Computer Integrated Manufacturing

ME 340-2
Computer Integrated Manufacturing

- CAD/CAM -
Course Packet
Winter 2014
Prepared By
Michael Beltran
Prof. J. Cao
Prof. K. F. Ehmann
Prof. H. Stoll
Northwestern University
Robert R. McCormick School of Engineering & Applied Science
Department of Mechanical Engineering
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The objectives of this course, ME 340-2, would not be possibly met without long hours and
enthusiasm from our ME staffs and teaching assistants. Specifically, we would like to thank Prof.
Bruce Ankenman, Prof. James Conley, Milos Coric, Richard Dojutrek, Jesse Havens, Adrish
Majumdar, Neil Krishnan and Shawn Cheng for their contributions to this course packet.
Michael Beltran
Jian Cao
Kornel F. Ehmann
Henry Stoll
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COURSE OBJECTIVES.
SECTION 1: PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING...
Process and Tooling....

Design for Plastic Injection Molding.....
3
11
SECTION 2: GEOMETRIC MODELING...
25
Introduction to Geometric Modeling .....

Introduction to 2D & 3D Data Transformation .....
Introduction to Curve Representation .....
27
41
47
SECTION 3: NC PROGRAMMING....
65
Introduction to Machine Programming...
67
SECTION 4: GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING
83
SECTION 5: STATISTICAL TOLERANCING.
107
SECTION 6: METROLOGY ...
125
Measurement System Analysis...
127
SECTION 7: GROUP TECHNOLOGY... 137
ME 340-2 Course Objectives

By the end of this class, you should be able to:
1. Design a part appropriate for injection molding and mass production, with clear
labeled detail.
2. Use the NX Modeling environment to model a part, and create a corresponding
mold for that part.
3. Use the NX Manufacturing environment to create a manufacturing program with
efficient use of individual operations to manufacture a mold.
4. Understand the basics of polymers and polymer processes.
5. Observe the cost, quality, flexibility, and rate of bulk manufacturing processes.
6. Use Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing when needed to complete a part
and mold design.
7. Understand the fundamentals of CAD systems and the methods used to
represent complex forms and data transformation.
8. Comprehend the use of statistical quality control in mass production, and the
connection to GD&T.
9. Use a measurement system to statistically quantify an injection molding
production run.
10. Comprehend the vast number of mass production manufacturing systems used
in industry.
You will create a part in your head to your hand.
(THIS PAGE DELIBERATELY LEFT BLANK)
SECTION 1
PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING
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PROCESS AND TOOLING

Injection molding is a relatively new manufacturing process, in comparison to older, more
traditional processes such as die casting, machining, metal stamping and the compression molding
of plastics. Small, commercially available injection molding machines began to appear in the
1930's. By the late 1940's, the industry was well established and starting to become sophisticated.
Since becoming well established, the injection molding industry and its suppliers have been very
resourceful in developing and refining the plastics materials, machinery and procedures used to
injection mold parts. This continuing improvement has allowed the industry to make inroads into
virtually every major type of product. Today, more than 25 percent of all the plastic materials
being used pass through injection molding machines. Injection molding is obviously an important
plastic-processing technique that product designers and manufacturing engineers must understand.
INJECTION MOLDING PROCESS

In plastic injection molding, plastic material is heated to form a "melt" which is then forced
under pressure into the mold cavity to form the part. The essential features of an injection molding
machine are shown in Fig. 1. Plastic material in granular form is fed into the hopper. From the
hopper, the material passes onto the flights of the rotating feed screw which conveys the material
forward, bringing it into contact with the electrically heated barrel. Contact with the heated barrel
and the heat developed by friction and shear melts (or plasticizes) the plastic. The buildup of
material which accumulates in front of the screw pushes the screw back against a preset pressure.
When the predetermined amount of material has accumulated in front of the screw, the screw
motor stops turning. The hydraulic piston, using the screw as a ram, moves forward and pushes
the melt into the mold cavity. The melt is held in the cavity under pressure until the gate solidifies.
The pressure in the mold cavity is usually in the range of 35-140 MPa (5-20 ksi). The molded part
remains in the cavity until it cools sufficiently to retain its shape. The mold then opens, the part is
ejected, and the process can be repeated.
Because the material is molten when injected into the mold, complex shapes and good
dimensional accuracy can be achieved. Molds with moving cores and unscrewing mandrels allow
the molding of parts with undercuts and internal and external threads. Injection molding is a highrate production process, with good dimensional control. Typical cycle times range from 5 to 60
seconds, but can be several minutes for thermosetting materials. The molds, generally made of tool
steels or beryllium copper, may have multiple cavities so that more than one part can be made in
one cycle. Proper mold design and control of material flow in the mold cavities are important
factors in the quality of the product. Other factors affecting quality are injection pressure,
temperature, and condition of the resin.
Injection molded parts are generally molded to final desired dimensions, and no subsequent
finishing operations are required. However, the plastic in the channels (sprue and runners) that
connect the mold cavity to the end of the barrel must be removed. More expensive molds have
heated sprues and runners, which eliminate the need for trimming. When thermoplastic is molded,
the sprues and runners can be chopped and recycled.
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Figure 1 Reciprocating screw injection molding machine [1].

Injection-molding machines are usually horizontal and are rated according to the capacity of
the mold and the clamping force on the mold. Typical machine clamping force range from 0.9 MN
to 2.2 MN (100 tons to 250 tons). Mold clamping force determines the size of part or number of
mold cavities that are allowed. For example, suppose a part having a projected area (area normal
to the mold parting plane) of 14 in2 is to be injection molded at a molding pressure of 10 ksi by a
200-ton injection molding machine. Clamping force to hold the mold halves together would then
be (14 in2)(10,000 psi) = 140,000 lb. The capacity of the machine is 200 tons, so (200)(2000) =
400,000 lb of clamping force is available. Therefore, the mold could accommodate two cavities
allowing two parts to be molded per cycle.
MOLD DESIGN
Figure 2 shows a two-plate mold the term "two-plate" refers to the fact that the mold has a single
parting line. The parting line of a mold can best be defined as that surface where a mold separates
to permit ejection of the molded plastic (molded parts, gates, and runners). The part being made in
the mold shown in Fig. 2 is a shallow dish, edge-gated. The temperature control channels are in
both the cavity and core which is the most preferred arrangement. The support pillars prevent the
support plate from buckling under the pressure of the injection material. The knockout (KO) bar
is attached to the injection molding machine and is the actuator for the knockout plates. After the
plastic has been injected and cooled, plate B moves away from plate A to open the mold. As plate
B moves away from plate A, the molded part and runner separate from plate A and remain in plate
B. Also, the "Z" type sprue puller pulls the sprue from the sprue bushing and keeps it with plate
B. Upon further travel of plate B, the KO bar stops the KO plates from further travel which in turn
ejects the part, runner, and sprue from the mold cavity in plate B.
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Figure 2 Schematic of a "two-plate" mold [2].
Many variations of the "two-plate" mold are possible. For example, three plates can be used
instead of two. In this case, there are two parting lines, one for the part and a second for the sprue
and runners. By timing the opening of the mold, the part can be separated from the runner and
ejected separately from the sprue and runners. This adds cost to the mold but avoids the need to
remove the gates and runners from the part in a subsequent operation. In a hot runner mold, the
need to eject and regrind the sprue and runners is eliminated altogether by heating the sprue and
runner passages to maintain them in the liquid state. Many trade-offs exist between the various
approaches and the actual choices made depend on a variety of factors such as the number of mold
cavities, nature of the part, resin used, and production volumes involved.
Runners
Runners conduct the melt from the sprue to the mold cavity. Two types of runners are used:
full round and trapezoidal in cross section. The full round runner has the advantage of having the
smallest periphery for a given diameter or cross-sectional area, and hence the least chilling effect
on the plastic melt. It is important that the runner not freeze before the mold cavity is completely
full, so the full round runner cross section is greatly preferred. The only time a trapezoidal cross
section runner would be employed is when it is impossible to use a full round runner. Trapezoidal
runners have a taper of about 50 per side and standard cutters are available for milling them in the
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mold half. Half round runner cross sections should never be used, as a trapezoidal shape is much
superior.
Gates
The gate is the connection between the runner system and the molded part. It must permit
enough material to flow into the mold to fill out the part plus such additional material as is required
to overcome the normal thermal shrinkage of the part. The location of the gate, its type and size,
strongly affect the molding process and the physical properties of the molded part. In general, the
design of the gate must be "balanced". A large gate minimizes pressure drop and assures an ample
supply of melt to fill the cavity. But the gate must be small enough to freeze first and prevent
backflow of melt out of the cavity. The gate should also be sized and shaped to make degating
easy. Fig. 3 shows several gating designs. Typically, gate geometries are selected to be compatible
with the particular part being molded. For example, in gating hollow tubes, flow considerations
suggest the use of a "diaphragm gate".
The most common gate is the "edge gate" where the part is gated on some point on the edge.
The edge gate is an easy method from the stand point of mold construction and for many parts, is
the only practical way to gate. A "submarine gate" is one that goes through the steel of the cavity.
When the mold opens the part sticks to the core and shears the gate at the piece thereby automating
the degating process. The submarine gate works because of the flexibility of the runner and the
judicious placement of the knockout pins.
If possible, gates should be located on the thickest portion of the part so that the plastic flow is
from thick to thin. Avoid thin to thick flows since pressure drop results in random flow which in
turn results in lower strength and appearance defects. Typically, the dimensions of the gate are
sized based on experience or on analysis using computer programs such as "mold flow". Once the
mold has been fabricated, its performance is tested and gate geometries are refined by "trial and
error" if necessary.
Venting
When the plastic fills the mold, it displaces air. Unless the air is removed quickly, several
things may happen. It may ignite, causing a characteristic burn. It may compress preventing
complete filling of a feature. It may also lead to premature cooling or to air entrapment and
subsequent weak spots. Location of the vents and gates are directly related. As the plastic flows
into the mold cavity, air must be able to escape from the cavity. Computer modeling can be used
to help decide on vent location. Also, sample parts may be molded prior to installing the vents and
the results analyzed for underfills and burn marks to help decide where the vents should be located.
Size of the vent depends on the viscosity of the plastic being molded. The vent should be large
enough to allow hot air to escape but small enough to prevent the plastic melt from flashing.
Clearance between knockout pins and their holes also provide venting.
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Figure 3 Gating designs [2].
Part Ejection
After a part has been molded, it must be removed from the mold. Typically, the part is
mechanically ejected by KO (knockout) pins, KO sleeves, stripper plates, stripper rings, or air,
either singly or in combination. Ejector pin location can be critical and should be carefully chosen
to avoid stress concentration, poor appearance (ejector pins can leave unsightly marks on the part),
and distortion of the part. The geometry of the part and the plastic material are the two most
important parameters in ejection. It is desirable to have a minimum draft of 10 per side, though
many parts will work with less draft. The quality of polishing is also important. Often, polishing
and stoning only in the direction of ejection will solve a difficult problem. A common cause for
sticking in a mold is related to the elasticity of steel and is called "packing". When the injection
pressure is applied to the melt, the steel deforms. When the pressure is removed, the steel returns
to its original shape, acting as a clamp on the plastic part. Because of the complexities imposed by
draft, surface finish, packing, etc., there is no mathematical way to determine the amount of
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ejection force needed. Hence, designing the mold for proper part ejection is entirely a matter of
experience. A mold must eject reliably to be economical in production.
Parting Line
When a mold closes, the core and cavity, or two cavities meet, producing an air space into
which the plastic is injected. From the inside, the mating junction between the mold halves appears
as a line. This line also appears on the part and is called the "parting line". A part may have several
parting lines. The selection of the parting line is largely influenced by the shape of the part, tapers,
method of ejection, type of mold, esthetic considerations, post-molding operations, inserts,
venting, wall thickness, number of cavities, and the location and type of gating. Hence, selection
of the parting line is a very important decision in the design of a plastic injection molded part. By
simply considering a part having a general rectangular shape, it is seen that the parting line
determines the detail shape of the part and the surfaces which must have draft; the surfaces on
which the ejector pins can act; where and how the part is gated and the mold vented; the tolerances
that can be maintained; and the projection area of the part which in turn determines the clamping
force required during the molding process.
Undercuts
Side action (camming) is used to overcome the effect of an undercut, which is an interference
by the mold that prevents mechanical ejection of the part. There are two types of cam action: one
moves the cams independent of the machine action (Fig. 4), and the other moves the cam by the
molding machine action (Fig. 5). Molding of internal threads and some types of external threads
requires unscrewing devices. Camming and unscrewing devices add considerable complexity and
cost to the mold and should be avoided whenever possible. One trade-off is to avoid the cost of
camming by utilizing secondary operations such as drilling or machining. This can be undesirable
because it replaces a one time tooling cost with an on-going production cost. A more preferable
approach is to eliminate camming by designing the part such that functional and appearance
requirements are satisfied without undercuts.
Figure 4 Externally operated cam for molding hole in plastic [2].

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Figure 5 Mechanical cam action using cam pins [2].

