
supercritical and subcritical (coal and
gas) steam units in the U.S. (Product
ID:3002001180:Effect of Flexible
Operation on Boiler Components:
Theory and Practice, Volume 1:
Fundamentals). Figure 2 on pg. 36
shows there has been almost negligible
change in the median number of starts
on the large subcritical coal units and
in fact a downward trend in terms of
starts on the smaller subcritical units.
This result while not surprising was
not expected.
With about 30 times more wind
generation
in
December
2011
compared to January 2000, the general
expectation was to observe increased
cycling on coal power plants, especially
since natural gas prices have lead to the times more on/off cycling. What encoal generation to be on the margin. ables these units to cycle significantly
Interestingly though, there are some more than the sample? More imporunits on the grid that
tantly, if the units arent
do perform increased
There has been performing start/stop
cycling.
The
bars
cycling then, which
shown on the charts almost negligible units are providing the
(secondary y-axis) show change in the
flexibility to the grid?
the most cycled unit in
median number The speculation thus
the sample for both unit
far has been that natutypes, and the average of starts on large ral gas fired combined
number of starts on subcritical coal
cycle plants provide this
the most cycled large units.
flexibility, but as sugsubcritical coal unit is
gested by the EIA, the
46 starts per year and
average utilization (casmall coal unit is 175 starts per year, pacity factor) of the combined cycle
both statistics well over the median or fleet has increased since 2005, suggesteven the 75th percentiles.
ing a more baseload operating profile
Clearly, while the vast majority of than intermediate or peaking.
power plants on the grid have not opIf there is a trend of increasing baseerated with increased cycling, there is load operation, then which units are
a reasonable sample of power plants providing the flexibility? There is no
(95th percentile) that have almost 2-3 doubt that the demand for flexible

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generation has increased, but what

kind of flexibility? To further examine
the operating trends of the units, we
evaluate the load following operation
of the larger coal units on the grid. Figures 4 and 5 show the number of hours
large subcritical and supercritical coal
units operates at low loads. Interestingly, the increased low load operation
has almost a similar trend as observed
in Figure 3 on pg. 38 which shows an
increased net generation of wind in
the U.S. Even more interesting, is the
sharp increase in significant low load
operation at both unit types while
a decrease in smaller load changes.
Moreover, the supercritical units have
seen a significantly sharper increase in
the low load operation than the subcritical coal units.
In Intertek AIMs experience load
following power plants is far better
than starting/stopping power plants.
If operators can keep plant equipment
hot, without subjecting the equipment
to huge thermal shocks, then the long
term damage on the equipment can be
minimized. However, operating units
at low loads is not risk free. The equipment at power plants still undergoes
thermal stresses and operators who
are tuned to running plants at full load
for extended periods of time are not
trained for this operating mode. Finally, most fossil steam power plants
in the U.S. are much older with aging
equipment and archaic control systems providing little to no feedback
to operators performing increased low
load operation. With financial and
environmental constraints on existing fossil fleets, it is difficult to justify
large capital retrofits, so what are some
of the strategies plants can adopt?
Benchmarking Determine how
are we doing compared to peers?
Understand the risk What are
the impacts of cycling operation?
How have our peers performed?
Manage the risk.
The first section of this article has
provided data to allow a rudimentary
benchmark analysis. Benchmarking
your operation to the peer group of
units can be a competitive advantage.
It is important for asset owners to
determine which quartile do their assets lie in? If you determine you are
cycling less than your peers, but anticipate more flexible operation in the
future, then learn, adapt and be proactive about maintenance.
UNDERSTAND THE RISK

Typically, the utilities make their
decisions on which units to cycle
based on factors such as unit size, age,
equipment type, fuel costs, system requirements, production costs, etc. The
utility plant operator needs to know
the effect of the changes on his plant
equipment (such as reliability and
life- limiting effects) in order to decide
how to allocate and recover costs, as
well as how best to spend todays dollars to avoid future costs. Power plant
cycling costs have a large variation
and depend on several factors such
as, design, vintage, age, and operating and maintenance history. When
the system requirements cause power
plants to cycle, a key decisions faced by
utility power plant operators is to determine how to mitigate the effects of
2
45
40
35
35
30
30
20
Maximum
Median
100
75th Percentile
CY-2011
CY-2010
CY-2009
CY-2008
CY-2007
CY-2006
CY-2005
50
CY-2004
CY-2011
CY-2010
CY-2009
CY-2008
CY-2007
CY-2006
5
CY-2005
5
CY-2004
10
CY-2003
10
CY-2002
15
CY-2001
15
CY-2003
20
150
25
CY-2002
25
250
200
CY-2001
Annual Starts
40
Small Subcritical Coal
CY-2000
Large Subcritical Coal
CY-2000
Annual Starts
45
95th Percentile
On/off cycling at Subcritical Coal Units in U.S.
36
www.power-eng.com
For more information contact us at:

281.404.9397 or info@beis.com
www.beis.com
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U.S. Net Generation (Indexed To Jan. 2001 As a Percent)

5,000
Approximately 3,000 percent increase in

net generation from wind by Dec. 2011.
4,000
Percent
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
1,000
Jan-01 Jan-01 Jan-01 Jan-01 Jan-01 Jan-01 Jan-01 Jan-01 Jan-01 Jan-01 Jan-01 Jan-01 Jan-01 Jan-01
Coal
U.S. net generation by fuel.
Natural Gas
Nuclear
Hydro
Wind
Source: Energy Information Administration
7000
6000
5000
Hours Per Year
4000
3000
2000
5000
4000
3000
95th
75th
Median
CY-2011
CY-2010
CY-2009
CY-2008
CY-2007
CY-2006
CY-2005
CY-2004
CY-2003
CY-2002
CY-2011
CY-2010
CY-2009
CY-2008
CY-2007
CY-2006
CY-2005
CY-2004
CY-2003
CY-2002
1000
CY-2001
1000
CY-2001
2000
CY-2000
Hours Per Year

