Deixis

Foundations of deixis.
There is a long tradition in western philosophy to define human cognition by formal
operations over abstract symbols (cf. Montague 1974; see also article 10 (Newen &
Schrder) Logic and semantics and article 11 (Kempson) Formal semantics and representationalism
). However, recent work in cognitive psychology, philosophy, and linguistics
has argued that this approach is not appropriate to characterize human cognition. Specifi cally, it has been claimed that cognitive processes are embodied, i.e., grounded in our
bodily experience with the environment (see Wilson 2002 for a review; see also Steels
1999; Clark 1997; Barsalou 1999). In this view, the sensory and motor activities of the body
are important determinants of human cognition, which in turn influences the structure and use of
language (Lakoff & Johnson 1980, 1999).
There is perhaps no other linguistic phenomenon that is so fundamentally rooted in
our bodily experience than deixis. In fact, one of the reasons why indexicals have been
discussed extensively in both linguistics and philosophy is that they pose a serious challenge
to semantic theories in which linguistic meaning is decontextualized and disembodied.
Philosophers such as Russell and Reichenbach tried to reduce all indexical expressions
to a single deictic term that can be translated into some context-free expression in an artifi
cial language; but this account does not provide an adequate description of the use and
meaning of deictic expressions. In natural language, deixis is fundamentally grounded in
our bodily experience and situated interactions between the interlocutors. Thus, any account
of natural deixis has to start from a pragmatic theory of language use and human
cognition (cf. article 5 (Green) Meaning in language use ).

The deictic centre.

A linguistic phenomenon that crucially relies on interaction is deixis. As Bhler (1934)

and other theorists have pointed out, the use of deixis involves a particular viewpoint
called the deictic centre or the origo (cf. Bhler 1934; Lyons 1977). The deictic centre is the
centre of a coordinate system that underlies the conceptualization of the speech situation.
In the unmarked case, the deictic centre is defi ed by the speakers location at the time of
the utterance. Deictic expressions are used to indicate a location or point in time relative
to the deictic centre. For instance, the spatial adverbs here and there can be used to express
a contrast between two different locations based on their relationship to the origo: here marks the
area that is conceptualized as the deictic centre, and there indicates a location that is not included in
this area. In the literature, here and there are commonly characterized
as proximal and distal deictics, but the attributes proximal and distal must not
be taken in the absolute sense of these terms because the deictic centre and the speech
situation are conceptual units that cannot be equated with the physical location in which
the speech event occurs. Consider for instance the use of the spatial deictic here in
examples (1a-e).
What these examples illustrate is that the area included in the deictic centre (denoted by
here ) varies with the construal of the speech situation. In (1a), here refers to a location
that is further specified by the pronoun I , indicating that the deictic centre is basically
identical with the speakers body; but in all other examples the deictic centre includes a
much larger area organized around the speakers location at the time of the utterance: In
(1b) the deictic centre is the room in which the speech event is taking place, in (1c) it is
the city of Jena, in (1d) it is a country, and in (1e) the deictic centre consists of the whole
planet. In other words, the referent of here varies with the conceptualization of the speech
situation. The distal term there is used in contrast to here ; it can refer to any location in the
speech situation as long as it is not included in the area conceptualized as the deictic
centre. In general, here and there , and other proximal and distal deictics, do not express absolute
measures of distance, but differentiate between two different locations relative

to the deictic centre within the current construal of the speech situation.
In conversations, the deictic centre is constantly changing between the communicative
partners. Every time a new speaker adopts the turn, the speech event is conceptualized
from a different point of view, which means that expressions such as here and there and I
and you refer to different entities when used by different speakers. Adult speakers are so
used to this procedure that they do not realize the constantly changing perspective that is
involved in the use of deictic expressions; but children have great diffi culties with the alternating
point of view. Although English-speaking children begin to use deictic expressions
very early, they often misinterpret their meaning and use (cf. Clark 1978; Tanz 1980;
Wales 1986). For instance, it is well-known that some children begin to use the personal
pronouns I and you as fi xed expressions for the child and an adult speaker. Consider for
instance the dialog in (2) between a two-year-old English-speaking boy and his mother
(cf. Clark 1978: 101).
(2) Mother: What do you want?
Child: Daddy toothbrush.
Mother: Oh you want Daddys toothbrush, do you?
Child: Yes . . . you want to put the frog in the mug. [you = I]
Mother: I think the frog is too big for the mug.
Child: Yes you can put the duck in the mug [you = I]
make bubble . . . make bubble.
Mother: Tomorrow. Nearly all the waters run out.
Child: You want Mummy red toothbrush . . . yes [you = I]
you can have Mummy old red toothbrush.
In this example, both the boy and his mother use the pronoun you with reference to the
child, suggesting that the boy misinterprets the term as some sort of proper name. The

same absolute use of personal pronouns has been observed in many other studies.
Consider for instance the following example from a diary study adopted from Clark
(1978: 101).
(3) a. I carry. [= you carry; a request to be picked up]
b. Yacky tease you . [= Yacky is teasing me]
c. Papa help you . [= Papa help me]
d. You want cake. [= I want cake]
In these examples, the deictic pronouns I and you are used as fi xed expressions for the
child and one of his parents: the fi rst person pronoun I refers to the parent, notably
the father, and the second person pronoun you is used in self reference to the child.