Mold Cooling
The mold is essentially the means through which heat is removed from the plastic to solidify
it to the point of ejection. Cycle time of the molding process depends on the amount of cooling.
Hence, proper cooling of the mold is essential for its economical operation. Mold temperature
control consists of regulating the temperature and flow rate of the cooling fluid. The functioning
of the mold and the quality of the part are also highly dependent on the location of the cooling
channels. Factors to consider in designing the mold for cooling include number of cooling
channels, location of the channels, size and shape of the channels, and thermal properties of the
mold material. Ultimately, the excellence of the cooling system depends on the ingenuity and
ability of the mold designer and the mold maker.
REFERENCES
1. Glenn L. Beall, "Plastic Part Design for Economical Injection Molding", Glenn Beall
Engineering, Inc., Gurnee, IL.
2. Plastic Engineering Handbook, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1976.
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DESIGN FOR PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING
INTRODUCTION
Plastic injection molding is a near net-shape manufacturing process that is widely used to
produce large quantities of production parts. In plastic injection molding, plastic material is heated
to form a "melt" which is then forced under pressure into the mold cavity to form the part. Because
the material is molten when injected into the mold, complex shapes and good dimensional accuracy
can be achieved. Molds with moving cores and unscrewing mandrels allow the molding of parts
with undercuts and internal and external threads. The molds may have multiple cavities so that
more than one part can be made in one cycle. Proper mold design and control of material flow in
the mold cavities are important factors in the quality of the product. Other factors affecting quality
are injection pressure, temperature, and condition of the resin.
PROCESS LIMITATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS

There are three major product/process interactions that must be considered in the design of a
plastic injection molded part: material shrinkage, gating location, and parting line selection.
Shrinkage occurs as the molten plastic cools in the mold to form the solid part. Since thick sections
cool more slowly than thin sections, most shrinkage defects occur when different regions of the
part have different section thickness (Fig. 1). In such cases, warpage and shape distortion can occur
as the part cools because thinner sections cool more quickly and shrink less than thicker sections.
Also, because cooler regions are more rigid than hotter regions, stress can develop due to
constraints that develop as the part contracts onto the mold cores (male parts of the mold). Often,
these stresses are frozen-in as the part solidifies resulting in undesirable residual stress that
degrades the parts strength and functionality.
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(a) Effects of Shrinkage
(b) Dimensional Instability
Figure 1 Shrinkage occurs as the molten plastic cools in the mold to form the solid part.
Radiusing inside corners eliminates stress and improves

melt flow
Radiusing outside corners improves melt flow and eliminates
air traps
Coring out thick sections to give uniform wall thickness
helps minimize nonuniform mold shrinkage
Figure 2 Shrinkage defects are avoided by nominal wall design.

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Shrinkage defects are eliminated or avoided by employing a uniform wall thickness

everywhere in the part (Fig. 2). The uniform wall thickness is often referred to as the nominal wall
since it is the target value when no other wall thickness is specified. By using a nominal wall,
thermal mass, and therefore shrinkage, is the same everywhere in the part. Avoiding sharp corners
also reduces shrinkage problems (Fig. 2). Sharp corners, especially inside corners, cause severe
molded-in stresses as the material shrinks onto the core. Sharp corners also cause poor flow
patterns, reduced mechanical properties, increased tool wear, and stress concentration (Muccio,
1991).
A well-designed plastic injection molding can typically be broken down into three basic
elements: the nominal wall, projections off that wall, and depressions in that wall (Fig. 3). Once
the basic configuration and functional features of the part have been decided, nominal wall design
is implemented by isolating each element and designing it to have a uniform wall thickness (Fig.
4). By decomposing the overall part into basic elements, it is relatively easy to correctly design the
part as a plastic injection molding, no matter how complex it might be.
The gate is the connection between the runner system and the molded part. In general, the
location of the gate as well as its type and size, strongly affect the molding process and the physical
properties of the molded part. Often, the location and design of the gate must be considered during
the design of the part. For example, the gate location can be critical if defects and/or possible part
failure due to the weakening effect of weld lines is to be avoided (Fig. 5). Similarly, the gate
location is critical when the orientation of glass fibers or other filler is important (Fig. 6a). Also,
the gate location can be important from an appearance or assembly standpoint (Fig. 6b). Typically,
the location and dimensions of the gate are based on experience or on analysis using commercially
available computer programs (Fig. 7). Once the mold has been fabricated, its performance is tested
and, if necessary, the gate geometry is refined by trial and error.
When a mold closes, the core and cavity, or two cavities meet, producing an air space into
which the plastic is injected. From the inside, the mating junction between the mold halves appears
as a line. This line also appears on the part and is called the parting line (Fig. 8). A part may have
several parting lines. The selection of the parting line is largely influenced by the shape of the part,
tapers, method of ejection, type of mold, esthetic considerations, post-molding operations, inserts,
venting, wall thickness, number of cavities, and the location and type of gating. Selection of the
parting line is a very important decision because it impacts many aspects of the part. Consider for
example a part having a general rectangular shape. It is seen that the parting line determines:
The detail shape of the part.

The surfaces which must have draft.
The number of undercuts.
The surfaces on which the ejector pins can act.
Where and how the part is gated and the mold vented.
The tolerances that can be maintained.
The projection area of the part, which in turn determines the clamping force required during
the molding process.
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Figure 3 Basic elements of a plastic part.
Maintain nominal wall

Radius all corners
where practical
Maximize draft
Avoid undercuts
Figure 4 Isolate each element in the design and consider it individually (adapted from Beall,
1985).
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Load
Load
Gate
Weld
Line
Weld
Line
Gate
(a) Poor
(b) Better
Figure 5 Weld lines form when the plastic flow divides into two or more paths. (a) This gate
location causes a weld line to form in a critical region of the part. (b) This gate location causes
the weld line to form in a less critical region.
Gate
(a)
(b)
Figure 6 Gate location can be critical. (a) Fiber orientation is determined by gate location. (b) A
gate might result in an unpredictable inconsistency that might interfere with assembly or part
feeding.
(a)
(b)
Figure 7 Typical gating systems. (a) The Gate connects the runner to the mold cavity and is
designed to control the flow of plastic into the mold. (b) There are many different gating systems
that can be used depending on the needs of the particular part involved.
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Figure 8 Selection of the parting line is a very important decision because it influences many
aspects of the part design and tool cost.
To facilitate proper release of the injection molded part from the tool, part surfaces that are
perpendicular to the parting line must be tapered in the direction of mold movement. This taper,
which is commonly referred to as draft, allows the molded part to break free by creating a clearance
as soon as the mold starts to open (Fig. 9). Draft is necessary to offset the effect of shrinkage,
which causes the plastic part to grip cores making part ejection from the mold difficult. Although
there are exceptions, a draft of 1/20 per side is considered a minimum, with 1 1/20 to 30 per side
frequently recommended. In general, the larger the draft, the easier the part will be to eject. This
in turn will allow faster cycle times since the part does not need to cool as much in the mold before
it is strong enough to be ejected.
Undercuts are geometrical features that prevent mold opening and mechanical ejection of the
part. Side action (camming) is used to overcome the effect of an undercut (Fig. 10). Molding of
internal threads and some types of external threads require unscrewing devices. Camming and
unscrewing devices add considerable complexity and cost to the mold and should be avoided
whenever possible. One trade-off is to avoid the cost of camming by utilizing secondary operations
such as drilling or machining. This can be undesirable however because it replaces a one time
tooling cost with a recurrent production cost. A more preferable approach is to eliminate camming
by designing the part and selecting the parting line such that functional and appearance
requirements are satisfied without undercuts.
DESIGN RELATED COST INTERACTIONS

The cost of a plastic injection molding is determined by its size, configuration, and detail
geometry. By understanding how geometry decisions affect the cost, it is possible to make
geometry decisions that reduce cost. Developing this understanding is a three-step process:
1. Develop a cost model based on the major sources of recurring and non-recurring cost
associated with the part.
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Figure 9 Draft is essential for reliable ejection.
Figure 10 Holes, depressions and projections not perpendicular to the parting line require cores
that move to allow part ejection.
2. Identify the key design related cost drivers.

3. Understand the relationship between the design related cost drivers and the cost sources.
Develop insight into the effect of each cost driver on cost and how part cost can be reduced.
Step 1 is implemented by first identifying the major cost sources and then expressing part cost
in terms of these cost sources. For plastic injection molding, the major sources of cost include tool
cost, material cost, and production cost. Unit part cost is calculated as follows,
Cost / Part
C t
CT
V CM H cycle
N
Y
(1)
where CT = total tooling cost ($)

CM = material cost ($/in3)
CH = machine cost including labor ($/hr)
N = lifetime number of parts made using the tool
V = part volume (in3)
t cycle = cycle time to mold one part (hr)
Y = process yield (usable parts/N)
Equation (1) is very clear as to what should be done to reduce cost:
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Design to minimize tooling cost.

Design to minimize material cost.
Design to minimize cycle time.
Design to maximize process yield.
In step 2, we use our understanding of the manufacturing process to identify the design decisions
that drive these costs. For plastic injection molding, the major design related cost drivers include
the parting line, the number and complexity of undercuts, the nominal wall thickness, the amount
of draft, surface finish specifications, and dimensional tolerance specifications.
Once the key design related cost drivers have been identified, the relationship between each
driver and part cost is delineated in step 3. For plastic injection molding, these relationships are
summarized as follows:
Nominal Wall Thickness: Of all the issues in plastic injection molding design, selecting the
proper nominal wall thickness is probably the most important design decision that is made. Just
about every aspect of the parts appearance, functionality, and manufacturability relates to, affects
or will be influenced by the wall thickness. From a cost standpoint, it is safe to say that the nominal
wall thickness will impact all of the cost sources in one way or another. The most obvious is
material cost since wall thickness directly affects the part volume with a thinner wall being more
desirable. Also, a thinner wall will facilitate faster cooling and as a result, potentially shorter cycle
times. At the same time, a thinner wall requires more injection pressure and time to fill the mold.
If the wall is to thin, yield may be adversely affected because flow is restricted and the part will
not fill out properly. Also, high injection pressure can result in flash or highly stressed parts. In
addition, thinner walls can require more mold detail and closer core/cavity alignment and fit which
will increase tooling cost. Thick-walled parts, on the other hand, cool slower, shrink more, and
have more risk for sink marks and voids. Thick walls also create more random plastic flow patterns,
which reduce the dimensional stability and predictability of the part. Hence, in addition to
increasing material cost, thicker walls can also decrease yield and increase cycle time.
Recommended nominal and minimum wall thicknesses for common thermoplastics when injection
molded are given in Table 1. Nominal wall design guidelines are given in Figures 1113.
Parting Line: The parting line establishes many aspects of both the part geometry and the
process. The parting line choice affects the size of the injection molding machine required and the
complexity and size of the mold. This in turn affects tooling cost, machine cost, and to a lesser
extent cycle time. To minimize part cost, the parting line should be selected very early in the design
process. The goal should be a parting line that keeps tool complexity to a minimum. For example,
the selection of the parting line in Fig. 14 avoids the requirement of a moving core in the mold. A
planar parting line is preferable to a non-planer parting line. Also, when possible, a parting line
that places the whole part in one mold half can greatly reduce tool cost since only one mold half
needs to be machined and alignment and registration requirements across the parting line are
avoided.
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Table 1 Suggested Wall Thickness for Various Thermoplastic Materials

Material
Short
Small
Average
Large Sections
Sections
Sections
Sections
(< 0.5in)
(0.5 ~ 1 in) (1 ~ 8 in)
(> 8 in)
Acetal
0.6 (0.025) 0.9 (0.035) 1.9 (0.075) 3.2-4.7 (0.125-0.185)
Acrylic
0.6 (0.025) 0.9 (0.035) 3.2 (0.090) 3.2-6.3(0.125-0.250)
Acrylonitrile butadiene 0.9 (0.035) 1.3 (0.050) 1.9 (0.075) 3.2-4.7 (0.125-0.185)
styrene (ABS)
Cellucose
acetate 0.6 (0.025) 1.3 (0.050) 1.9 (0.075) 3.2-4.7 (0.125-0.185)
butyrate
Nylon
0.3 (0.012) 0.6 (0.025) 1.5 (0.060) 2.4-3.2 (0.093-0.125)
Polycarbonate
0.4 (0.015) 0.8 (0.030) 1.8 (0.070) 2.4-3.2 (0.093-0.125)
Low-density
0.9 (0.035) 1.3 (0.050) 1.6 (0.062) 2.4-3.2 (0.093-0.125)
polyethylene
High-density
0.9 (0.035) 1.3 (0.050) 1.9 (0.075) 3.2-4.7 (0.125-0.185)
polyethylene
Polypropylene
0.6 (0.025) 0.9 (0.035) 1.9 (0.075) 3.2-4.7 (0.125-0.185)
Polystyrene
0.8 (0.030) 1.3 (0.050) 1.6 (0.062) 3.2-6.3(0.125-0.250)
Flexible
polyvinyl 0.6 (0.025) 1.3 (0.050) 1.9 (0.075) 3.2-4.7 (0.125-0.185)
chloride
Rigid
polyvinyl 0.9 (0.035) 1.6 (0.062) 2.4 (0.093) 3.2-4.7 (0.125-0.185)
chloride
Undercuts: Anything that can be done to avoid undercuts or reduce their complexity will
reduce tooling cost and development time. Also, since complex side actions require additional
time, avoiding or simplifying undercuts can often reduce cycle time. The best way to avoid
undercuts is to select the parting line wisely. In addition, it is often possible to design so undercuts
can be created using simple tooling without the need for expensive side actions (Fig. 15). Also, if
the undercut is made shallow enough, the part may be strippable from the mold without the need
for a core pull. Note that strippable undercuts will also increase cycle time since the mold halves
must be opened before the ejector pins can strip out the part and the part must also be strong enough
to endure the ejection forces. Maximum allowable strippable undercuts for some common injection
molded thermo plastics are given in Table 2.
Draft: Generous draft is highly desirable for low part cost. Minimal draft, especially when
combined with deep draws (Fig. 16), increase tool cost because highly polished mold surfaces or
special mold surface treatments are required for proper part ejection. Alternatively, a regular
application of mold release spray may be necessary during production. This increases cycle time
and production cost. Minimal draft also increases cycle time because the part must be stronger and
therefore cooler before it can be reliably ejected. Yield may also be adversely affected when
difficult part ejection results in damaged parts. A difficulty that is commonly encountered when
applying draft to a part is the creation of unacceptably heavy walls. One remedy is to use parallel
draft which allows the wall sections to be kept uniform (Fig. 16).
Table 2 Maximum Allowable Undercut for Common Materials
Page 19
SECTION 1
Less than S
Material
Average
Maximum
Strippable Undercut, S
mm (in.)
Acrylic
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)
Nylon
Polycarbonate
Polyethylene
Polypropylene
Polystyrene
Polysulfone
Vinyl, Flexible
1.5 (0.060)
1.8 (0.070)
1.5 (0.060)
1.0 (0.040)
2.0 (0.080)
1.5 (0.060)
1.0 (0.040)
1.0 (0.040)
2.5 (0.100)
Avoid
Avoidsharp
sharpcorners
cornersexcept
exceptat
atthe
theparting
partingline
line
Figure 11 Coordinate corner radii with wall thickness to improve flow and reduce stress.
Generous radii improve flow and reduce molded in stress and stress concentration. Sharp
corners, on the other hand, reduce flow rate, intefere with smooth flow, create the possiblility of
turbulence, and pull and tear long-chain polymeer molecules.
Page 20
SECTION 1
Decrease projection thickness to limit thickness in region of

junction with wall.
Projections are difficult to fill, vent, and eject. Limit height to 2.5
to 3 W. In general, two or more short reinforcing ribs will be
easier to mold than one tall reinforcing rib.
Distance between adjacent projections should be greater than 2W
Figure 12 Design projections to maintain nominal wall.

cores may be used
Either telescoping or butt
elongated holes
Grooves and slots are just
holes
Can be through holes or blind
Note:
Figure 13 Design holes and depressions to maintain the nominal wall.
Figure 14. A demonstration of the impact of the parting line selection

on the complexity of the tooling. The selection shown
here eliminates the need of a moving core.
Page 21
SECTION 1
Side Shutoffs
Molding Holes Parallel
to Parting Plane
Molding
snap-fit
flexing
finger
without
side core
Figure 15 Creating undercuts with simple tooling.