Mild Load Follow Hours
CY-2000
6000

Low Load Follow Hours
25th
Large Subcritical Coal, Low Load Hours Operation
cycling.Someeffectsofcyclingonthe
performanceofapowerplantinclude
changesin:
Number and intensity (range as
wellramprate)ofcycles
-Startup and shutdown cycles
-L oadfollowcyclesmildas
wellsignificant
38
Equipmentfailurerates
Maintenancerequirements
Heatratesandstartupfuelusage
Temperature and pressure (stress)
transients
Chemistryrequirements
Utilities can and have often either
implemented new procedures or installedadditionalequipmenttoreduce
theeffectsofcyclicoperationsontheir
assets,whichmayinclude:
Increased monitoring and inspections
Improvedcontrolsystems
Systems to bypass steam to the
condenser
Turbine valve modifications, water induction prevention, and
www.power-eng.com
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drain automation
Increased water treatment, instrumentation, and analysis
Boiler and turbine stress analyzers
Low Load Operation is essentially
Intertek AIM report highlighted operation of a power plant with substantial

increase in cycling operation on/
off as well as turndown, with fairly
limited capital investment to retro-
almost 20 percent equivalent forced

outage rate (EFOR) for a 10 year period, with half of those years with EFOR
over 20 percent. The average EFOR for
similarly sized coal power plants in the
6000
5000
4000
4000
95th
75th
Median
CY-2011
CY-2010
CY-2009
CY-2008
CY-2007
CY-2006
CY-2005
CY-2004
CY-2011
CY-2010
CY-2009
CY-2008
CY-2007
CY-2006
CY-2005
CY-2004
CY-2003
CY-2002
1000
CY-2001
1000
CY-2003
2000
CY-2002
2000
3000
CY-2001
3000
Supercritical Coal
Mild Load Follow Hours
CY-2000
Hours Per Year
5000
CY-2000
Hours Per Year
6000
Supercritical Coal
Signifcant Load Follow Hours
25th
Supercritical Coal, Low Load Hours Operation
a flame stability issue. Some of

these improvements will benefit
start cycling, but also allow better
turndown capability
- Boiler and burner modifications to lower minimum
load capability
- Improved burner flame stability, flame scanning, and
monitoring. Upgrade ignitors.
- Sliding pressure operation
- Variable speed drives on
pumps and fans
- Lower primary air flow
- Fuel supply control logic upgrade
- Procedures to reduce auxiliary load requirements at
low loads
As discussed earlier, the NREL and
40
fit. However, as seen from the earlier U.S. is no more than 6-7 percent for
sections of this article, this is not the the same period. Most coal plants play
norm. Moreover, the
a relatively different
plant in question Operating units
role in the U.S. comhad certain design
pared to the plant in
at
low
loads
is
features that allowed
question, most profor elevated levels not risk free. The
viding a bulk of sysof cycling, such as equipment still
tem generation.
horizontal
superundergoes thermal Figure 6 on pg. 42
heater and automatshows a risk chart
ed drains. Equally stresses.
from a small sample
important was the - Intertek
of units that implicitfact that the plant
ly show a relation behad performed in a cycling mode for tween cycling and forced outage hours.
decades allowing procedures for op- To help reduce the clutter in the chart,
eration and maintenance to evolve some key units have been highlighted
and operators to be trained. However, to illustrate the impact of cycling on
the fundamental difference in the op- forced outage rates for different design
eration of that particular unit was the units. Note that there are several outforced outage rates that were accepted liers in the figure that represent High
by the operators. The plant averaged Impact Low Probability (HILP) events
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Risk Chart Forced Outrage Rates and Plant Cycling (Coal Units)
Equivalent Forced Outage Rate (EFOR)
35%
30%
Baseload units
25%
20%
15%
Some cycling design benefts
Designed for cycling
10%
5%
0%
Events per year (Starts and Load Follow expressed in Equivalent Hot Starts)
which are high consequence events resulting in large forced outages. Often
these events are directly related to cyclic operation while other times they
may be design flaws in the equipment.
The figure shows a stark difference in
the forced outage rates of a unit designed for cycling, which operates with
significantly more cycles per year than
a set of baseload units. Most units fall
somewhere in between the two trend
lines shown in the chart, however, in
all cases there is an upward trend of
increasing forced outage rates with
increased cycling. There is a time lag
between failures and cycles, but eventually this trend is observed.
MANAGE THE RISK

Most operators are well aware of
the risks of cycling. Almost all well
maintained plants have databases of
cycling related failures thermal fatigue (cracking of thick walled components, header ligament cracking, etc),
thermal expansion (tube to header
cracking), corrosion (underdeposit
corrosion, oxygen pitting), short term
overheating, distortion and cracking, etc. On the other hand, it is not
42
uncommon to notice cycling related

erosion type damage for example on
the pulverizers with mills coming on
and off or back end corrosion issues
with preheater baskets or bag replacement in the baghouse are not documented as cyclic costs or risks.
Many of the equipment damage effects of cycling discussed above crop
up over time. The time delay relationship between an added unit cycle and
accelerated component failure might
range from several weeks to several
years. This raises some very important
questions cycle power plants in the
short term without preparing while incurring large future costs, or proactively plan and mitigate the risks. See table
for some risk mitigation strategies.
Plants designed for cycling have
already mitigated some of the long
term risks. For example, a 500 MW
combined cycle plant in the Intertek
AIM database which is a designed for
cycling, low pressure unit, with stack
damper and exit stack isolation dampers, automated drains, and a bypass
system with a condenser steam dump
provides daily or twice daily start capability to the utility. In our experience,
this unit has relatively lower cyclic

damage compared to similarly sized
units and also lower forced outage
rates related to cyclic operation. Another unit in our database has design features for better startups and
for operation at lower loads down to
15 percent of maximum rating from
about 480 MW. The unit is a natural
circulation subcritical coal unit, with
a turbine bypass system, large drain
lines to control boiler pressure and a
blowdown line. This unit is in the top
5th percentile of the large subcritical
coal units.
To prepare and mitigate the risks,
plant operators can either implement
operational improvements or retrofit
their plants. Implementing operational changes can provide significant improvements in cyclic operation of both
fossil steam and combined cycle power plants. This is a low hanging fruit,
compared to large or even modest
capital improvement projects. However, as seen from the two examples,
units with cycling design can indeed
operate with significantly more flexibility. Retrofitting existing plants can
provide long term cost reduction to
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A Division of THE HILLIARD CORPORATION
Risk Reduction Measure

Utility
Operation Area
Risk Reduction Measure
Plant
Operation
Modify startup, shut-down, turndown and ramping protocols to lower component fatigue stresses; For
example, determine whether force cooling boiler is for economical reasons or simply to accommodate
maintenance staff.
Closely monitor and inspect. Modify inspection plans around cyclic operation.
Train operators on best practices. Use operator alarms to reduce thermal stresses.
Follow appropriate cycle chemistry limits. Install condensate polishing system for rapid water chemistry
Use nitrogen blanketing of condensate storage tank, boiler, turbine
Plant
Maintenance
Do predictive maintenance accounting for cycling damage, to minimize cycling related forced outages.
Install thermocouples on strategic locations (example drains) to monitor condensate accumulation.
Risk rank equipment vulnerable to cycling
System
Dispatch
Include both short term and long term cost of cycling in system dispatch. On a new plant, short term
maintenance costs might be small, but it is important to develop and plan a long term maintenance plan to
mitigate future intermittent cost shocks.
Determine whether saving fuel cost in the short run, while jeopardizing the integrity of the asset in the future
is a worthwhile risk?
Contracts
Include cycling costs in the negotiation and accounting of energy and capacity transactions.
Determine the impact of the transaction on total system cycling costs.
System
Planning
Benchmark operating profile with peer group of units.