The frame of reference.

The deictic centre constitutes the centre of a relative frame of reference, which must be
distinguished from two other reference frames for spatial orientation: the intrinsic frame
of reference and the absolute frame of reference (Levinson 1996, 2003; Miller & JohnsonLaird 1976; Pederson et al. 1998). Each frame evokes a coordinate system, but is differently anchored in
the speech situation. The relative frame of reference presupposes
a viewpoint provided by the speaker or some other person; the intrinsic frame of reference
involves an object-centred coordinate system determined by the inherent orientation
of an object or person; and the absolute frame of reference is anchored by landmarks
in the environment such as a mountain, a river, or the sun (see below).
While the conceptualizations of the three reference frames are in principle independent
of language, they can be triggered by particular types of expressions. The relative
frame of reference is commonly evoked by deictics such as I and you and here and there
(cf. 4a-b); the intrinsic frame of reference comprises relational terms such as in front
of and behind (cf. 5a-b); and the absolute frame of reference is established by expressions

such as uphill and downhill or east and west that indicate a geographical location
(cf. 6a-b).
(4) a. Peter is over there .
b. Can you show me that ?
(5) a. The ball is in front of the car.
b. Peter stood on his uncles left side.
(6) a. The cottage is uphill .
b. They were driving west .
Note that although the relative frame of reference provides the conceptual background
for the interpretation of spatial deictics, it is in principle independent of the deictic center
(cf. Levinson 1996). As can be seen in (7), the relative frame of reference also be construed
from the perspective of a third person (expressed in the for -phrase).
(7) For John, the ball is in front of the tree.
Interestingly, if we leave out for John the spatial arrangement is interpreted from the
speakers point of view, although the sentence does not include a deictic expression.
It is based on the vertical and horizontal orientation of the human body, which is commonly expressed
by relational terms such as in front of and behind , left and right, up and down , and above and below .
Like deictic expressions, these expressions may involve the speakers location at the time of the
utterance (cf. 8a-c).
(8) a. The ball in front of me
b. The ball to my left
c. I put the ball down .
In examples (8a-c), relational expressions are used to indicate the location of an object
based on the speakers orientation in the speech situation. Note that these examples
include a deictic expression referring to the speaker; but even if the utterance does not
include a deictic term, relational expressions are commonly interpreted deictically, as in
the following example in which in front of characterizes a location from the speakers

point of view, although the speaker is not mentioned in this sentence (Levinson 1996).
(9) The ball is in front of the tree.
However, in contrast to deictics relational expressions are in principle independent of
the speakers point of view and the human body. As can be seen in (10a-c), in front of, left ,
and down may indicate the location of an entity based on the inherent orientation of an
object such as house, car , or table .
(10) a. A horse stood in front of the house.
b. Peters seat is in the back, on the left side of the car.
c. The bottle fell down from the table.
What these examples show is that while relational expressions may involve the speakers
bodily orientation in the speech situation, their interpretation is not inherently tied to the
speakers body or location. That is, while relational expressions can be used deictically,
they are distinct from genuine deictics in that they do not presuppose the deictic centre
or the speakers perspective (cf. Levinson 1996).

A definition of deixis

Deixis is pointing language. We use deictic expressions or indexicals to signal a referent and relate that
referent to common ground shared by the speaker and the addressee. They situate the speaker and the
addressee in relation to each other and the world around them.
PERSON DEIXIS
each person in a conversation constantly shifts from being 'I' to being 'you'
Children may go through stages of acquisition where this is problematic: Read you a story!
basic three-part division speaker, addressee, others (1., 2., 3. person)
markers of relative social status, so-called honorifics, may be used (see also social deixis)
T/V distinction: familiar vs. non-familiar addressees (tu - vous, du - sie, tu- usted)

 higher status, older, more powerful speakers tends to use the familiar form toward a lower
status, younger, less powerful addressee.
on-familiar forms express distance, are often of 3rd person origin
Would his highness like some coffee?
Somebody didn't clean up after himself.
Vocatives (special address forms for names, titles, kinship terms) are noun phrases that refer
to an addressee, but are not syntactically or semantically incorporated as the arguments of a
predicate (they are also set apart prosodically)
call/summons: Hey you, you just scratched my car with your frisbee!
address: The truth is, Madam, nothing is as good nowadays
summons: utterance/conversation-initial, independent speech acts (gestural)
address: parentheticals that can occur anywhere in an utterance (symbolic)
SPATIAL DEIXIS
-