Draft
Angle
Parallel
Draft
Depth of
Draw
Figure 16 Generous draft enables reliable part ejection and short cycle time.
Plastic
Plastic
Steel
Casting
Figure 17 Lips and bosses aid in alignment of assembled plastic parts.

Surface Finish: The appearance and feel of the finished part depends on the surface finish. In
general, dull, matte, or textured finishes are preferred to glossy finishes, which tend to accentuate
sink marks and other surface imperfections. Textured surfaces and very smooth surfaces increase
tool cost because of the extra effort required to prepare the mold surface. Surface finish can also
adversely impact cycle time and yield if it is not properly designed. To avoid problems, care must
be taken to ensure that the draft of the part is adequate to allow proper part ejection. Also, the
texture features must have positive draft.
Tolerance: An advantage of the plastic injection molding process is that it allows surprisingly
good dimensional control. However, tight dimensional and form tolerance specifications increase
tooling cost and reduce cycle time and yield. Fine-tolerance molds are more costly than loosertolerance molds. Fine tolerance also increases processing cost because closer process control of
pressure, temperature, and cycle time is required, cycle time may be increased, and shrink fixtures
Page 22
SECTION 1
may be required after the part has been removed from the mold. Therefore, whenever possible,
component tolerances should be relaxed as much as possible. Plastic parts are more flexible than
metals. Often, this property can be leveraged by the knowledgeable designer to reduce tolerance
requirements. For example, the plastic part can be made to deform slightly for a better fit by
providing lips and locating bosses that ensure alignment with mating parts (Fig. 17). Also, lowshrinkage materials and glass-filled or mineral-filled materials can be molded more accurately than
high-shrinkage or unfilled materials. Note also that the use of a greater number of mold cavities
reduces precision. In general, the allowable dimensional tolerance should be increased by 5% for
each cavity after the first. Suggested dimensional tolerances for common injection molded plastics
are given in Table 3.
SUMMARY
The key to designing a good plastic injection molded part is to clearly understand how part
design decisions drive cost. A qualitative depiction of the relationship between cost sources and
design related cost drivers for plastic injection molding is illustrated graphically in Fig 18.
Cost
Drivers
Cost Sources
Parting
Line
Undercuts
Nominal
Wall
Draft
Surface
Finish
Tolerance
Tooling Cost
Material Cost
Cycle Time
Yield
Major Influence
Moderate Influence
Little Influence
Figure 18 Relationship between design related cost drivers and cost sources for the plastic
injection molding process.
FURTHER READING
This book provides a broad overview of plastic part design with detail discussion and
illustrations treating many aspects of the subject.
Muccio, Edward A., Plastic Part Technology, ASM International, Materials Park, Ohio
44073-0002, 1901.
Detail design for plastic injection molding guidelines are provided in Chapter 6.2 of this book.
Handbook of Product Design for Manufacturing, James G. Bralla (Ed.), McGraw-Hill,
1986.
These excellent books provide design guidelines as well as methods for estimating cycle time and
cost of plastic injection moldings.
Boothroyd, G., Dewhurst, P., and Knight, W., Product Design for Manufacture and
Assembly, Marcel Dekker, 1994.
Dixon, J. and Poli, C., Engineering Design and Design for Manufacturing, Field Stone
Publishers, 331 Field Hill Road, Conway, Massachusetts 01341, 1995.
Page 23
SECTION 1
Table 3 Dimensional Tolerances for Injection Molded Thermoplastic Parts*
Page 24
SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
Page 25
GEOMETRIC MODELING
SECTION 2
Page 26
SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRIC
MODELING
ME 340-2
Computer Integrated Manufacturing
- CAD/CAM -
Third Angle Projection
Page 27
GEOMETRIC MODELING
SECTION 2
Standard Views in Third Angle Projection
Wireframe Models
Page 28
SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
Wire Frame Ambiguity
Surface Models
Polygon Mesh for a Funnel
A Polygon Mesh
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GEOMETRIC MODELING
SECTION 2
Geometric Modeling Approaches

- Example -

- Multi-view of a Part -
Page 30
SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING

- Boundary Representation (BREP) -
Euler - Poincare Formula
v - e + f- h = 2 (s - p)
v - number of vertices
e - number of edges
f - number of faces or peripheral loops
h - number of hole loops
s - number of shells
p - number of passages (through holes)
16 - 24 + 10 - 2 = 2 (1 -1)
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GEOMETRIC MODELING
SECTION 2

- Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) -
Typical CSG Primitives
Page 32
SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
Solid Construction Methods
Translational Sweeping
Rotational Sweeping
Skinning
Sweeping
Page 33
GEOMETRIC MODELING
SECTION 2
CSG Method
Volume Listing (Decomposition Model)
Voxel Representation
Octree Representation
Page 34
SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
Feature-based Modeling
Slot and Hole Features
Chamfer, Hole
Pocket, Fillet
Basic Architecture of a CAD System
Page 35
GEOMETRIC MODELING
SECTION 2
Data Bases for Computer Graphics
Example Object
Example of a Relational Database

Page 36
SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
Example of Hierarchical Database

Example of a Network Database

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GEOMETRIC MODELING
SECTION 2
Basic Data Structures - Linked Lists
Double Linked List

Page 38
SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
Double Linked List
Basic Data Structures Tree Structure
Page 39
GEOMETRIC MODELING
SECTION 2
Tree Structure for a Quadtree
Graphic Standards
Page 40
SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
INTRODUCTION TO 2D & 3D DATA TRANSFORMATION1
INTRODUCTION
The two basic tasks required to display an image of an object on a graphics device are: (1)
specifying the location of all the points on the object in space, and (2) determining which locations
on the display monitor are to be occupied by those points. In this section, we will show the
mathematic behind CAD on how to determine the point location and how to transfer points in
space.
Projection
In perspective projection, all the points on the object of interest are connected to the center of
projection, usually located along the line from the viewsite to the viewpoint, and the intersection
points between these lines and the screen comprise the projected image. The screen is located
between the viewpoint and the viewsite. In parallel projection, the parallel lines are cast from all
the points on the object in the viewing direction defined by the viewsite and the viewpoint as
before, and the intersection points between these lines and the screen comprise the image.
Similar to perspective projection, the screen is oriented perpendicular to the projection direction
for orthogonal projection.
Let the subscript, v, denote coordinates associated with a viewing coordinate system, and let the
subscript, s, denotes the distances associated with the projection on the screen. See Figures 2.1
and 2.2 for the graphical representation. Applying the similarity rule, we can obtain
1Taken
from Principles of CAD/CAM/CAE Systems by Kunwoo Lee, Addison Wesley, 1999.
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GEOMETRIC MODELING
SECTION 2
Fig. 2.1 Viewpoint and viewsite
Xs
S
Xv
L Zv
and
Fig.2.2 Calculation of projection point in the

perspective view.
Ys
S
Yv
L Zv
(Eq.1)
Translation
When an object is translated by a, b, c in the x, y and z directions, respectively, from its initial
position at which its model coordinate system coincides with the world coordinate system, the
world coordinates of a point on the object at the new position, (Xw, Yw, Zw) are obtained as follows:
Xw Xm a
Yw Ym b
Z w Zm c
which can be rewritten in the matrix format,
Xw 1 0 0 a Xm
Xm
Yw 0 1 0 b Ym

Trans(a, b, c) Ym
Zw 0 0 1 c Zm
Zm

1 0 0 0 1 1
1
The graphical representation can be found in Fig. 2.3.
(Eq. 2)
(Eq.3)
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SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
Fig. 2.3 Translation of an object.
Scaling
To scale an object up or down sx times in x, sy times in y, and sz times in the z direction, the
following transformation matrix is applied:
Xw sx 0 0
Yw 0 sy 0

Zw 0 0 sz

1 0 0 0
0 Xm
Xm
Ym
0 Ym
S ( x, y , z )
Zm
0 Zm

1 1
1
(Eq. 6)
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GEOMETRIC MODELING
SECTION 2
Rotation
Suppose that an object is rotated by about the x axis of the world coordinate system together with
its model coordinate system, i.e., from Q(Ym, Zm) to Q(Ym, Zm) (Fig. 2.4). The relationship between
Q and Q can be represented as
0
Xw 1
Yw 0 cos

Zw 0 sin

0
1 0
0
sin
cos
0
0 Xm
Xm
Ym
0 Ym
Rot ( x, )
Zm
0 Zm

1 1
1
(Eq. 4)
Note that here, follows the right-hand rule, i.e., in the case represented in Fig. 2.4., a positive
indicates a rotation in the counter-clockwise direction.
Fig.2.4 Rotation about the x axis.
Similarly, the transformation matrix for the rotation about the y or z axis can be expressed as
cos 0 sin
0
1
0
Rot ( y, )
sin 0 cos
0
0
0
cos sin 0
sin cos 0
Rot ( z , )
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
(Eq. 5)
One important fact about rotation transformation is that order matters, which means that the final
location of a point will be most likely different if the rotation order is changed, for example, from
(x, y and z) to (z, x and y).
Page 44
SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
Example 1:
Example 2:
Page 45
GEOMETRIC MODELING
SECTION 2
Page 46
SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
INTRODUCTION TO CURVE REPRESENTAION
INTRODUCTION
In automotive design, a designer will hand draw an outline, this drawing then be inputted into a
CAD system, the system is required to reproduce that hand-drawn curve as accurate as possible
and use minimum of data storage. In this section, we will outline key characteristics of various
curve representation methods.
Page 47
GEOMETRIC MODELING
SECTION 2
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SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
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GEOMETRIC MODELING
SECTION 2
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SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
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GEOMETRIC MODELING
SECTION 2
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SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
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GEOMETRIC MODELING
SECTION 2
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SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
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GEOMETRIC MODELING
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SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
Hermite curve
Bezier curve
B-spline curve
Bspline demo
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GEOMETRIC MODELING
SECTION 2
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SECTION 2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
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GEOMETRIC MODELING
SECTION 2
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GEOMETRIC MODELING
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GEOMETRIC MODELING
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GEOMETRIC MODELING
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GEOMETRIC MODELING
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Page 64
SECTION 3
NC PROGRAMMING
Page 65
NC PROGRAMMING
SECTION 3
Page 66
SECTION 3
NC PROGRAMMING
INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE PROGRAMMING

General Information
GENERAL PROGRAM ORGANIZATION
The NC Part Program consists of a series of commands to the ACRAMATIC 850 MC control
to give instructions for machining the workpiece. The control interprets these commands and
directs the machine motions. All functions of the machine are controlled by the programmed
commands during automatic execution. This includes position of the machine slides; slide feed
rate selection; selection of the direction, speed starting and stopping of the spindle; and the control
of auxiliary equipment.
The program consists of a series of blocks. Generally, each block contains the commands
required to perform a single step in the machining operation such as feeding the tool at the specified
feed rate from one point to another. The workpiece is machined by executing one block after
another in sequence until the entire workpiece is complete.
A variable block length format is used. Only the commands pertaining to new functions or
changes need to be programmed in the block.
To minimize programming instructions, a block may cause execution of a series of events.
Automatic cycles and sub-routines may be called into action to perform repetitive operations.
These may contain the instructions to perform a series of events such as making a series of similar
holes or performing all of the passes required to machine a pocket, frame, etc.
Each block contains a number of words. The word begins with a letter, called an address, and
is followed by numerical information. Each address is used to define a single function. An X word,
for example, is used to designate the coordinate position to which the X-axis is to move. The length
of the words may vary with their function. The format of each word used by the control is described
in detail later in this manual. A plus or minus sign may be programmed for words allowing a
positive or negative value.
BLOCK FORMAT
Blocks use a word address, tab ignore, variable block length format. These blocks contain the
conventional, step-by-step, programming commands.
Each word within a block has a word address followed by numerical information. A total of
70 characters and 25 words are recognized by the control. Other address characters are not allowed
and are detected as errors when programmed. The format of each word in the block is fixed and
may vary with the active inch/metric state and the use of the word.
1. The following sequence is used in the blocks.
Sequence number (N or :)
Q words
G words
X, Y, Z, A or B or C, I, J, K, E, L, F, P, R, U
V, W, O ,=, S, T, D, H, M
2. The sequence number must precede all other words, when used, with the exception of the block
delete code.
3. The label word (Q) may be preceded only by sequence number and block delete code.
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NC PROGRAMMING
SECTION 3
4. The block delete character, sequence number and label word are the only words that may be
programmed before the G word.
5. A block may contain a maximum of 255 characters.
6. Only the address of G and M may appear more than one time within a block. Multiple G and
M codes are allowed. Up to nine G codes and four M codes may be programmed in the same
block. Conflicting command M and G codes, however, are not allowed.
7. A space code is allowed but is subject to special rules. During program entry from the operator
station, a space code is allowed at any place. During any Load, Save or Resequence
operation, however, space characters that do not occur between an open parenthesis and the
next End of Block are automatically erased from the active program.
8. The block ends with a line feed character
SEQUENCE NUMBERS
Sequence numbers may be programmed in each block. It is an unsigned six digit number
preceded by the letter N or a Reference Rewind Stop character (colon :).
Format: N10
:10
The ACRAMATIC 850 MC control does not require sequence words nor does it require
sequence word values to be unique, contain the same number of digits, or to be in order. Increasing
word values, however, simplify searching. Observing a fixed length of sequence number allows
searching without getting false matches inside longer numbers. It is therefore recommended that
sequence numbers be used and have the same number of digits. It is also recommended that the
value of the sequence number be programmed in ascending order in increments of 10 (N0020,
N0030, N0040, etc.).
A sequence number having an N word address has no effect on the execution of the program
and is used only for reference and operator searching of the program. A sequence number having
a Reference Rewind Stop code address causes initialization, but does not otherwise affect program
execution.
When a sequence number is programmed, it must conform to the following rules:
1. The sequence number is the first word of the block and may be preceded only by the
block delete character.
2. Only one sequence number may be programmed in a block.
3. The address must be either N or the Reference Rewind Stop character. Both cannot be
programmed in the same block.
INITIALIZATION
A Reference Rewind Stop code addressed sequence number (a colon instead of a N in front of
the sequence number) must be programmed in the first block of the program. It may be
programmed at any additional point where it is desired to establish a potential restarting point. It
cannot be programmed within a subroutine. When this code is executed all modal preparatory
functions are automatically reset to their initialized (Data Reset) states unless specifically
programmed otherwise. The following are automatically selected:
Page 68
SECTION 3
G01
G17
G40
G60
G90
G94
G70
NC PROGRAMMING
Linear interpolation
XY plane selection
Cutter compensation off
Positioning mode
Absolute
Feed per minute
Inch selected by commissioning data
SPECIFYING POLAR COORDINATES