Account for cycling costs on existing units when evaluating new resources.
New
Construction
Design and procure designs better suited to cycling. Initial capital investment in an auxiliary boiler or larger
condensate storage tanks should be considered.
Use prior experience and industry best practices to build flexible assets.
Source:
some owners. All units should indeed

take countermeasures to reduce cycling
damage, but obviously, it doesnt make
sense to retrofit every unit on the grid.
Careful selection of individual units in
your fleet for better startup, ramping and
turndown capability should be made.
Also, while fast start capability on units
is desirable, lowering turndowns and
improving ramping capability is likely
to provide the most significant benefit.
Load following instead of cycling off is
always better and this type of flexibility is also going to pay huge dividends
as more renewable generation is introduced on the grid. Not only will lower
turndowns allow units to provide flexibility with higher penetration of variable generation, but also provide very
important system backup by providing
spinning resources on the grid.
Electric power generation like other
44
highly capital intensive industries have operators as well as maintenance staff

unique constraints that dont always al- and discuss cost recovery mechanisms
low them to respond to change quickly. with market operators. It is important to
However, in a comdetermine the operatpetitive environment, Operating power
ing constraints of your
asset owners have to plants in flexible
unit, without impactbe proactive and preing safety, availability
modes is inevitalble and long term cost of
pare for changes in
their operating pro- and necessary.
operation.
file. While the major- Asset owners should
Whether
units
ity of power plants
should be cycled or
determine the
were not designed to
not is no longer an
operate in a flexible penalties associated important question,
mode, most of them with cycling.
instead determining
have cycled historithe new improved discally.
patch stack wherein units are operated
Operating power plants in flexible economically with reduced long term
modes is inevitable and necessary. As- risks from cycling, and new units are
set owners should determine long term designed and procured based on lespenalties associated with cycling, im- sons learnt today, will allow us to meet
plement and integrate new procedures our future energy requirements safely
and equipment, prepare and train plant and reliably.
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patented single and double
reective path technology delivers unparalleled ow
velocity recognition and range, and has become the
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Q.Sonicplus Ultrasonic Gas Flow Meters do not rely on
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Author
Kevin Boudreaux is a power industry
technical consultant for NALCO Co.
Condenser Performance:
Assigning
Monetary
Losses to
Sources of
Degradation
46
After a significant event at the Arkansas plant, the CPMT was used not only
to identify the true causes and magnitude of the degradation, but also to determine how much the incident cost.
CF%
100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
Current CF%
9/13/13 0:00
9/3/13 0:00
8/24/13 0:00
8/14/13 0:00
8/4/13 0:00
7/25/13 0:00
7/5/13 0:00
6/25/13 0:00
6/15/13 0:00
0.0
6/5/13 0:00
10.0
5/26/13 0:00
Percent
conventional coal-fired
plant in central Arkansas
has two 850-MW units.
The two units are identical and use identical cooling towers and condensers. The hyperbolic cooling towers are rated at 310,000
gpm each, and the condensers are twoshell, two-pass, single pressure units,
rated at 292,000 gpm each. Circulating
water flow is achieved via two circulating water pumps, each rated to 50 percent capacity. According to SNL Financial, the plants capacity factor during
the months of June, July, and August
2013 was approximately 85 percent.
Nalcos Condenser Performance
Monitoring Tool (CPMT) was used
to compile and review historical data
at the plant. The CPMT is an application designed to capture appropriate
historical data, perform necessary
calculations, normalize results to design expectations and provide trend
graphs with a results dashboard that
highlights the condenser performance
for the timeframe and load conditions
specified.
As can be seen in the cleanliness factor

(CF%) graph in Figure 1, an event took
place at the plant on June 6, 2013. Although the degradation occurred rapidly,
it was actually precipitated by a buildup
rather than a sharp shift. The event was
initially believed to be due to a loss of
scale inhibitor, biocide or some other
chemistry upset, which was followed by a
mechanical cleaning and sharp improvement shift on Aug. 6.
Chemistry upsets typically result in
gradual degradation, while mechanical
upsets such as air in-leakage or pump
failures manifest as sharp shifts in performance. In this event, however, the problem was determined to be an atypical mechanical failure that took approximately
10 days to completely manifest. Just prior
to June 6, fill from the cooling tower had
fallen into the basin, eventually obstructing the circulating water pumps and
condenser tubes. Before Aug. 6, the plant
performed online condenser backwashes
7/15/13 0:00
BY KEVIN BOUDREAUX, NALCO COMPANY
THE CONDENSER
FOULING EVENT
Spec Sheet Design CF%
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PERFORMANCE
DEGRADATION REALIZED
As shown in Figure 1 on pg. 46, the
CF% degraded from 80 percent to 55 percent after June 6. Though the CF% is an
often-monitored parameter, such a metric does nothing to answer the questions
of why the event occurred or how much
it cost. To answer these questions, parameters such as BP Penalty, Temperature
Rise (TR) and Terminal Temperature Difference (TTD) prove more useful. When
the difference is calculated between the
operating BP and the expected operating BP, the result is a BP Penalty. Using
this data, heat rate and megawatt (MW)
penalties can be deduced. The Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI) has also
developed guidelines for assigning a heat
rate penalty with respect to BP Penalty.
In addition to considering the CPMT results and the actual data seen at the plant,
48
BP PENALTY AND OPERATING BP
2.00
6.00
1.80
5.50
1.60
1.20
4.50
1.00
4.00
0.80
3.50
0.60
Operating BP inHg
5.00
1.40
BP Penalty inHg
3.00
0.40
2.50
0.20
2.00
BP Penalty w/ Design CF% and Design Flow inHg
these EPRI guidelines can be used to understand the event more fully.
According to the CPMT results, the
plant experienced an overall increase in
operating BP of 1.5 inHg, with a BP Penalty of approximately 1.0 inHg (Figure 2).
Theoretically, this 1.0 inHg BP Penalty
converts to a megawatt loss of approximately 4.0 MW-hr (Table 1). Based on
the EPRI guidelines, there is a 2.5 percent efficiency loss for every 1.0 inHg
BP Penalty. In the Arkansas incident this
amounted to approximately 250 Btu/kWhr. Interestingly, the plants calculated
heat rate increase of 9700 9950 Btu/
kW-hr (Table 1) confirms this guideline.
Understanding Performance Degradation
Though it was clear that the fill which
fouled the condenser tubes also affected
overall plant efficiency, the science behind this loss in revenue was not immediately clear. Many analysts rely too
heavily on CF% to monitor condenser
performance. Though CF% may offer
a general depiction of what is happening during an event, it does not provide
specific information about those events,
9/13/13 0:00
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0.00
5/26/13 0:00
in an effort to minimize the potential for