Locations which are specified relative to other objects or fixed reference points

The station is 200 yards from the cathedral

Kabul lies at latitude 34 degrees, longitude 70 degrees
locations can be deictically specified relative to the location of participants at the time of
speaking.
Its 200 yards away
Kabul is 400 miles west of here
basic distinction: here/there - additional older/dialectal forms: yonder, hither, thence
(the latter two including the notion of motion toward or away from the speaker)
Yet other languages do not organize demonstratives in this way (i.e., distance in concentric
circles from a fixed deictic center), but with respect to contrasts between participant roles:
Latin: hic (close to speaker), iste (close to addressee), ille (remote from speaker and

addressee)
Turkish: bu (close to speaker), u (close to addressee), o (remote from speaker and
addressee)
Samal has a four-way distinction based on four kinds of participant role: (i) close to
speaker, (ii) close to addressee, (iii) close to audience (other members of the
conversational group), (iv) close to persons present but outside the conversational group
In Australian and New Guinean languages there are also systems that produce large
arrays of demonstratives (upriver/downriver from speaker, visible/not visible to
speaker, above/below/at level with the speaker)
Some verbs of motion, e.g., come/go, retain a deictic sense when they are used to mark
movement toward ('Come to bed') or away from the speaker ('Go to bed')

Speakers are also able to project themselves into other locations prior to actually being in
those locations, as when they say 'I'll come later' (= movement to the addressee's location)

Deictic Projection
The phrase 'I am not here now' should be nonsensical. It is of course possible to say this on
your answering machine, projecting that 'now' will apply to any time somebody calls and not
to when the words are recorded (projecting one's presence into the future and a different
location).
Similar effect of indirect speech ('here' is not the actual location of the person telling the story)
I was looking at this little puppy in a cage with such a sad look on its face. It was like
'Oh, I'm so unhappy here, will you set me free?
Psychological Distance as the pragmatic basis of spatial deixis
physical and psychological distance often correlate with each other, but deictic elements can
be used to express psychological distance (empathetic deixis) only ('I don't like that smell')

Temporal Deixis

Proximal 'now' indicates both the time coinciding with the speaker's utterance and the

time of the speaker's voice being heard (the hearer's now)

-

Distal 'then' applies to both past and future time relative to the speaker's present time:

Ex.
November 22nd, 1963? I was in Scotland then.
Dinner at 8:30 on Saturday? Okay, I'll see you then
non-deictic temporal reference like calendar and clock time islearned later than deictic
references such as tomorrow, today, tonight, this week
all deictic expressions depend on knowing the relevant utterance time (Fillmore 1971).
time the utterance was made = coding time (CT)
time the utterance is heard/read = receiving time (RT)
Deictic Simultaneity: CT = RT (normal verbal utterance situation)
complication in written messages and pre-recordings of media programs
Back in an hour
Free beer tomorrow
In this case a decision has to be made about whether the deictic center remains on the speaker
(and CT) or is projected on the addresse (and RT)
choice of verb tense expresses temporal deixis
present tense is proximal: 'I live here now'
past/future are distal: 'I lived there then / I will be in London by then'
conditional/unlikely event also treated as deictically distant
I could be in Hawaii (if I had a lot of money)

DISCOURSE DEIXIS

Pff, pff, pff: that is what it sounded like

This is what phoneticians call creaky voice
This sentence is not true
This subject will be addressed in the next chapter
I bet you havent heard this story
That was the funniest story Ive ever heard
Also included in discourse deixis are expressions which signal an utterances relation to
surrounding text (e.g., utterance-initial anyway)
CAUTION: a discourse-deictic expression refers to a linguistic expression or chunk of
discourse itself, but not to the same entity as a prior linguistic expression (see anaphor)
A: Thats a rhinoceros
B: Spell it for me
A: Thats a rhinoceros
B: I like it
Token Reflexivity
Discourse-deictic use of it
Anaphoric use of it

Endophora
The use of a third-person pronoun or other word or phrase to refer to someone or something inside the
same text. Contrast with exophora. Adjective: endophoric.
Anaphora A grammatical term for the use of a pronoun or other linguistic unit to refer back to
another word or phrase

 Cataphora The use of a pronoun or other linguistic unit to refer ahead to another word in a
sentence (i.e., the referent)

Exophora
The use of a pronoun or other word or phrase to refer to someone or something outside the text.