Polar coordinates are programmed in a block containing an E word and a departure command.
The E word designates the angle from the positive direction of X axis at which the command point
is located. The presence of an E word designates that polar coordinates are used. Rectangular
coordinates are assumed when an E word does not appear within the block.
The E word has a format of E33 and may range in values from 0 to 359.999 degrees.
NOTE: The angle of polar coordinates that is used when programming the NC control is
expressed in degrees. Fractional parts of the angle are expressed as decimal fractions
of degrees and are not expressed in seconds and minutes. Decimal portions of
degrees are used when calculating with most small calculators. Most trigonometric
tables, however, use degrees, minutes and seconds, and must be converted to
decimal parts.
Figure B1 shows an example polar coordinate movement and is programmed as follows:
GO X8 Y5 E60 L3
Here E and L are the angular and linear offsets of point A (the target) from the XY command point.
In this case slide movement is made directly to point A from the current position.
If X and/or Y are not programmed then the polar offset is taken from the current position of
the X and/or Y axis.
NOTE: If the modal L word is not present or has a value of zero, then the block becomes
equivalent to rectangular coordinates.
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NC PROGRAMMING
+Y
SECTION 3
A
8
60 o
3
+X
Figure B1: Polar coordinates.
SHIFTING THE PROGRAM COORDINATE SYSTEM

The ACRAMATIC 850 MC control has the ability to shift the machine coordinate system to
match the coordinates of the NC program. The coordinate shift is accomplished by a programmed
Position Set operation.
One important use of this feature is to allow writing the NC program without considering the
physical location of the workpiece on the machine. The zero point for the NC program is then
positioned by the operator during workpiece setup.
SPINDLE CONTROL
Spindle speed commands are programmed in terms of spindle revolutions per minute. Spindle
RPM is specified by a four digit S word whose format is
S1000
FEEDRATE CONTROL
The traverse rate of the axes is specified using an F word, such as:
F25
where the feedrate is expressed in terms of in/min (if using inch units) or mm/min (if using metric
units).
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SECTION 3
NC PROGRAMMING
MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONS (M Words)

Miscellaneous Functions are programmed using an M word in the range 0 to 99. These codes
are used for a variety of machine related functions including coolant and Spindle Control, Tool
Change initiation, Program Control, etc. (See Table B1).
TABLE B1: Quick Reference Chart - Preparatory and Miscellaneous Functions
G00
G01
G02
G03
G17
G18
G19
G23
G24
G25
G26
G27
G28
G37
G38
G60
G61
G70
G71
G80
G81
G84
G90
G91
G92
G94
G98
M02
M03
M04
M05
M06
M13
M14
Linear Interpolation - Rapid Rate

Linear Interpolation - Feed Rate
Circular Interpolation - CW
Circular Interpolation - CCW
X-Y Plane Selection
X-Z Plane Selection
Y-Z Plane Selection
Pocket Milling (Rect)
Inside Frame Mill (Rect)
Outside Frame Mill (Circ)
Pocket Milling (Circ)
Inside Frame Mill (Circ)
Outside Frame Mill (Circ)
Hole Pattern Cancel
Hole Pattern (Rect)
Positioning
Contouring
Inch Mode
Metric Mode
Fixed Cycle - Cancel
Fixed Cycle - Drill
Fixed Cycle - TAP
Absolute Mode
Incremental Mode
Position Set
Inch (Millimeter) Per Minute Feed Rate
Machine Coordinate
End of Program
Spindle clockwise, coolant off
Spindle counter clockwise, coolant off
Spindle off, coolant off
Tool Change
Spindle clockwise and coolant on
Spindle counter clockwise and coolant on
M02 - End Of Program

The M02 code is used at the end of the program. The following steps take place after all
interpolation has been completed for the block in which the M02 is programmed.
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NC PROGRAMMING
SECTION 3
1. The Z slide will rapid retract to the full retract position, as the X and Y axes travel to
either the Manual or Auto Tool Change position, simultaneously stopping the spindle.
The coolant, if ON, will be turned OFF.
2. The tool in the spindle is automatically unloaded and returned to the tool storage matrix.
M06 - Tool Change
The M06 Tool Change code is used to:
command the loading of the first tool into the spindle
command all intermediate tool changes
command the loading of the last tool into the spindle but not to unload the last tool.
When an M06 is processed the following axis motion occurs:
1. The spindle will stop and orient, and the coolant will be turned off whilst the Z slide
retracts to a clearance level beyond the tool change position.
2. The XY axes (and B, if applicable) advance to their respective tool change positions,
if specified.
3. If there is no tool in the spindle, the tool storage matrix will rotate to the requested tool
location then swing radially beneath the spindle nose. The spindle advances onto the
exposed tool adapter, using the power draw bar to restrain the tool. The tool storage
matrix swings rapidly away from the spindle to its home position. If there is a tool in
the spindle, the mechanism will collect the tool from the spindle prior to searching for
the desired tool. Searching for the desired tool is initiated once the spindle is retracted
to the clearance level beyond the Tool Change position.
After tool change the spindle will remain in tool change position which is at a considerable distance
above the workpiece. The following movement commands should reflect the next tool position in
all three axes to make sure that the tool will be positioned properly.
PREPARATORY FUNCTIONS (G Words)
See Table B1 above for reference.
G00 - Linear Interpolation at Rapid Rate
When the G00 Preparatory Function is programmed, the axes move from the current position
to the command position along a straight vector. The rate of travel when measured along the vector
is set by commissioning data.
The G00 Preparatory Function is subject to the following programming rules and conventions:
1. The G00 code is functional in both the absolute and incremental modes.
2. The command position may be expressed in rectangular or polar coordinates.
3. The G00 code is modal and remains in effect until replaced by another G code, or the
control is initialized. A G01 code is assumed at initialization.
G01 - Linear Interpolation at Feed Rate
The G01 linear interpolation Preparatory Function commands the slides to move from the
current position along a straight line vector. The rate of traverse is measured along the vector and
is equal to the programmed feed rate.
The G01 Preparatory Function is subject to the following programming rules and conventions:
1. The G01 mode is assumed when the control is initialized.
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NC PROGRAMMING
2. The G01 code is functional in both the absolute and incremental modes.
3. The command position may be expressed in rectangular or polar coordinates.
4. After the G01 there has to be an F word for the desired feedrate.
G02/G03 - Circular Interpolation
Circular interpolation provides the capability of moving the tool in a circular arc along a path
generated by the control system. The rate of travel is uniform around the arc with tangential vector
feed rate equal to the programmed feed rate. A circular path may be generated in any of the planes
XY, XZ or YZ by programming the appropriate plane select code, G17, G18 or G19 respectively.
Circular interpolation may be programmed in two ways. They are:
1. Programming G02 or G03 Preparatory Functions together with I, J, K words to define
the center point of the arc;
2. Programming G02 or G03 Preparatory Functions together with an end point and a P
word to define the radius of the arc.
Preparatory Function codes G02 and G03 (per EIA standards) are used for programming
Circular Interpolation. These codes determine the direction of the circular path as viewed from the
positive end of the axis that is perpendicular to the plane of interpolation:
the G02 code causes the tool to proceed in a clockwise path
the G03 code causes the tool to proceed in a counterclockwise path.
These codes are programmed in the block where Circular Interpolation becomes effective, and
remain effective, until a new Preparatory Function code is programmed.
Starting Point
The starting point, an X, Y and/or Z coordinate, is the result of a previous block of information,
either the end point of a previous arc (Circular Interpolation) or the end point of a line (Linear
Interpolation). The starting point is always described by X, Y and/or Z words.
Center Point
The center point, and X, Y and/or Z coordinate, is the center of the circular arc. The center
point is described by I, J and K words. The I word describes the X coordinate value, the J word
describes the Y coordinate value and the K word describes the Z coordinate value. The I, J and K
words are absolute values when programmed in absolute mode. These words define the signed
incremental vector distance from the present X, Y and Z position to the arc center point in the
incremental mode.
The I, J and K values are modal in Absolute Mode, but must be programmed in each block in
Incremental Mode.
End Point
The end point, and X, Y and/or Z coordinate, is the final point where the centerline of the cutter
path completes the circular arc. The end point is always described by X, Y and/or Z words, and
must be programmed in every block using Circular Interpolation.
G90/G91 - Absolute and Incremental Dimension Input
The algebraic sign (+ or -) specifies the direction of travel. Incremental movements may be
programmed using either rectangular or polar coordinates.
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SECTION 3
Figure B2 illustrates the difference between the two types of commands. It is desired to move
the X axis from point A to point B. The X axis is currently located at the absolute coordinate of X
= 5 inches, a distance of 1.5 inches from point B. The programmed axis position words for the
movement are:
Absolute mode X +3.5
Incremental Mode X -1.5
Note that the algebraic sign of the incremental X word is negative. This specifies that the axis is
to move in the negative direction, the direction towards the origin. The sign of the absolute
coordinate, however, remains positive since point B lies in the positive direction from the program
zero reference point.
The current position of the axes are displayed on the CRT in absolute rectangular coordinates
regardless of whether the incremental or absolute mode is active.
+Y
Point B
3.5
5
Point A
Movement Commands:
Absolute: X3.5
Incremental: X-1.5
+X
Program Zero
Figure B2: Absolute and incremental dimensions.

The absolute/incremental feature does not apply to the following cases:
1. The R word used with fixed cycles is always absolute.
2. The X, Y and Z axis words in a G92 - Position Set block are always absolute.
3. The X, Y and Z axes words using the G98 mode for programming in machine
coordinates are always absolute.
4. The L word used when specifying polar coordinates is always the incremental
displacement from the command position.
G92 - Position Set
The G92 - Position Set feature enables resetting the absolute program coordinates of the X and
Y axes by MDI or NC program command. The current position of the designated axis (or axes) is
assigned a new coordinate value. No movement of slides results.
When the G92 code is executed, the current position of the programmed axis is assigned the
coordinate value programmed in the block. Any combination of axes may be given new coordinate
values. The values are always absolute regardless of whether the incremental or absolute mode is
active. The following block, for example, assigns the current position of the axes coordinate values
Page 74
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NC PROGRAMMING
of X = 2.000 inches and Y = 4.0000 inches. These values are displayed on the CRT as the current
axes position after the block is executed.
G92 X2 Y4
FIXED CYCLES
The control provides a wide selection of fixed cycles which can be used to program multiple
machining movements with a minimum of input data.
Each cycle has characteristics suited to its own application, but they all share some common
features and the same basic sequence of operation steps.
1. Rapid the X, Y and contouring rotary axes to their commanded position,
simultaneously positioning the indexing axis if one is present and if it is commanded
to move.
2. Rapid the Z axis to the clearance plane.
3. Feed to depth in Z.
4. Perform cycle-specific dwell and spindle operations.
5. Feed or rapid Z back to the clearance plane and the additional W distance if
programmed.
6. Perform cycle-specific dwell and spindle operations.
Figure B3: Hole depth.

As shown graphically in Figure B3, the fixed cycle reference plane ('R plane') represents the
nominal surface of the workpiece. Since it is unsafe to position in X and Y at the R plane, fixed
cycles add a clearance called 'gauge height' to the R plane, and use the resulting Z coordinate as
the 'clearance plane', at which to do rapid moves and from which to begin machining. 'Hole depth'
is the true depth of the hole, measured from the R plane. Machining actually begins at the clearance
plane, so the length of the machining move is hole depth plus gauge height.
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The R plane coordinate is coded in the R word of any fixed cycle. The value is always an
absolute program coordinate, and is independent of the absolute/incremental mode setting or the
non-modal machine coordinates function G98. In drilling cycles (G81, G82, G83 and G88), the Z
feed depth is increased by the drill point length, such that the programmed Z word becomes the
"full diameter" drilling depth. The drill point length is a function of drill diameter and drill point
angle, both of which must be entered into the Tool Data Table (done by the operators). Failure to
provide the system with this data will result in a Tool Data Alert which places the machine in feed
hold, not in cycle.
Hole depth is coded in the Z word of any fixed cycle. The value is always an incremental
departure from the R plane, and is independent of the absolute/incremental mode setting or the
non-modal machine coordinates function G98.
G80 - Cancel Fixed Cycle
This cycle is used to inhibit any Z axis feed motion. The Z word specifying hole depth is not
used but remains in effect for subsequent G80 series cycles. Specific actions at the G80 cycle are:
1. Simultaneously rapid the non-spindle axes to their commanded positions.
G81 - Drill Cycle
Specific actions of the G81 cycle are:
1. Simultaneously rapid the non-spindle axes to their commanded positions.
3. Feed to depth in Z plus the drill point length.
4. Rapid Z back to the clearance plane and the additional W distance if programmed.
G84 - Tap
Specific actions of the G84 cycle are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Simultaneously rapid the non-spindle axes to their commanded positions.