a total plant trip due to high condenser
back pressure (BP). However, it appeared
the fill would rapidly foul the condenser,
and the decision was made to perform a
mechanical cleaning on Aug. 6.
Given that the cause of the condenser
performance degradation is known, this
article will endeavor to understand the
consequences of that problem. Toward
this end, it is necessary to investigate the
data in order to better understand the following:
1. What is the mechanism by which
the cooling tower fill obstructing the
condenser tubes caused the performance degradation?
2. How can the CPMT results be used
to better train plant personnel on
the theories behind condenser operation?
3. How can the CPMT isolate the specific mechanisms that led to an increase in not only operating BP, but
also the BP Penalty as well?
4. How can the CPMT assign a dollar
amount to this fouling event?
Avg Back Pressure
nor does it normalize the data. CF% does

not take into consideration operational
changes in parameters such as steam
load swings and circulating pump operation. Changes may be observed, but
these changes will not necessarily reflect
a problem or improvement in the condenser. Rather, they will reflect a general
change in the overall operation, which
does not help analysts troubleshoot or
assign costs to a process degradation or
improvement.
Once-through units provide a good example of this. These units typically alter
the number of circulating water pumps
in operation based on season and water
temperature. For instance, if a circulating
water pump is brought on line, the CF%
decreases rapidly indicating a change in
condenser performance. In actuality
though, the problem has nothing to do
with the condenser. This is because the BP
Penalty calculated using the condensers
design flow decreases significantly as the
flow increases. However, if the BP Penalty is calculated using the current flow
rate, it remains constant. While this may
sound like a mere semantic difference,
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TR AND CIRC PUMP AMPS
3
390.00
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38.00
380.00
36.00
34.00
370.00
30.00
360.00
amps
32.00
28.00
350.00
26.00
24.00
340.00
22.00
20.00
Current Condenser TR F
Circ Water Pump #1 Amps
9/13/13 0:00
9/3/13 0:00
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8/14/13 0:00
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50
it is extremely important when troubleshooting and planning potential plant

downtime. For this reason, it is better to
examine the actual parameters involved
in CF% calculations, mainly Temperature Rise (TR), Initial Temperature Difference (ITD) and Terminal Temperature
Difference (TTD), and to correlate the
results with other operational parameters
such as pump amps, air removal rates
and overall calculated BP Penalty.
The TR indicates the amount of heat
the cooling water absorbs from condensing steam. At the Arkansas plant, it is
clear that fill from the cooling tower obstructed the tubes in early June, resulting
in a reduction in overall flow through the
condenser (Figure 3). As this flow was
reduced, the circulating water absorbed
more heat per pound, thus increasing the
outlet water temperature and, in turn, the
TR. Amp draws and discharge pressures
on the circulating pumps further supported the idea that water flow through
the condenser had been reduced due to
a restriction. Even after pump operation
was restored to normal, the TR increased
4F and did not return to a normal level
until after the outage and subsequent repair on August 6.
While TR is an indication of the amount
of heat absorbed by the circulating water,
TTD is a measure of the efficiency with
which heat is transferred from the shell
side of the tube to the water side. A lower
TTD is always better, and all condensers
are designed with a specific design TTD.
However, factors like inlet water temperature and flow can affect this design TTD,
which means any analysis tools that are
used must compensate for these changes
in real-time. Factors that can cause degradation in TTD are:
Air-binding on the shell side
Bio-fouling
Scaling
Silting
The problem is, all of these factors look
alike when reviewing condenser data,
and they can all happen simultaneously,
www.power-eng.com
which is why plant and operational knowledge are so critical.

In the event at the Arkansas plant, the TTD showed a gradual
but sharp rise when the fill obstructed the tubes, and a very sharp
drop when the plant came down and the condenser was manually
cleaned. It is clear that fouling of the tubes played an important
role in elevating the TTD, and subsequently the operating BP (Figure 4).
Before discussing the way an elevated operating BP truly affects overall plant efficiency, it is important to understand how
condenser tube fouling can cause the elevated TR and TTD, and
ultimately the higher BP. As previously discussed, the TR increases
because an overall reduction in water flow results when fill debris
obstructs the tubes. As the velocity decreases, the water spends
more time in the tube bundles, allowing it to absorb more heat per
pound of water (as shown in the center tubes of Figure 5).
When only a few tubes become obstructed, logic suggests that
the decrease in velocity in the affected tubes should result in an
increase in velocity in the remaining unaffected tubes. As a result,
the TR should remain constant because the average velocity will be
unchanged. However, this was not the case in the event at the Arkansas plant. The rise in the TR confirms there was a reduction in
total flow. The significant amount of obstruction in the condenser
tube appears to have increased back pressure on the centrifugal
circulating water pumps, moving the operating point to the left on
the pump curve. Consequently, the total flow output of the pumps
was reduced. When the event occurred, the discharge pressure and
amp draws of the circulating water pumps rose, thus indicating
that the pumps were not only working harder, but that the flow
was also being reduced. Conservation of energy states that an increase in pressure will equal a decrease in flow rate.
As shown in the equation below, decreased velocity and increased TR will affect operating BP. Assuming a constant TTD and
water temperature at the inlet, an increase in the TR will result in a
subsequent increase in the steam temperature.
CWin + TR + TTD = Steam Temp
The TR increase of approximately 4F at the Arkansas plant
increased the operating BP to 0.4 inHg. However, the overall increase in the operating BP was approximately 1.5 inHg. What,
then, accounted for the remaining 1.1 inHg?
TTD is an indication of the efficiency with which heat is transferred. Heat transfer rates are better when the TTD is lower. This
is illustrated in Table 1, which shows the actual heat transfer rate
(Ua), as compared to the TTD. While the TR can show an overall
operational change and degradation in performance due to a decrease in flow, the TTD degradation is an indication of an actual
change in heat transfer related to the condenser tubes themselves.
After the Arkansas event, it became important to understand
how a decrease in flow caused an increase in TTD and a resulting issue in condenser performance. At issue here are the ways in
which a TTD increase can be produced. Condensers contain tens
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51
Condenser Performance Assigning Monetary Losses to Sources of Degradation