Rapid the Z axis to the clearance plane.
Feed to depth in Z.
Reverse the spindle.
Feed Z back to the clearance plane and Dwell for 0.5 sec. and then rapid the additional
W distance if programmed.
6. Reverse the spindle.
The combination of programmed spindle speed and feed rate must match the lead of the tap:
Feed rate = spindle rpm lead
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NC PROGRAMMING
G23 - Rectangular Pocket Milling

WORDS USED IN A G23 BLOCK:
X : Coordinates of center point of the pocket
Y : (defaults of current axis position)
U : Incremental dimensions of the pocket
R
Z
I
E
K
P
Reference plane representing the unmachined surface of the workpiece

The total depth of cut measured from the work surface
Corner Radius (must be greater than Cutter Radius)
Cycle type
Cut depth
Width of cut, expressed as a percentage of the cutter diameter (defaults to 50%)
NOTE: Tool number, Feed rate, Spindle speed and M codes to be used for roughing are
inherited from previous blocks.
CYCLE MOVEMENTS FOR RECTANGULAR POCKET MILLING G23:
1. Simultaneously rapid the non-spindle axes to their calculated start positions.
3. Feed Z axis to cut depth (K), at 15% of inherited feed rate.
4. Feed parallel to the longest side to produce a slot, of length such that remaining stock
is equal in both directions, at P % of inherited feed rate.
5. Feed towards shortest side by amount of cutter diameter P, or to the final boundary,
whichever is smallest, at P% of inherited feed rate.
6. Corner Radii, if programmed, using the I word, will be generated so as to maintain
equal stock conditions.
7. Repeat from step 5 until roughing at this cut depth is completed.
8. If pocket not yet at full depth, retract Z axis and parallel with the longest side by gauge
height and XY clearance value, to establish a new clearance plane.
9. Repeat from step 1 until full depth is reached.
10. If cycle type is roughing only (E12) then cutter is retracted to programmed R plane or
W dimension, and the X, Y axes are positioned to the X, Y coordinates programmed in
the G23 block.
11. At completion, Z axis is retracted to the R plane and the X and Y axes are positioned
to the programmed X and Y coordinates.
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SECTION 3
Figure B4: Rectangular pocket milling.

Legend for Figure B4 - Rectangular pocket milling
1. Calculated start point
2. End point of initial slot
3. Start and end point of 1st pass
4. Intermediate points during 1st pass CW or CCW movements depends upon Spindle
Direction and climb or conventional Milling Requirement
G27 - Circular Frame Milling Inside
WORDS USED IN A G27 BLOCK:
X Coordinates of center point of the frame
Y (Defaults of current axis position)
U Diameter of Pocket
R Reference Plane representing the unmachined surface of the workpiece
Z The total depth of cut measured from the work surface
J Stock to be removed
E Cycle Type
K Cut depth of one cut
P Width of cut, expressed as a percentage of the cutter diameter (Defaults to 50%)
NOTE: Tool number, Feed rate, Spindle speed and Misc. Functions used for roughing are
inherited from previous blocks.
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NC PROGRAMMING
CYCLE MOVEMENTS FOR INSIDE CIRCULAR FRAME MILLING G27:

1. Simultaneously rapid the non-spindle axes to their calculated start positions.
3. Feed Z axis to cut depth.
4. Feed towards boundary by amount of twice the cutter diameter P %, or to final
boundary, whichever is the smallest. This is a semi-circular move at P% of inherited
feed rate.
5. Feed once around the frame, direction of cut is dependent upon Climb/Conventional
Milling Selection.
6. Feed out of cut by P cutter diameter, along a semi-circular path.
7. Repeat from step 4 until roughing at this cut depth is completed.
8. If frame is not yet to full depth then retract Z axis XY axes by gauge height and XY
clearance value, to establish a new clearance plane.
9. Repeat from step 1 until full depth is reached.
10. If cycle type is roughing only (E12) then cutter is retracted to the programmed R plane,
or W dimension, and the XY axes are positioned to the Y coordinates programmed in
the G27 block.
11. At completion, Z axis is retracted to the R plane or W dimension if programmed, and
the X and Y axes are positioned to the programmed X and Y coordinates.
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SECTION 3
Figure B5: Circular frame milling.

Legend for Figure B5 - Circular frame milling
1. Calculated Start Point
2. Start/End Point for 1st pass
Overlap = P% of cutter diameter
Direction of cutter path is dependent upon climb/conventional milling selection
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NC PROGRAMMING
G37 - Cancel Pattern

When a G37 is programmed all pattern data is deleted. Subsequent G80 series blocks will
produce only a single hole in accordance with their specification.
G38 - Hole Pattern
Hole patterns, establish geometric patterns of holes and allow the G80 series of fixed cycles to
be performed on the active pattern. A pattern is modal until canceled by a cancel pattern code, data
reset end of program or a (:) and this enables multiple G80 series operations to be carried out on
the active pattern without the need to reprogram the geometry.
A rectangular pattern is not referenced to any absolute dimensions although the incremental
dimensions between holes and between lines of holes are signed to establish the reference corner
of the pattern. The G80 series blocks, which do have absolute X Y dimensions, should use the
same reference corner as the start of the pattern. This enables the rectangular pattern to be repeated
at different locations on the work without the need to reprogram.
Words Used in the G38 block:
I
Number of holes in line (max. 999)
U
Distance between holes in line
J
Number of lines (max. 999) (defaults to 1)
V
Distance between lines
O
Angle of line
Use of Pattern Making Block:
1. Specify pattern by using above words. This information is stored by the control for
future use with G80 series fixed cycles and is canceled by G37.
2. The signs of the U and V words in the G38 block determine the pattern reference corner.
3. The X and Y coordinates programmed in a G80 series block SHOULD define the
position of the same reference corner, which will be the first hole in the pattern.
4. Subsequent G80 series blocks, whilst the pattern is still active, SHOULD use the same
reference corner.
5. At completion of each hole in the pattern, the Z axis will retract to the Reference (R)
Plane. At completion of the last hole in the pattern, the Z axis will retract to the
Reference (R) Plane.
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SECTION 4
GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING
Page 83
SECTION 4
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SECTION 4
GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING1

INTRODUCTION
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) is a means of specifying engineering design
and drawing requirements with respect to actual "function" and "relationships" of part features.
Furthermore, it is a technique which, properly applied, ensures the most economical and effective
production of these features. Thus geometric dimensioning and tolerancing can be considered both
an engineering design drawing language and a functional production and inspection technique.
Uniform understanding and interpretation among design, production and inspection groups are the
major objectives of the system.
The authorative document governing the use of geometric dimensioning and tolerancing in the
United States is ANSI/ASME Y14.5M, "Dimensioning and Tolerancing". This standard is a
consolidation of several earlier standards and has the prime objective to provide a single standard
for practices in the United States and harmonize as much as possible USA practices with
International Standards Organization (ISO) standards.
When should geometric dimensioning and tolerancing be used?
When part features are critical to interchangeability;

When functional gaging techniques are desirable;
When datum references are desirable to ensure consistency between design,
manufacturing, and verification operations;
When CAD/CAM is to be used;
When standard interpretation or tolerance is not already implied.
This teaching note is adapted from Lowell W. Foster, Geo-Metrics III , Addison-Wesley, 1994.
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SECTION 4
DEFINITIONS
Characteristics: Geometric characteristics, symbols, and terms used in GD&T are summarized in
Figure 1. There are five types of geometric characteristics:
1. FORM tolerance - a form tolerance states how far an actual surface or feature is permitted
to vary from the desired form implied by the drawing.
2. ORIENTATION tolerance - an orientation tolerance states how far an actual surface or
feature is permitted to vary relative to a datum or datums.
3. PROFILE tolerance - a profile tolerance states how far an actual surface or feature is
permitted to vary from the desired form on the drawing and/or vary relative to a datum or
datums.
4. RUNOUT tolerance - a runout tolerance states how far an actual surface or feature is
permitted to vary from the desired form implied by the drawing during full (3600) rotation
of the part on a datum axis.
5. LOCATION tolerance - a location tolerance states how far an actual size feature is
permitted to vary from the perfect location implied by the drawing as related to a datum,
or datums, or other features.
Kinds of Features: The geometric characteristics are also divisible into three "kinds" of features
to which a particular characteristic is applicable:
1. INDIVIDUAL feature - a single surface, element, or size feature which relates to a perfect
geometric counterpart of itself as the desired form; no datum is proper or used.
2. RELATED feature - a single surface or element feature which relates to a datum, or datums,
in form or orientation. A size feature (e.g., hole, slot, pin, shaft) which relates to a datum,
or datums, in form, attitude (orientation), runout, or location.
3. INDIVIDUAL or RELATED feature - a single surface or element feature whose perfect
geometric profile is described which may, or may not, relate to a datum, or datums.
Symbols: In GD&T, symbols are used instead of notes. Symbols have the advantage that they
have a uniform and universal (international) meaning, are compact, and are easily standardized in
CAD systems. Use of symbols in GD&T is illustrated in Figure 2.
Basic Dimension: A numerical value used to describe the theoretically exact size, profile,
orientation, or location of a feature or datum target. It is the basis from which permissible variations
are established by tolerances in feature control frames or on other dimensions or notes. On
drawings, the exact value is enclosed in a frame or box.
Page 86
SECTION 4
Figure 1. Geometric characteristics, symbols, and terms.
Page 87
SECTION 4
Feature
Control
Frame
Order of
Precedence
of Datum
Symbolic
Method for
Exact Values
Using
Symbols
Figure 2. Use of Symbols.
Page 88
SECTION 4
Material Condition: The concept of "maximum material condition" is one of the fundamental
principles upon which the system of GD&T is based. Use of the "maximum material condition"
principle permits greater possible tolerance as part feature sizes vary from their calculated
"maximum material condition" limits. It also ensures interchangeability and permits functional
gaging techniques. Basic definitions relevant to this concept are as follows:
1. MAXIMUM MATERIAL CONDITION (MMC) - the condition in which a feature of size
contains the maximum amount of material within the stated limits of size (e.g., minimum
hole diameter, maximum shaft diameter). MMC is analogous to the familiar terms "worst
condition," "critical size," etc., used in the past for relating mating part features. When
MMC is specified, the MMC principle permits the positional tolerance to be increased as
the feature sizes depart from MMC size within their size tolerance range. The amount of
increase of positional tolerance permissible is equal to the feature actual size departure
from the maximum material condition.
2. REGARDLESS OF FEATURE SIZE (RFS) - this term indicates that a geometric tolerance
or datum reference applies at any increment of size of the feature within its size tolerance.
The RFS condition essentially disables or eliminates the benefits of the MMC principle
and is analogous to the form of dimensioning and tolerancing used prior to the introduction
of the MMC principle. No change in positional tolerance is allowed "regardless of feature
size".
3. LEAST MATERIAL CONDITION (LMC) - the condition in which a feature or size
contains the least amount of material within the stated limits of size (e.g., maximum hole
diameter, minimum shaft diameter). LMC is applicable when conditions do not permit
MMC or do not warrant the exacting requirements of RFS. For example, LMC can be used
to maintain critical wall thickness or critical center locations of features for which accuracy
of location can be relaxed (position tolerance increased) when the feature leaves LMC and
approaches MMC. The amount of increase of positional tolerance permissible is equal to
the feature actual size departure from the least material condition.
Datums: A datum is a theoretically exact point, axis or plane derived from the true geometric
counterpart of a specified datum feature. A datum is the original from which the location of
geometric characteristics of features of a part are established. As shown in Figure 3, a distinction
must be made between a "datum" (theoretically exact - as on a drawing), which represents design
requirement and function, and the actual "datum surface" or "datum feature" on the produced part.
Often, to properly position a part, a datum reference frame must also be established, and the datums
must be specified in an order of precedence as shown in Figure 4.
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SECTION 4
Figure 3. Datum plane established from a datum feature.
Page 90
SECTION 4
Figure 4. Three plane datum reference frame concept.
Page 91
SECTION 4
Functional Gaging: A functional gage is in essence the "reconstruction" of the mating part from
the requirements indicated on the design. It describes, as well, a representative mating part (or
mating situation) which simulates the two parts in assembly. It also represents a "worst case" part
which remains an acceptable part. Use of functional gaging is not required but is an available
option. To build a functional gage, tolerance for the gage features location must be taken from the
piece part feature location tolerance. This is commonly referred to as the 10% rule (or 5% to 10%
rule), which means that up to 10% (sometimes slightly more) of the part tolerance limits could be
used for gage tolerance. Therefore, a part could be rejected by a functional gage if the part were at
the fringe edge of the acceptable tolerance range. The gage will not, however, ever accept a "bad"
part.
TOLERANCES OF LOCATION
Tolerance of location state the permissible variation in the specified location of a feature in relation
to some other feature or datum. Tolerances of location refer to the geometric characteristics:
position, symmetry, and concentricity. Location tolerances involve features of size and
relationships to center planes and axes. At least two features, one of which is a size feature, are
required before location tolerancing is valid. Where function or interchangeability of mating part
features is involved, the MMC principle may be used to great advantage. Perhaps the most widely
used and best example of the application of this principle is position tolerancing. Positional
tolerance is defined as follows:
Positional Tolerance: A position tolerance defines a zone within which the center, axis, or center
plane of a feature of size is permitted to vary from true (theoretically exact) position. Basic
dimensions establish the true position from specified datum features and between interrelated
features (see Figure 5).
Figures 6 - 9 illustrate various aspects of positional tolerancing.
Page 92
SECTION 4
Figure 5. Hole axis in relation to positional tolerance zone.
Page 93
SECTION 4
Figure 6. Relation to specified datum surfaces.
Page 94
SECTION 4
Figure 7. Comparison of coordinate dimensioning and true position dimensioning.

Page 95
SECTION 4
Figure 8. Mating parts with floating fasteners.
Page 96
SECTION 4
Figure 9. Mating parts with fixed fasteners.
Page 97
SECTION 4
TOLERANCES OF FORM, ORIENTATION, PROFILE, AND RUNOUT

Tolerances of form, orientation, profile and runout state how far actual surfaces or features are
permitted to vary from those implied by the drawing. Expressions of form and orientation
tolerances refer to flatness, straightness, circularity, cylindricity, parallelism, perpendicularity and
angularity. Profile of a surface, profile of a line, circular runout and total runout tolerances are
unique variations and combinations of form, orientation and sometimes location and are
considered as separate types of characteristics.
It is important to note that the various tolerances of form, orientation, profile and runout often have
an effect on one another; that is, parallelism could include flatness or straightness, and runout could
include circularity, straightness, or cylindricity.
The following figures illustrate the various concepts involved in tolerances of form, orientation,
profile, and runout.
Figure 10. Flatness tolerance application.
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SECTION 4
Figure 11. Straightness tolerance.
Page 99
SECTION 4
Figure 12. Circularity of a cylinder.
Page 100
SECTION 4
Figure 13. Cylindricity tolerance application.
Page 101
SECTION 4
Figure 14. Perpendicularity application.
Page 102
SECTION 4
Figure 15. Angularity application.
Page 103
SECTION 4
Figure 16. Parallelism application.
Page 104
SECTION 4
Figure 17. Circular runout.
Page 105
SECTION 4
Figure 18. Profile of a surface.

Page 106
SECTION 5
STATISTICAL TOLERANCING
Page 107
SECTION 5
Page 108
SECTION 5
INTRODUCTION
In traditional assembly tolerancing, tolerances are assigned based on a worst case analysis of
tolerance stack-up. The statistical tolerancing approach, on the other hand, recognizes the
stochastic nature of manufacturing. Consequently, tolerances are assigned based on the capability
of the manufacturing process and on the probability of failure.
Statistical tolerancing assumes that all dimensions are independent, normally distributed
stochastic (random) variables. Each dimension can then be characterized by specifying a mean and
standard deviation. To do this, we adopt the following nomenclature:
The mean of a stochastic dimension x is designated as x

The standard deviation is designated as x
The tolerance specification is related to the manufacturing process by the notion of natural
tolerance, which is a tolerance equal to plus and minus three process standard deviations from the
mean ( 3 ). For a normal distribution, this ensures that 99.73 percent of production is within the
tolerance limits. Also, since tolerance stack-up involves the summation of dimensions, we note
that the sum of two random variables is also a random variable whose mean is the sum of the
means of each component and whose standard deviation follows the Pythagorean theorem. For
example, the sum z of two random variables x and y is calculated as follows,
zxy
(1)
and
z x2 y2
(2)
Page 109
SECTION 5
C
A
Part A
Part B
Part C
X = Gap
Figure 1 Tolerance stack-up example. Note that A = 3.5 0.00105 inches, B = 2.5 0.00105
inches, and 0.0000 < X < 0.0048 inches.
To illustrate the statistical tolerancing approach, consider the assembly shown in Fig. 1.
Suppose that 500 units are to be assembled for the lowest possible cost and that parts A, B, and C
are randomly selected for each assembly. The basic dimensions (exact theoretical size) for A and
B is 3.5 and 2.5 inches, respectively. The natural bilateral tolerance for both part A ( TA ) and part
B ( TB ) is 0.00105 inches. The problem of design is to specify a basic length dimension, C, and
bilateral tolerance, TC , for part C. Note that the gap, X, must not exceed 0.0048 inches and that it
must not be less than zero if the parts are to assemble without interference.
WORST CASE ANALYSIS
In worst case analysis, all of the parts are assumed to be at their extreme values. To determine C
and TC so that all parts will assemble without interference and without exceeding a gap of 0.0048
inches, we consider two situations. In the first situation, we assume all of the parts are at their
maximum material condition (MMC). In the second situation, we assume all of the parts are at
their least material condition (LMC). At MMC, X = 0 for the parts to assemble without
interference. At LMC, X = 0.0048 inches for the gap not to exceed 0.0048 inches. This results in
the following equations,
@ MMC,
X A TA B TB C TC 0
@ LMC,
X C TC A TA B TB X max
Setting A = 3.5, TA = 0.00105, B = 2.5, TB = 0.00105 and solving simultaneously gives,

C 6.0024 and TC 0.0003 inches.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
As an alternative to worst case analysis, we can select the basic size and tolerance based on the
probability that no rejects will occur if parts A, B, and C are selected at random to construct 500
assemblies. To do this, we first calculate the average (basic) dimension for C as follows:
X C A B C 3.500 2.500
0.0048
C 6.0024
2
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SECTION 5
0.000
5
0.000
5
X
X = 0.0000
X = 0.0048
X = 0.0024
Figure 2 Assuming that the gap distribution is centered at X 0.0024 , 50% of the rejects will
be due to interference (X < 0) and 50% will be due to the gap exceeding its allowable upper
bound (X > 0.0048). Since the total probability of a reject must be less than 0.001 for no rejects
to occur in 500 trials, P(X > 0.0048) = P(X < 0) = 0.0005 and P(X > 0.0048) + P(X < 0) = 0.001.
Now, define P(Rejection) as the probability that the gap will be less than zero or greater than
0.0048 inches (Fig. 2). Then, for zero rejects,
P(Rejection ) P( X 0.0048) P( X 0) ( Number of Assemblies ) 0.5

since < 0.5 would be rounded to zero (i.e., a half a part cant fail). Therefore, letting n equal the
number of assemblies, we have
P(Rejection )
0.5 0.5
0.001
n 500
If we assume that the variation of the gap, X, is normally distributed and that the distribution
is centered at X 0.0024 , then 50% of the rejects will occur because the gap is less than zero and
the other 50% will occur because the gap exceeds the maximum allowable gap of 0.0048 inches
(Fig. 2). Therefore, for no rejects to occur in 500 assemblies,
P( X 0) P( X 0.0048)
0.001
0.0005
2
The cumulative density function of the normal distribution is tabulated as a function of the
standardized variable Z in Table A1 (Appendix) where
Z
(3)
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SECTION 5
0 z
P x b P z z
Figure 3 The transformation variate Z is normally distributed, with mean of zero and a standard
deviation of unity.
and b and are defined in Fig. 3. Linear interpolation in this table gives Z 3.2917 for
0.0005 . Therefore,
ZU
and
0.0000 0.0024 0.0024

0.0048 0.0024 0.0024
, ZL
X
X
X
X
0.0024 0.0024
0.000729
Z
3.2917
From Eq. (15.2), X A2 B2 C2 . Solving for C gives,
C X2 A2 B2
0.0007292 20.000352 0.000535
Therefore, TC 3 C 3 (0.000535) 0.0016 and C 6.0024 0.0016 .

Comparing the worst case tolerance with the statistical tolerance, we see that statistical
tolerancing allows us to relax the tolerance on C from 0.0003 inches to 0.0016 inches. This,
of course, assumes that a centered process having a standard deviation of 0.000535 inches is
available for making part C.
PROCESS SELECTION
Suppose that three alternative methods of manufacture are being considered for producing part C
(Table 1). Which process should be selected if C 6.0024 0.0016 ? One way to answer this
question is to estimate the cost associated with each process. This can be done as follows:
Cost Tooling Cost Material Cost Processing Cost Salvage Value
(4)
where
Tooling Cost = (Units Made) x (Tooling Cost/Unit)
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SECTION 5
Table 1 Cost and manufacturing data for alternative methods of manufacturing part C of Fig. 1.
(Note: n = number of units made).
Alternative
Standard Tooling Machine Machining Material Salvage
Manufacturing Deviation
Cost
Cost
Time
Cost
Value
Process
(inches) ($/unit)
($/hr)
(min./unit) ($/unit)
($/unit)
Machine using
Manual Mill
0.0010
0.40
15
1.00
2.00
0.25
Machine using
CNC Mill
0.0002
0.20
50
1.50
2.00
0.25
1200
Extrude and
n
Cut to Length
0.0008
20
0.25
0.50
0.25
Processing Cost = ($/hr) x (hr/min) x (min/unit) x (Units Made)

Raw Material Cost = ($/unit) x (Units Made)
Salvage Value = ($/unit) x (Units Scrapped)
The number of units made depends on the number of units that are scrapped due to nonconformance with the tolerance specification. Therefore,
Units Made = Units Delivered + Units Scrapped
(5)
and
Units Scrapped = P(Rejection) x (Units Made)
(6)
Substituting Eq. (6) into Eq. (5) and rearranging gives,

Units Made
Units Delivered
1 P(Rejection )
(7)
The cost for manually machining part C is estimated by assuming the resulting distribution of
manufactured parts is centered (i.e., X C 6.0024 inches) and using Eqs. (3), (4) and (7) and Table
A1 as follows:
ZU
C C
6.0040 6.0024 0.0016
1.6 P(C 6.0040) 0.0548

C
0.001
0.001
ZL
C C
6.0008 6.0024 0.0016
1.6 P(C 6.0008) 0.0548

C
0.001
0.001
P(Rejection ) P(C 6.0008) P(C 6.0040) 0.0548 0.0548 0.1096

Page 113
SECTION 5
Table 2 Cost of Alternative Methods for Manufacturing Part C of Fig. 1.

Process
Units
Units
Cost
Unit Cost
Made
Scrapped
Manual
Machine 562
62
$1,473.80
$2.95
CNC
Machine 500
0
$1,725.00
$3.45
Extrude
& Cut
524
24
$1,499.67
$3.00
Units Made
Units Delivered
500
561.54 562 Units

1 P(Rejection ) 1 0.1096
Units Scrapped = 562 500 = 62 units

15
Cost 5620.40 (1.00) 2.00 62(0.25) $1,473.80

60
Cost / Unit
Cost
$1,473.80
$2.95 / Unit
Units Delivered
500
Repeating these calculations for each alternative manufacturing method gives the results
summarized in Table 2. Looking at these results, we see that manual machining is the lowest cost
option. However, Eq. (4) does not include indirect cost. Because of its inherent precision, the CNC
machining process eliminates the need for inspection and therefore avoids all of the cost, time, and
effort required for inspection and salvage. Avoiding these costs may well be worth an additonal
$0.50 per part.
PROCESS CAPABILITY
Suppose that it is decided to manually machine 500 part Cs and to use these parts to build 500
assemblies without inspecting them for compliance with the C 6.0024 0.0016 inch
specification. If A 3.5 0.00105 inches, B 2.5 0.00105 inches, C 6.0021 inches,
C 0.0010 inches, and all tolerances are natural, what percentage of the assemblies are likely to
be rejected, either because of interference or because the gap exceeds 0.0048 inches? To answer
this question, we use Eq. (1) and (2) to calculate the average gap and standard deviation as follows:
X C A B 6.0021 3.500 2.500 0.0021 inches.
2
0.00105 0.00105
2

0.0010 0.0011 inches.
3
3
X A2 B2 C2
Page 114
SECTION 5
Now calculate standardized variables for interference and over size using Eq. (3) and use Table
A1 to determine the probability of rejection.
0.0000 0.0021
1.909 P X 0 0.0282 from Table A1.
0.0011
0.0048 0.0021
ZU
2.455 P( X 0.0048) 0.0070 from Table A1.
0.0011
ZL
PRejection P X 0.0048 P X 0 0.0282 0.0070 0.0352
Expect about 3.52% rejects or 19 of the 500 assemblies to be rejected.

Comparing this result with the results of the previous section, we see that only 19 rejects are
expected when the lot of part Cs are accepted without inspection compared to 62 rejects if the lot
of part Cs is inspected prior to assembly to insure compliance with the C 6.0024 0.0016 inch
specification. This implies that total cost (direct + indirect) will actually be reduced if the parts are
not inspected, assuming that rejecting assemblies is no more costly than rejecting individual parts.
It further implies that improving process capability (i.e., center the distribution of dimension C and
reduce C ) will decrease total cost while inspecting parts for conformance increases total cost
because it adds inspection and salvage activities to the manufacturing process.
To test this observation, suppose that the manual milling process used to produce part C is
improved by centering it at C = 6.0024 inches and reducing C by 10% to 0.0009. Repeating the
above calculations, we find that under these conditions, only 1.95% or approximately 10 of the
500 assemblies would be rejected. If it were possible to reduce C even more, say by 25% to
0.00075, then only 0.758% or about 1 assembly in 500 would be rejected. This clearly illustrates
that improving process capability reduces total cost by eliminating the labor and factory floor space
required to perform inspection and salvage activities.
PRODUCTION VOLUME
Suppose we needed to manufacture 50,000 part Cs (Fig. 1), which of the manufacturing processes
proposed in Table 1 should be selected? Assuming all distributions are centered and normal, the
statistical tolerancing calculations performed previously can be repeated for 50,000 assemblies per
year to give the results shown in Table 3. Because the cost of the extrusion tool is distributed over
the total number of parts delivered, we see that the extrude and cut option is the low direct
cost choice for large volumes.
We also see, however, that, with this high production volume, the number of rejects that can
be expected due to the tolerance stack-up increases total cost (direct + indirect). How can the total
cost due to unavoidable tolerance stack-up be reduced? One possibility is to select the CNC
machining process to make part C, but this would be extremely expensive from a direct cost point
of view. Another possibility would be to use the extrude and cut method to make part C and then
selectively assemble the parts to avoid rejects. Also, it may be possible to reduce the
Table 3 Expected Number of Rejects for 50,000 Unit Production Volume.
Page 115
Process
SECTION 5
Part C Inspected Prior to
Assembly
Units
Units
Unit
Made
Scrap
Cost
ped
Assembly
Rejects
without
Part
C
Inspection
Manual
Machine
56,155
6,155
$3.60
1,660
CNC
Machine
50,000
$3.45
Extrude and
Cut
52,389
2,389
$0.62
539
for Part C
variation associated with parts A, B, and C (i.e., A , B , and C ) once the product is in production
if resource constraints and/or process limitations allow.
What can be done by design to eliminate this extra information content and totally avoid any
direct or indirect cost due to the tolerance stack-up? One possibility is to increase the allowable
gap. Recognizing that this may be unacceptable functionally, let us explore the sensitivity of reject
rate to maximum allowable gap. To do this, we assume that all distributions are centered at design
intent ( A 3.5000, B 2.5000, C A B X , and X X max 2 where X = Gap), that the
extrude and cut process is used to make part C ( C 0.0008 ), and that the tolerances on parts
A and B are natural ( A B 0.00105 3 0.00035 ). With these assumptions, we can express
the standardized variable as a function of maximum gap ( X max ) as follows:
X A2 B2 C2
0.000352 0.000352 0.00082 0.0009407
X
X max max
X max X
2 531.5 X
Z
max
X
0.0009407
Using this relationship and Table A1, expected reject rates can be calculated as a function of
maximum gap as tabulated in Table 4. This type of data helps provide insight regarding the tradeoff between design decisions and expected assembly rejects due to tolerance stack-up. In looking
at Table 4, we quickly see that a small increase in maximum allowable gap will greatly reduce
assembly rejects. For example, increasing the maximum allowable gap by 25% (0.0012 inches)
reduces the number of expected assembly rejects by about 87% (539 to 69).
Table 4 Expected Assembly Reject Rate Due to Tolerance Stack-Up