BP
Penalty
(inHg)
Heat Rate
(Btu's/kWhr)
Megawatt
Penalty
(MW)
$$ Penalty
@ $42/MW
690
0.0
9700
4.91
450
1.0
9950
$241,920
1.56
240
1.0
250
$241,920
Inlet Water
(f)
TTD
(f)
TR
(f)
Steam
BP
Ua
Temp (f) (inHg) (Btu/sqftHrF)
Prior to Fouling
90
23
119
3.35
After Fouling
95
11
27
133
Difference:
14
Source:
TTD PENALTY VS OPERATING BP

9.0
6.00
8.0
5.50
7.0
5.00
6.0
4.00
4.0
inHg
4.50
5.0
3.50
3.0
3.00
2.0
Estimated TTD Penalty w/ Design CF% and Current Flow Difference from Actual f
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7/15/13 0:00
7/5/13 0:00
6/25/13 0:00
2.00
6/15/13 0:00
0.0
6/5/13 0:00
2.50
5/26/13 0:00
1.0
Avg Back Pressure
TTD Penalty is the difference between the Actual TTD and the Expected TTD when operating as designed
of thousands of tubes, which do not all

become fouled simultaneously or perform in identical ways. The way tubes become fouled affects the way they impacta
overall condenser performance. For instance, if tubes become scaled, biofouled,
silted or air bound, their heat transfer
rates drop significantly. Water-side temperature will also drop because there will
be no heat absorption. However, because
the heat entering the condenser must go
somewhere, the tubes that are not fouled
assume the load, thus increasing their
heat transfer rate, and subsequently their
operating temperature (Figure 6). Because the steam will now condense at a
higher temperature, the overall condenser operating BP will increase. This causes
52
an increase in the TTD, as shown in the

equation below:
TTD = STMtemp - CWout
Tubes that have become scaled, biofouled, silted or air bound do not necessarily increase the TR. This is because the
condensers overall outlet water temperature is an average of all the tubes, both
fouled and clean. Therefore, the high
outlet water temperatures of clean tubes
are tempered by the cooler outlet water
temperatures of fouled tubes, thus producing a TR that is the same as if all the
tubes were clean.
However, if a section of tubes become partially obstructed, as they did
at the Arkansas plant, the flow through
those tubes becomes slower and causes
an increase in the outlet temperature of

the obstructed tubes (Figure 5). As with
the scaled-tubes example, the increased
outlet temperature increases overall operating BP and steam temperature. The
TTD then rises as a consequence of the
obstruction.
The event at the Arkansas plant, where
fouling was the result of fill falling into
the basin, is different from an incident in
which scale fouling is at work; the affected tubes in each case had different outlet
water temperatures.
In the example of scale fouling, the
outlet water temperature of the fouled
tubes decreased relative to design. This
was due to a decrease in heat transfer
rates. Conversely, the outlet temperature of the clean tubes increased, as did
the operating steam temperature and
BP. This was due to an increase in heat
transfer rates. The result was an overall
net zero increase/decrease in TR and an
increase in TTD.
In the Arkansas event, where the tubes
were fouled by fill, the outlet water temperature of the affected tubes increased
due to reduced cooling water flow. This
caused an increase in operating steam
temperature, BP and TTD. The unaffected tubes, however, remained unchanged
relative to design. This is because the
amount of heat transferred per tube remained the same (Figure 5). Because the
significant amount of fouling resulted in
a reduction in overall flow, the overall
outlet water temperature increased. As a
result, the TR also increased.
Based on the calculations performed
by the CPMT, it appears that the TTD had
an overall effect on the increased operating BP of 0.6 inHg. When this figure is
www.power-eng.com
5
Unaffected tubes remain
unchanged with regard to
outlet water temperature
Steam Temp = 128F

BP = 4.29 inHg
Increased outlet water

temperature of affected tubes
increases operating BP
113F
90F
121F
90F
121F
90F
113F
90F
Condenser Outlet
Water Temp = 117F
Reduced fow through

obstructed tubes leads
to higher outlet water
temperature
Average TR = 27F
TTD = 11F
Decrease in overall
cooling water fow
causes increase in TR
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combined with the 0.4 inHg already attributed to TR, 1.0 inHg of the 1.5 inHg
increase in operating BP can be accounted for.
It is difficult to determine if the remaining 0.5 inHg was due to an increase
in ambient temperatures, or if there was
an issue with cooling tower performance
due to the loss of fill. Based on the plants
It is relatively clear, then, that the Arkansas plant saw a BP Penalty increase of
1.0 inHg, which can be directly attributed
to fill from the cooling tower that fouled
the condenser tubes. This increase was
comprised of 0.4 inHg that resulted from
the increased TR, and 0.6 inHg that resulted from the increased TTD.
In cases such as this, there are actually
and isolates the condenser performance

to the condenser itself. In this way, individual BP Penalties can be assigned to
specific phenomena (i.e. TR and TTD).
Because the Arkansas plant normally
operates at design flow, these figures
must be assumed when measuring overall system performance. Therefore, for
purposes of cost calculation, the plant
6
Scaled tubes have
reduced heat transfer
leading to cooler outlet
water temps
Steam Temp = 124F

BP = 3.85 inHg
Increased outlet water

temperature of clean tubes
increases operating BP
109F
90F
117F
90F
117F
90F
109F
90F
Condenser Outlet
Water Temp = 113F
Clean tubes must pick

up heat load leading to
an increase in heat
transfer and outlet
water temperature
weather station data, there was an increase in Dry Bulb temperature during
the discussed timeframe, and the cooling
tower basin water temperature tracks well
with the ambient conditions. The weather station was not tracking humidity correctly, so Wet Bulb cannot be calculated.
As with most cooling towers throughout
the industry, the tower at the Arkansas
plant is not sufficiently instrumented to
monitor true cooling tower performance.
Without ruling out problems caused by
the loss of fill in the tower, it is believed
that ambient conditions accounted for
the remaining 0.5 inHg increase in operating BP.
Determining True BP Penalty
54
Average TR = 23F
TTD = 11F
two BP Penalties that can be considered.

The first is the BP Penalty under design
flow conditions. This assumes the plant
should be operating at design cleanliness
and design flow rates at all times. However, this method should not be used in
all cases because many plants never operate at design flow. To truly determine
condenser performance, a second method must be usedBP Penalty under actual (current) flow conditions. This calculates the BP Penalty, which represents
actual condenser performance, using
what many plants experience as off-design, but nonetheless normal flow conditions. This method essentially normalizes everything around the condenser
TTD increases due to

widening gap between
steam temp and outlet
water temp
can be said to have experienced a 1.0

inHg performance degradation from
June 6 to August 6 (Table 1).
Converting BP Penalty to Turbine
Efficiency
Steam contains a particular enthalpy
(Btu/lb) at both ends of a turbine. Carnots theorem suggests that, all else being
equal, turbine efficiency increases with
a decrease in exiting steam enthalpy. As
such, a lower condenser BP yields an exiting steam with lower enthalpy and, as a
result, greater turbine efficiency.
The concept is relatively simple. When
fewer Btu are sent to the cooling water
and the hotwell, more Btu can be used
by the steam turbine. Because of this, it
www.power-eng.com
is important to maintain the lowest

operating BP possible; a BP Penalty
always amounts to a loss in MW production. An increase in BP Penalty
can be caused by complications in true
condenser heat transfer, or by failures
with ancillary components such as circulating pumps and cooling towers.
Converting BP Penalty to MW Lost
There is debate about how to accurately convert a BP Penalty to MW lost.
The CPMT method calculates the enthalpy difference between the actual
operating BP and the expected operating BP. From this calculation, the MW
loss can be determined using a simple
Bt- to-kW conversion, along with the
plants condenser steam loading.
According to this method, the Arkansas plant experienced a loss of
approximately 4 MW/hr at a 1.0 inHg
BP Penalty. However, in the past
this method has shown itself to be
conservative, and actual losses might

have been greater. Given the complexities of a power plant, it can be presumptuous for non-plant personnel to
assign total plant losses to condenser
performance alone.
Assigning a Cost
Based on $42/MW-hr, which was
the average rate for the area during this
period, the 60-day BP Penalty cost the
plant $241,920, assuming base-loaded
operation. This penalty is based on the
1.0 inHg BP Penalty attributed to the
combined rise in TR and TTD from
tube fouling. It does not include 0.5
inHg of the total operating BP rise because this is assumed to be the result of
conditions beyond the plants control.
CONCLUSIONS
By using the CPMT to examine the
historical data at the Arkansas plant,
plant personnel were able to identify
exactly when the condenser fouling

occurred, as well as the consequences
of that fouling. They were also able to
understand the mechanism by which
fouling caused the performance degradation. This allowed them to isolate
the specific mechanisms that led to an
increase in not only operating BP, but
also in the BP Penalty as well. Most
importantly, plant personnel were able
assign a dollar value to not only the
event, but also the individual components of the event.
Moving forward, the plant will continue to use this same approach not
only to identify problems during operation, but also to justify downtime,
mechanical/operational changes or
changes in chemistry programs. Furthermore, improvements or deteriorations in performance can be assigned a
dollar value for purposes of budgeting
and return on investment.
GenerationHubs experienced analysts provide
Original analysis
original content that dives into the issues facing

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Shaun Jameson, Sales Executive

918.832.9291 | shaunj@pennwell.com
Siemens SGT6-5000F gas turbine.

Photo courtesy: Siemens
Gas Turbine
Technologies
for the
Transition
BY RUSSELL RAY, CHIEF EDITOR
56
he need for faster, more

efficient and more flexible generation means
Americas reliance on
natural gas, like it or
not, will continue to grow.

Low-priced natural gas created by
a boom in production, stricter environmental standards for coal-fired
power plants, and the integration of
increasing amounts of renewable power have led power producers to shutter

substantial amounts of coal-fired and
nuclear generation.
About 60 GW of coal-fired generation in the U.S. will be retired by 2020
and about 35 GW of nuclear capacity
will be retired by 2025, according to
recent projections by Black & Veatch,
a global engineering and construction firm serving the power generation
sector. Much of that capacity will be
replaced with power produced by lowcost, cleaner-burning natural gas.
In 2035, power fueled with natural
gas is expected to surpass coal-fired
power as the dominant source of power
generation in the U.S., according to the
Energy Information Administration
www.power-eng.com
Turbine
Services
Gas
Combustion, Hot Gas Path and Major Inspections
Gas Turbine Internal Alignment
Generator Inspection and Repair
Vibration Analysis and Balance
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Gas Turbine and Generator

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Labor & Supervision
New and Used Capital and

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Plant Performance Testing and Analysis
Gas Turbine Services
19 British American Blvd. | Latham, NY 12110

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PARTS | SERVICES | REPAIRS

GEs 9HA gas turbine offers up to 592 MW

of output and can reach full capacity in less
than 30 minutes. Photo courtesy: GE
flexible and efficient gas turbines that

can accommodate the variability of
renewable power is expected to soar.
(EIA), the statistical arm of the U.S. The global market for gas turbines is
Department of Energy (DOE). After expected to grow from $18 billion in
2020, power plants fueled with natu- 2013 to more than $26 billion in 2020,
ral gas will account for 70 percent of all according to projections by Frost & Sulnew generation capacity, according to livan, a research and consulting firm.
EIA. By 2040, natural gas will account Orders for new gas turbines are expectfor 35 percent of U.S. generation, EIA ed to rise from more than 58,000 MW
estimates. Coal will
in 2013 to more than
account for 32 per81,500 MW in 2020,
The 7HA and 9HA
cent of the generathe company said.
gas
turbines
are
tion pie. During the
Gas turbines will
same period, renew- the worlds largest
be the technology
able power capacity
and most efficient of choice for future
will grow 69 percent,
capacity additions,
gas
turbines.
which means gassaid Harald Thaler,
fired plants must be - GE
Industry
Director
fast and flexible to
at Frost & Sullivan.
accommodate the growing amount of Gas turbines will also benefit from
intermittent generation.
increasingly stringent emissions legisWith gas prices expected to hover lation and roll out of emissions trading
between $4 and $6 per million Btu schemes in emerging markets.
for several years, demand for fast,
The demand for gas-fired power
58
means gas turbine manufacturers are