as a Function of Maximum Allowable Gap Size.
Page 116
SECTION 5
X max
(inches)
P(Rejecti
on)
0.0048
0.0050
0.0052
0.0054
0.0056
0.0058
0.0060
0.0064
0.0068
2.55
2.66
2.76
2.87
2.98
3.08
3.19
3.40
3.61
0.010800
0.007820
0.005780
0.004100
0.002880
0.001936
0.001374
0.000674
0.000318
Expected
Number
Rejects
50,000
Assemblies
539
391
289
205
144
97
69
34
16
of
in
SUMMARY
Statistical tolerancing considers the probabilistic nature of tolerance stack-up. Because it is highly
unlikely that a worst case tolerance combination will actually occur, the use of statistical
tolerancing calculations often allows very tight tolerances to be relaxed somewhat in critical
assemblies. It also provides compelling insight into the trade-off that exist between performing
inspection, improving process capability, and relaxing tolerance specifications when possible.
Page 117
SECTION 5
Appendix A:
Table A1 Probability P(Z Z ) for a Normal (Gaussian) Distribution*.
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
Z
0.5000
0.4602
0.4207
0.3821
0.3446
0.3085
0.2743
0.2420
0.2119
0.1841
0.1587
0.1357
0.1151
0.0968
0.0808
0.0668
0.0548
0.0446
0.0359
0.0287
0.0228
0.0179
0.0139
0.0107
.00820
.00621
.00466
.00347
.00256
.00187
0.0
0.4960
0.4562
0.4168
0.3783
0.3409
0.3050
0.2709
0.2389
0.2090
0.1814
0.1562
0.1335
0.1131
0.0951
0.0793
0.0655
0.0537
0.0436
0.0351
0.0281
0.0222
0.0174
0.0136
0.0104
.00798
.00604
.00453
.00336
.00248
.00181
0.1
0.4920
0.4522
0.4129
0.3745
0.3372
0.3015
0.2676
0.2358
0.2061
0.1788
0.1539
0.1314
0.1112
0.0934
0.0778
0.0643
0.0526
0.0427
0.0344
0.0274
0.0217
0.0170
0.0132
0.0102
.00776
.00587
.00440
.00326
.00240
.00175
0.2
0.4880
0.4483
0.4090
0.3707
0.3336
0.2981
0.2643
0.2327
0.2033
0.1762
0.1515
0.1292
0.1093
0.0918
0.0764
0.0630
0.0516
0.0418
0.0336
0.0268
0.0212
0.0166
0.0129
.00990
.00755
.00570
.00427
.00317
.00233
.00169
0.3
0.4840
0.4443
0.4052
0.3669
0.3300
0.2946
0.2611
0.2296
0.2005
0.1736
0.1492
0.1271
0.1075
0.0901
0.0749
0.0618
0.0505
0.0409
0.0329
0.0262
0.0207
0.0162
0.0125
.00964
.00734
.00554
.00415
.00307
.00226
.00164
0.4
0.4801
0.4404
0.4013
0.3632
0.3264
0.2912
0.2578
0.2266
0.1977
0.1711
0.1469
0.1251
0.1056
0.0885
0.0735
0.0606
0.0495
0.0401
0.0322
0.0256
0.0202
0.0158
0.0122
.00939
.00714
.00539
.00402
.00298
.00219
.00159
0.5
0.4761
0.4364
0.3974
0.3594
0.3238
0.2877
0.2546
0.2236
0.1949
0.1685
0.1446
0.1230
0.1038
0.0869
0.0721
0.0594
0.0485
0.0392
0.0314
0.0250
0.0197
0.0154
0.0119
.00914
.00695
.00523
.00391
.00289
.00212
.00154
0.6
0.4721
0.4325
.03936
0.3557
0.3192
0.2843
0.2514
0.2206
0.1922
0.1660
0.1423
0.1210
0.1020
0.0853
0.0708
0.0582
0.0475
0.0384
0.0307
0.0244
0.0192
0.0150
0.0116
.00889
.00676
.00508
.00379
.00280
.00205
.00149
0.7
0.4681
0.4286
0.3897
0.3520
0.3156
0.2810
0.2483
0.2177
0.1894
0.1635
0.1401
0.1190
0.1003
0.0838
0.0694
0.0571
0.0465
0.0375
0.0301
0.0239
0.0188
0.0146
0.0113
.00866
.00657
.00494
.00368
.00272
.00199
.00144
0.8
0.4641
0.4247
0.3859
0.3483
0.3121
0.2776
0.2451
0.2148
0.1867
0.1611
0.1379
0.1170
0.0985
0.0823
0.0681
0.0559
0.0455
0.0367
0.0294
0.0233
0.0183
0.0143
0.0110
.00842
.00639
.00480
.00357
.00264
.00193
.00139
0.9
3
4
5
6
.00135
.04317
.06287
.09987
.03968
.04207
.06170
.09530
.03687
.04133
.07996
.09282
.03483
.05854
.07579
.09149
.03337
.05541
.07333
.010777
.03233
.05340
.07190
.010402
.03159
.05211
.07107
.010206
.03108
.05130
.08599
.010104
.04723
.06793
.08332
.011523
.04481
.06479
.08182
.011260
*Adapted from Shigley, J. and Mischke, C., Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw-Hill, 1989.
Page 118
SECTION 5
APPENDIX B:
INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Statistical Experimental Design is a method of experimentation which provides the
experimenter with tools to accurately and efficiently collect and analyze data. A factorial
experiment usually involves several factors which are varied by the experimenter and one or more
responses which are to be optimized. In the past, engineers and scientists have relied on onefactor-at-a-time experiments. These are experiments in which each factor in the experiment is
varied independently while the other factors are kept constant. However, this type of
experimentation has been found to be inadequate to produce the speed and accuracy needed to
develop new products and processes. The most notable shortcoming of the one-factor-at-a-time
approach is that the interaction that factors have with each other cannot be estimated. For example
in a sheet metal forming operation, it may be found that at one thickness of material lubrication
has a large effect on the formability of the material, but at another thickness level the lubrication
has almost no effect. A one-factor-at-a-time experiment will not provide any information about
this interaction. However, a factorial experiment based on modern, statistical principles of
experimental design will show the importance of this interaction effect.
Two-Level Factorials
Although there are many types of statistically designed experiments, some of the most
useful are called two level factorials. For a two level factorial design each factor is set at a high
and low level (usually a small amount above and below what is currently considered the best
setting of that factor). Each possible combination of settings of the factors is then run. Due to the
symmetry of the experiment, the experimenter can easily determine which factors have the most
effect on the response, which factors interact, and what the response might be at other levels of the
factors. This information can then be used to optimize the response. If three factors were used,
there would be 23 or 8 experimental trial runs. An unreplicated two-level, three factor experiment,
called a 23 factorial experiment, will be used to illustrate the steps of statistical experimental
design and analysis. Unreplicated 23 factorials are especially useful for efficiently investigating
a process about which very little is known. The results of the experiment can be used to get ideas
about the underlying relationships of the factors with the response and their relative significance
to each other. To confirm these results for publication or other such purposes, replications would
be needed. For the demonstration, a mill experiment will be designed and analyzed. The three
factors will be the Speed of the cutter (RPM), the Feed rate (in./min.), and the Depth Of Cut or
D.O.C. (in.).
Coding of the Factor Levels
For ease of analysis, it is convenient to code the factors into high and low levels as follows:
Page 119
Factor
(1)
Speed (S)
Feed
(F)
D.O.C. (D)
SECTION 5
Low Level
(+1)
50
2.5
0.1
High Level
Units
75
3.5
0.2
RPM
in./min.
in.
Standard and Random Run Order

Using the codes 1 and +1 all the possible combinations of levels must now be listed.
For simplicity we will use to show the 1 level and + to show the +1 level. The order
listed below is called the standard order and you can quickly see that the pattern of the standard
order makes it easy to detect a missing run.
Standard Order
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
However, because of the pattern of the standard order, it is unwise to run the actual experiment in
this order. If the calibration or any other uncontrolled factor changed halfway through the
experiment, it would be impossible to tell the difference between the effect of the uncontrolled
change and the effect of depth of cut (D) since this factor changes only once at the midpoint of the
experiment. This leads to the concept of Randomization. Randomization is a principle which
states that if the experimental trials are run in random order, it is very unlikely that any uncontrolled
factor will exactly correspond to any of the control factors and therefore the effect of the
uncontrolled factors should not significantly bias the experimental results. For this reason, the
trials will be run in a random order as determined by the drawing of the numbers 1 through 8 from
a hat or a bowl.
Cube Plots
A cube plot is a method of plotting the data from a 23 factorial. The plot consists of a
cube with a response value located at each corner. Each dimension of the cube represents the
coded scale of one of the factors from the low level () to the high level (+). An example is given
below using metal removal rate (Q) of the mill as the response plotted versus the factors; Speed
(S), Feed (F), and D.O.C.(D).
Page 120
SECTION 5
Metal Removal Rate of the Mill

.063
.088
.031
.044
S
+
.063
.088
D
.031
.044
This plot is useful because one can easily compare the four responses with low F on the left side
of the cube (0.031, 0.031, 0.063, 0.063) with those with high F in the corresponding location on
the right side of the cube (0.044, 0.044, 0.088, 0.088) to see the effect of F on metal removal rate,
(Q).
In the figure below you will notice that there are four separate comparisons which can be made
and in each comparison the only factor changed is F. These separate comparisons are called hidden
replications and are the reason that, even when unreplicated, 2 3 factorials can be relied upon to
convey a great deal of information. Similarly one can compare the front and back of the cube to
see the effect of D or the top and bottom of the cube to see the effect of S on Q. In the cube shown,
one can see that the top and bottom of the cube are identical, which shows that Speed has no effect
on Q. This confirms the already known relationship,
Q = (D.O.C.)*(Feed)*(Width of Cut), in which Speed is not a factor.
Metal Removal Rate of the Mill

.063
.088
.031
.044
S
+
.063
.088
D
.031
.044
Page 121
SECTION 5
Calculation and Meaning of the Effects

To this point, the effect of each factor has been spoken of in a qualitative way. However,
the specific quantitative definition of the main effect of a given factor on a given response can now
be defined as the average difference between the responses at the high level of the factor and the
responses at the low level of that factor. Thus, the effect of D.O.C.(D) on Q is the average of the
differences (0.063 - 0.031), (0.063 - 0.031), (0.088 - 0.044), and (0.088 - 0.044). Therefore, for
the ranges used in this experiment the effect of D.O.C.(D) on Q is 0.038, the effect of Feed(F) on
Q is 0.019, and the effect of Speed(S) on Q is zero.
The interaction effect between two factors is the amount that the effect of a factor changes
when another factor is varied. These interaction effects are most easily calculated using the table
shown below, where the interaction effect between Feed (F) and D.O.C.(D) is called FD and the
other interaction effects are similarly called SF and SD. SFD is the three way interaction effect.
The contrast for each column is the sum of the data when the data is given the signs of that column
as shown in the example column for FD. All effects, including the main effects, are calculated as
shown by dividing the contrast for each column by 4*. In this case the only interaction effect is
the interaction between the Feed and the D.O.C. (FD), all other interactions show values of zero.
Trial #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Contrast
Effects
Main Effects
S
F
D
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
0
0.076 0.152
0
0.019 0.038
SF
+
+
+
+
0
0
Interaction Effects
SD
FD
(example FD) SFD Q
+
+
(+0.031)
0.031
+
(+0.031)
+ 0.031
+
(0.044)
+ 0.044
(0.044)
0.044
(0.063)
+ 0.063
+
(0.063)
0.063
+
(+0.088)
0.088
+
+
(+0.088)
+ 0.088
0
0.024
(0.024)
0
0
0.006 (0.024/4=0.006) 0
*4 equals the number of differences being averaged, and can be easily determined by the number
of + and pairs in the column.
Dotplot of Effects
In order to determine which factors have an important effect on the response, a dotplot of
the effects is often useful. A dotplot is simply a scale on which all effects are plotted in order to
determine their relative significance. The purpose of making a dotplot is to see graphically which
effects stick out of the general noise which is expected around zero. Since there are no true
replications, the actual width of the noise distribution cannot be estimated. However, since we are
only in the investigation stage of experimentation, the hidden replications can give us enough
information to see that F and D are fairly strong effects.
Page 122
SECTION 5
Dotplot of the Effects

General Noise
SFD
SD
SF
S
-.020
-.015
-.010
-.005
.000
FD
.005
.010
.015
.020
.025
.030
.035
.040
Model Building
Once the important effects have been identified, a model can be created which will estimate
the response, in this case Metal Removal Rate, at locations in or on the cube which were not
specifically run in the experiment. The model uses the coded scale 1 to +1 for each of the factors
and includes only the strong effects. The coefficients for the polynomial model are exactly one
half of the effects previously calculated, so the model we will use is:
Q = (0.0095)F + (0.019)D + 0.0565
(Model 1)
where 0.0565 is the average value of the Metal Removal Rate data. If we consider the FD
interaction to be important, the model would then be:
Q = (0.0095)F + (0.019)D + (0.003)FD + 0.0565
(Model 2)
Based on Model 1, we would predict a Q of 0.07075 for F=0.5 and D=0.5.