working hard to provide the most innovative solutions for power producers wanting to remain competitive
and compliant. Major turbine manufacturers such as GE and Siemens are
introducing new designs that start up
quickly and cycle on and off without
boosting emissions.
SIEMENS FLEX-PLANT
Nestled between a cliff and the Pacific Ocean in a well-known beach
community, the 550-MW El Segundo
Energy Center consumes 30 percent
less natural gas than the units it replaced and uses rapid-response technology to provide critical backup power for intermittent forms of generation
such as wind and solar power.
The new two-unit plant, owned and
operated by NRG Energy, uses FlexPlant technology from Siemens. Each
unit features an SGT6-5000F gas turbine. The plant can ramp up to 300
MW in less than 10 minutes and be
at full capacity (550 MW) within one
www.power-eng.com
2014
Annual Awards Gala

Youre invited
TO THE ANNUAL AWARDS GALA

MONDAY, DEC. 8, 2014
Honoring excellence in design, contraction and engineering of power generation facilities worldwide.
2014Projects of the Year winners will be announced at the Annual Awards Gala during Power Generation
Week 2014 in Orlando, Florida. Register for your seat at this exclusive awards gala, Monday, December 8.
Register online at www.power-gen.com.
Awards will be given in the following categories:
Best Coal-fred Project

Best Gas-fred Project
Best Nuclear Project
Owned &
Produced by:
Best Solar Project

Best Wind Project
Best Hydro/Marine Project
Presented by:
Best Geothermal Project

Best Biomass Project
Readers Choice Award
The same H-class turbine used at the Riviera Beach Next

Generation Clean Energy Center set a world record for
combined cycle efficiency at the Irsching Power Station in
Bavaria, Germany. Photo Courtesy: Florida Power & Light
hour. That compares to 14 hours to

reach full capacity with the old units,
originally built in 1955.
The plants fast-start capability is
perhaps its most valuable feature, especially in California, where utilities
and grid managers struggle to maintain a balanced load amid a growing
source of intermittent electricity. California law requires power providers
to generate 33 percent of their power
from renewable resources by 2020.
Each power block is rated at 275MW net output for a total output of
550 MW at 48.9 percent combined
cycle efficiency, making it the most
efficient peaking plant technology
available today, Siemens said. The
SGT6-5000F turbine is integrated with
a single-pressure, non-reheat bottoming cycle.
In addition to slashing overall NOx,
SOx and CO2 emissions, the plants startup emissions are more than 89-percent
lower thanks to a rapid-response technology known as Clean Ramp that
mitigates stack emissions while ramping up or down. Clean Ramp integrates
the operation of the combined cycle to
maintain low NOx and CO emissions
while ramping.
The plant began commercial operation Aug. 1, 2013. All of the output is
delivered to Southern California Edison under a 10-year power purchase
agreement. The utility lost more than
2,000 MW of generation capacity due
to the unexpected retirement of the San
Onofre Nuclear Generation Station.
GES H-CLASS
GAS TURBINES
Earlier this year, GE introduced two
new air-cooled H-class turbines - the
7HA and 9HA gas turbines. The H-class
60
gas turbine comes in two versions for

the 50 Hz market, the 9HA.01 and
9HA.02, and two versions for the 60
Hz market, the 7HA.01 and 7HA.02.
They are, GE said, the worlds largest
and most efficient gas turbines, with
combined cycle efficiencies better
than 61 percent.
The 9HA.01 is rated at 397 MW and
the 9HA.02 is rated at 470 MW in a
simple-cycle configuration, with each
offering more than 41 percent efficiency. In a 1x1 combined-cycle configuration, the 9HA.01 is rated at 592 MW
and can reach full capacity in less than
30 minutes. The 9HA.02 is rated at 701
MW and offers more than 61 percent
efficiency.
The 7HA.01 is rated at 275 MW and
the 7HA.02 is rated at 330 MW in a
simple-cycle configuration, with each
offering more than 41 percent efficiency. In a 1x1 combined-cycle configuration, the 7HA.01 is rated at 405 MW
and the 7HA.02 is rated at 486 MW.
The 7HA.02 can reach full output in
as little as 10 minutes and offers more
than 61 percent efficiency.
According to GE, the H-class gas
turbine incorporates an aerodynamic
14-stage compressor and includes an
advanced radial diffuser which, combined with the Dry Low NOx 2.6+Axial
Fuel Staged combustion system, allows
improved operation of the combustion

liner and transition piece cooling.
RIVIERA BEACH
The Riviera Beach Next Generation
Clean Energy Center in Florida began
commercial operation in April 2014 and
uses three SGT6-8000H gas turbines
from Siemens. The same H-class turbine
was used at the Cape Canaveral Clean
Energy Center, which began commercial
operation last year near Floridas Kennedy Space Center.
The same turbine used at Riviera Beach
and Cape Canaveral set a world record
for combined cycle efficiency of 60.75
percent in May 2011 at the Irsching Power
Station in Bavaria, Germany.
The Riviera Beach facility, owned
and operated by Florida Power & Light,
is 33 percent more fuel-efficient than
the 1960s-era oil-burning power plant
it replaced. In addition, carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions are 50 percent lower
and NO x and SO x emissions are more
than 90 percent lower versus emissions from the old plant.
With a capacity of 1,250 MW, the plant
produces enough electricity to power
250,000 Florida households.
Siemens has sold 28 H-Class gas turbines worldwide thus far. Nine are in
commercial operation with more than
70,000 equivalent operating hours.
www.power-eng.com
DECEMBER 911, 2014 /

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INDEX
RS# COMPANY
PG#
RS# COMPANY
PG#
17 Ametek Thermox
33
14 Orion Instruments
27
www.ametekpi.com
AREVA INC
www.orioninstruments.com
13
us.areva.com
27 Braden Manufacturing
31 POWER-GEN International
Buckman
37
34 Proenergy Services LLC

18
30 Projects of the Year Awards 59

www.power-gen.com
20
21 RES Americas Inc
www.buschusa.com
15 Clarcor
29
32 REWNA 2014
6
3
19
Fluor Corp
20 Siemens Energy
22 Hilliard Corporation
24 United Rentals Inc
C2
47
www.unitedrentals.com
18 Victory Energy
Operations LLC
www.hilliardcorp.com
13 Hitachi Power
Systems America
Solvay Chemicals Inc

www.solvair.us
55
43
39
www.siemens.com/energy
www.generationhub.com
49
www.sicknorthamerica.com
45
www.fluor.com
28 GenHub
Rolls Royce Energy Systems 5
25 Sick Maihak Inc
www.elster-instromet.com
11
www.rolls-royce.com
50
www.concosystems.com
23 Elster
Robinson Fans
www.robinsonfans.com
www.apollovalves.com
26 Conco Systems Inc
62
www.renewableenergyworldevents.com
21
www.cleaverbrooks.com/
papermill
10 Conbraco Industries Inc
41
res-americas.com
www.clarcorindustrialair.com
12 Cleaver Brooks
- Nebraska Boiler
C4
www.proenergyservices.com
www.buckman.com
11 Busch LLC
61
www.power-gen.com
www.beis.com
31
www.philagear.com/boring/pe
51
www.braden.com
19 Brand Energy and

Infrastructure Services
16 Philadelphia
Gear Corporation
34-35
www.victoryenergy.com
2
25
Westinghouse Electric Co
www.westinghousenuclear.com
www.psa.mhps.com
HYTORC Industrial
Bolting Systems
53
33 JASC Jansens Aircraft

Systems Controls Inc
C3
www.jasc-controls.com
29 Mechanical Dynamics
& Analysis, LLC
57
www.mdaturbines.com
Mitsubishi Power.
Systems Americas, Inc
17
Advertisers and advertising agencies

assume liability for all contents (including text representation and illustrations)
of advertisements printed, and also assume responsibility for any claims arising therefrom made against the publisher. It is the advertisers or agencys
responsibility to obtain appropriate
releases on any items or individuals pictured in the advertisement.
SALES OFFICE
1421 S. Sheridan Rd., Tulsa, OK 74112
Phone: 918-835-3161, Fax: 918-831-9834
e-mail: pe@pennwell.com
Sr. Vice President North
American Power Group Richard Baker
Reprints Foster Printing Servive
4295 Ohio Street
Michigan City, IN 46360
Phone: 866-879-9144
e-mail: pennwellreprint@fosterprinting.com
National Marketing
Consultant Rick Huntzicker
Palladian Professional Park
3225 Shallowford Rd., Suite 800
Marietta, GA 30062
Phone: 770-578-2688, Fax: 770-578-2690
e-mail: rickh@pennwell.com
AL, AR, DC, FL, GA, KS, KY, LA, MD, MO,
MS, NC, SC, TN, TX, VA, WV
Regional Marketing Consultant Dan Idoine
806 Park Village Drive
Louisville, OH 44641
Phone: 330-875-6581, Fax: 330-875-4462
e-mail: dani@pennwell.com
CT, DE, IL, IN, MA, ME, MI, NH, NJ, NY,
OH, PA, RI, VT, Quebec, New Brunswick,
Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Ontario
Regional Marketing Consultant Natasha Cole
1455 West Loop South, Suite 400
Houston, Texas 77027
Phone: 713.499.6311; Fax: 713.963.6284
e-mail: natashac@pennwell.com
AK, AZ,CA,CO,HI,IA,MN,MT,ND,NE,NM,NV,
OK,OR,SD,UT,WA,WI,WY,AB,BC,SK, Manitoba,
Northwest Territory, Yukon Territory
International Sales Mgr Michelle Smith
The Water Tower
Gunpowder Mills
Powdermill Lane
Waltham Abbey, Essex EN9 1BN
United Kingdom
Phone: +44 1992 656 609, Fax: +44 1992 656 700
e-mail: michelles@pennwell.com
Africa, Asia, Central America, Europe,
Middle East, South America
European Sales Asif Yusuf
The Water Tower
Gunpowder Mills
Powdermill Lane
Waltham Abbey, Essex EN9 1BN
United Kingdom
Phone: +44 1992 656 631, Fax: +44 1992 656 700
e-mail: asify@pennwell.com
Europe and Middle East
Classifieds/Literature Showcase
Account Executive Jenna Hall
1421 S. Sheridan Rd.
Tulsa, OK 74112
Phone: 918-832-9249, Fax: 918-831-9834
email: jennah@pennwell.com
Mobil Industrial Lubricants
www.mobilindustrial.com
68
www.power-eng.com
JASC Fuel System Reliability Upgrade

Performance results after 5+ years of field operation*
300+ successful fuel transfers with less than 4 check valve related trips over a 5 year period
Only 1 forced outage due to a major fuel system component failure over a 5 year period
Liquid fuel system recommended maintenance at major turbine service intervals is
refurbishment of liquid fuel, purge air and water injection check valves
Annual gas to liquid transfer success rates typically 100%
*JASC installed turbine base includes the U.S., Middle East, Africa and Asia.
New
JASC
Tees
Featuring Integral HighTemperature Metal-to-Metal Seal Technology
Tube adapter Tee

for standard fuel nozzle
Positional Tee
for DLN fuel nozzle
SAE J1926 compatible for purge air, liquid fuel check valves and nozzle connections
Adjustable orientation for easy connection interface to existing piping
Engineered for continuous service at 750F ambient and 2000 psi
Eliminates leaks associated with high temperature o-ring degradation
Multiple make-and-break capability provides years of leak free service
New F-Class Water

Injection Check Valve
-12 SAE with
Crush Seal Gasket
eliminates O-ring
-16 SAE with

Crush Seal Gasket
eliminates O-ring
High temperature Metal-to-Metal internal seat

Exceeds ANSI Class VI seal rating
Continuous service at 750F ambient surroundings
www.jasc-controls.com
Tel: +1 602.438.4400 Fax: +1 602.438.4420
sales@jasc-controls.com
EPC
Overhauls
High Voltage
Component Repairs
Operations & Maintenance
Fabrication Services
Technical Services
Field Services
Stafng
Controls
ProEnergys AeroAdvantage is redefning industry

standards for comprehensive assessments, repairs
and overhauls of aeroderivative turbines.
660.829.5100 | proenergyservices.com

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Heat Recovery Steam Generators | Waste Heat Boilers | Fired Packaged Watertube Boilers | Specialty Boilers

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