Model 2 would predict a Q of 0.070825, which shows that the interaction term is indeed quite a
small effect. Using the cube plot and the model we can see that if Q is to be increased, Feed and
D.O.C. must be increased and Speed has no influence on Q.
Page 123
SECTION 5
Page 124
SECTION 6
METROLOGY
Page 125
METROLOGY
SECTION 6
Page 126
SECTION 6
METROLOGY
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ANALYSIS1
INTRODUCTION
There are many tools which, when used correctly and for the right reasons, can improve quality.
Statistical process control (SPC) provides feedback on process and products and monitors the
behavior of the manufacturing process as a whole to enable the prevention of problems rather than
the off-line detection of problems. Design of experiments (DOE) enables the optimization of a
process in an efficient and timely manner. The list goes on and on. But whether the quality tool
chosen is SPC, DOE, or just plain old inspection through approved quality levels (AQL), results
must, in all cases, be quantified through the use of a measurement system.
Measurement systems are an integral part of manufacturing and quality control. Quality relies on
the measurement system. But has anyone stopped to analyze the capability of the measurement
system itself? How accurate is it? How does its precision compare to the tolerance of the parameter
being measured? Is the calibration frequency sufficient? What about operator variation? Is training
an issue? This teaching note will attempt to answer these and other questions about a very
important issue: measurement system analysis.
TERMINOLOGY
Gage: any device used to obtain measurements; frequently used to refer specifically to the devices
used on the shop floor; includes go/no-go devices.
Measurement system: the collection of operations, procedures, gages and other equipment,
software, and personnel used to assign a number to the characteristic being measured; the complete
process used to obtain measurements.
Measurement system analysis: procedures to assess the quality of a measurement system.
QUALITY OF MEASUREMENT DATA

To ensure that the benefit derived from using measurement data is great enough to warrant the cost
of obtaining it, attention must be focused on the quality of the data. The quality of measurement
This teaching note is adapted from Measurement System Analysis Reference Manual published by the Automotive
Industry Action Group (AIAG), 1995.
Page 127
METROLOGY
SECTION 6
data is related to the statistical properties of multiple measurements obtained from a measurement
system operating under stable conditions.
For instance, suppose that a measurement system, operating under stable conditions, is used to
obtain several measurements of a certain characteristic. If the measurements are all close to the
master value for the characteristic, then the quality of the data is said to be high. Similarly, if
some, or all, of the measurements are far away from the master value, then the quality of the
data is said to be low.
The statistical properties most commonly used to characterize the quality of data are bias and
variance. The property called bias refers to the location of the data relative to a master value, and
the property called variance refers to the spread of the data.
One of the most common reasons for low-quality data is too much variation in the data. For
instance, a measurement system used to measure the volume of liquid in a tank may be sensitive
to the ambient temperature of the environment in which it is used. In that case, variation in the data
may be due either to changes in the volume or to changes in the ambient temperature. That makes
interpreting the data more difficult and the measurement system, therefore, less desirable.
Much of the variation in a set of measurements is due to the interaction between the measurement
system and its environment. If the interaction generates too much variation, then the quality of the
data may be so low that the data are not useful. For example, a measurement system with a large
amount of variation may not be appropriate for use in analyzing a manufacturing process because
the measurement systems variation may mask the variation in the manufacturing process.
Much of the work of managing a measurement system is directed at monitoring and controlling
variation. Among other things, this means that emphasis must be placed on learning how the
measurement system interacts with its environment so that only data of acceptable quality are
generated.
Most variation is undesirable. But there are some important exceptions. For instance, if the
variation is due to small changes in the characteristic being measured, then it is usually considered
desirable. The more sensitive a measurement system is to that kind of change, the more desirable
the system becomes because it is a more sensitive measurement system.
If quality of the data is not acceptable, then it must be improved. This is usually accomplished by
improving the measurement system, rather than by improving the data themselves.
TYPES OF ERROR
The following definitions help describe the types of error or variation associated with a
measurement system.
Bias
Bias is the difference between the observed average of measurements and the reference value. The
reference value, or master value, is a value that serves as an agreed upon reference for the measured
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SECTION 6
METROLOGY
values. A reference value can be determined by averaging several measurements with a higher
level (e.g., metrology lab or layout equipment) of measuring equipment.
Repeatability
Repeatability is the variation in measurements obtained with one measurement instrument when
used several times by one appraiser while measuring the identical characteristic on the same part.
Reproducibility
Reproducibility is the variation in the average of the measurements made by different appraisers
using the same measuring instrument when measuring the identical characteristic on the same
part.
Stability
Stability (or drift) is the total variation in the measurements obtained with a measurement system
on the same master or parts when measuring a single characteristic over an extended time period.
Linearity
Linearity is the difference in the bias values through the expected operating range of the gage.
Discrimination
Discrimination is the capability of a measurement system to adequately differentiate between
values of a measured characteristic. Discrimination error occurs when the measurement system is
unable to measure part-to-part variation either because the part-to-part variation is smaller than the
measurement system variation or because the measurement system is inappropriate for the
precision required. A rule of thumb is that the measurement system should have the ability to
discriminate with ten increments, from the lower specification limit to the upper specification limit.
For example, if the tolerance specification on a measured dimension is 0.001 inches, then the
measurement system should be able to reliably measure increments of 0.0001 inches.
Page 129
METROLOGY
SECTION 6
GAGE R&R STUDY

Gage repeatability and reproducibility (GR&R) is the combination of the variation due to the
measurement equipment and the variation between the various appraisers using the equipment.
This combinational variation is mathematically calculated and compared to the design
specification width or to the total variation of a manufacturing process. The AIAG Measurement
Systems Analysis Reference Manual presents three alternative methods: the Range method, the
Average and Range method ( X & R ), and the ANOVA method. The Range method provides a
quick approximation of measurement variability but does not decompose the variability into
repeatability and reproducibility. The Average and Range method is a mathematical method which
will provide an estimate of both repeatability and reproducibility, but not their interaction. The
ANOVA method estimates both repeatability and reproducibility and can also be used to determine
the interaction between the gage and the appraiser. The X & R method is suggested for manual
calculations and the ANOVA method is the method of choice if the analysis is to be computerized.
In the following, we develop the theory for the X & R method. The theory is based on statistical
process control and is formulated to make manual calculations easy to perform.
Repeatability
The variation that is attributed to measurement equipment is known as repeatability, or equipment
variation (EV). This is defined as 5.15 sigma (5.15 standard deviations) which essentially estimates
the spread that covers 99% of the measurement variation due only to the measurement equipment.
From statistical process control, the estimated standard deviation for repeatability or equipment
variation is,
EV
R
d 2*
(1)
where R is the average range and d 2* is a statistically derived constant obtained from Table 1. In
this case, d 2* is dependent on the number of trials, m, and the number of parts times the number of
appraisers, g. Repeatability, which is based on the 99% spread, is calculated as,
R
EV = Repeatability 515
. EV 515
. *
d2
(2)
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METROLOGY
Table 1 d 2* Values for the Distribution of the Average Range
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
>15
2
1.410
1.28
1.23
1.21
1.19
1.18
1.17
1.17
1.16
1.16
1.16
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.15
1.128
3
1.906
1.81
1.77
1.75
1.74
1.73
1.73
1.72
1.72
1.72
1.71
1.71
1.71
1.71
1.71
1.693
4
2.237
2.15
2.12
2.11
2.10
2.09
2.09
2.08
2.08
2.08
2.08
2.07
2.07
2.07
2.07
2.059
5
2.477
2.40
2.38
2.37
2.36
2.35
2.35
2.35
2.34
2.34
2.34
2.34
2.34
2.34
2.34
2.326
m
6
2.669
2.60
2.58
2.57
2.56
2.56
2.55
2.55
2.55
2.55
2.55
2.55
2.55
2.54
2.54
2.534
7
2.827
2.77
2.75
2.74
2.73
2.73
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.72
2.71
2.71
2.71
2.704
8
2.961
2.91
2.89
2.88
2.87
2.87
2.87
2.87
2.86
2.86
2.86
2.85
2.85
2.85
2.85
2.847
9
3.076
3.02
3.01
3.00
2.99
2.99
2.99
2.98
2.98
2.98
2.98
2.98
2.98
2.98
2.98
2.970
10
3.178
3.13
3.11
3.10
3.10
3.10
3.10
3.09
3.09
3.09
3.09
3.09
3.09
3.08
3.08
3.078
Reproducibility
Reproducibility, or appraiser variation (AV), is assessed by observing the variations among the
several operators measuring the same samples. This type of variation is usually composed of
different techniques or styles that different people may have developed over time, and generally
does not contribute greatly to measurement system inconsistencies. However, many times an
analysis of the measurement system will show a large amount of variation due to reproducibility.
In these cases, this is usually due to lack of training.
The appraiser variation or reproducibility is estimated by determining the overall average for each
appraiser and then finding the range, R0 , by subtracting the smallest appraiser average from the
largest. The standard deviation for reproducibility is estimated by,
R0
d 2*
(3)
where d 2* (from Table 1) in this case is dependent on the number of appraisers, m, and g=1 since
there is only one range calculation. The estimate given by Eq. (3) is contaminated by the variation
due to the gage so it must be adjusted by subtracting a fraction of the repeatability. The adjusted
reproducibility is
2
EV 2
R0
AV = Reproducibility 515
.

d 2*
nr
(4)
where n = number of parts and r = number of trials.

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METROLOGY
SECTION 6
Measurement System Variation

The measurement system variation for repeatability and reproducibility (R&R) is calculated by
adding the square of the equipment variation and the square of the appraiser variation, and taking
the square root as follows:
R& R
EV
AV
(5)
Part-to-Part Variation
The part-to-part standard deviation can be determined from the measurement system study data or
an independent process capability study. If the measurement system study is used, the part standard
deviation, P , is estimated by determining the averages of each part and then finding the range of
the sample averages, RP , as follows:
RP
d 2*
(6)
As in the other calculations, d 2* is taken from Table 1, but in this case m = number of parts and
g = 1 since there is only one range. The part-to-part variation is then calculated as
PV part to part variation = 515
.
RP
d2*
(7)
Total Variation
The total variation (TV) from the measurement study is calculated as follows:
TV
R& R
PV
(8)
If the process variation is known and its value is based on 6 , then it can be used in place of the
total study variation (TV) calculated from the gage study data. This is accomplished by performing
the following two calculations:
Process Variation
TV 515
.
6.00
and
PV
TV
R& R
(9)
(10)
Both of these values would replace those calculated using Eq.s (7) and (8).
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METROLOGY
% Variation of Each Factor

Once the variability for each factor in the gage study is determined, it can be compared to the total
variation (TV). The percent the equipment variation (%EV) consumes of the total variation (TV) is
calculated by
EV
%EV 100
TV
(11)
The percent that the other factors consume of the total variation can be similarly calculated as
follows:
AV
% AV 100
TV
(12)
R& R
% R& R 100
TV
(13)
PV
% PV 100
TV
(14)
NOTE: THE SUM OF THE PERCENT CONSUMED BY EACH FACTOR WILL NOT
EQUAL 100%
The results of this total percent total variation should be evaluated to determine if the measurement
system is acceptable for its intended application.
Tolerance Based Analysis
If the analysis is based on the tolerance instead of process variation, then Eq.s (11) through (13)
can be computed in terms of % of total tolerance instead of % of total variation. In that case, %EV,
%AV, %R&R, and %PV are calculated by substituting the value of tolerance in the denominator of
the calculations in place of total variation (TV). Either or both approaches can be taken depending
on the intended use of the measurement system and the desires of the customer.
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SECTION 6
Guidelines
The following steps are recommended when performing a Gage R&R study:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Ensure that the gage, or measurement equipment, has been calibrated.

Choose at least two appraisers who normally perform the measurement to be evaluated.
Choose samples to be measured in the study.
Have the first appraiser measure all of the samples once in random order.
Have the second appraiser measure all of the samples once in random order.
Continue until all of the appraisers participating in the study have performed trial 1,
measuring all the samples once.
7. Repeat steps 3 through 6 for the number of trials chosen, ensuring that the results of
the previous trials remain unrevealed to the appraisers.
8. Record all of the data and determine the statistics of the R&R study.
9. Evaluate the results.
The following are important factors to consider when planning, performing, and evaluating a Gage
R&R study:
When appraisers are performing sample measurements, it is critical that they replicate
normal operating procedures. Only then can a true indication of normal conditions be
seen.
If calibration is performed at any set intervals (e.g., before every measurement), make
sure that this is also done when evaluating the measurement system. Otherwise, unfair
and/or unrepresentative bias may skew the data.
A good rule of thumb for the number of samples to be measured is ten, and the number
of appraisers used to perform the evaluation must be at least two. Also, just as in any
statistical evaluation, the larger the amount of data (i.e., the more appraisers), the more
confidence one can have in the overall evaluation.
Samples to be used should, for best results, be of the same manufacturing lot (if
possible) and should have the same upper and lower specifications (or at least the same
tolerance spread).
Guidelines for acceptance of gage repeatability and reproducibility (%R&R) are:
Under 10% error - the measurement system is acceptable,

10% to 30% error - may be acceptable based upon importance of application, cost of
gage, cost of repairs, etc.,
Over 30% error - measurement system needs improvement. Make every effort to
identify the problems and have them corrected.
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METROLOGY
Example
Five samples from a manufacturing process are selected. Two appraisers who normally do the
measurements are chosen to participate in the study. Each part is measured three times by each
appraiser, and the measurements are recorded on the data sheet and analyzed as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Data Sheet
Appraiser 1
3
4
Parts
Trials
1
2
3
217
216
216
220
216
218
217
216
216
214
212
212
216
219
220
Average
Range
216.3
1.0
218.0
4.0
216.3
1.0
212.7
2.0
218.3
4.0
Avg
216.3
Appraiser 2
3
4
Avg
216
219
220
216
216
220
216
215
216
216
212
212
220
220
220
218.3
4.0
217.3
4.0
215.7
1.0
213.3
4.0
220.0
0.0
216.9
The data are analyzed by calculating the average ( X ) and range ( R ) for each subgroup. The
repeatability for this study is calculated using Eq. (2) where R is the average of the 10 ranges (
R 2.5 ) and d 2* , which is dependent on the number of trials (m=3) and the number of parts times
the number of appraisers (g = 5x2 = 10), is obtained from Table 1.
2.5
EV 515
.
7.5
.
172
The appraiser variation or reproducibility is estimated by determining the overall average for each
appraiser and then finding the range ( R0 ) by subtracting the smallest appraiser average from the
largest.
R0 216.9 216.3 0.6

The reproducibility is then calculated using Eq. (4) where d 2* is obtained from Table 1 with m =
number of appraisers = 2, g = 1 since there is only one range calculation, n = 5 parts, and r = 3
trials.
2
7.52
. x 0.6
515
AV
1026
.
141
5 x 3
The measurement system variation or Gage R&R is computed using Eq. (5),
2
2
R& R 7.5 1026
. 7.570
To compute part variation, the sample averages of each part are calculated by averaging the value
obtained by all appraisers for each sample. In this example, the part averages for parts 1 through 5
are 217.3, 217.7, 216.0, 213.0, and 219.2, respectively. From the sample averages, the range of the
Page 135
METROLOGY
SECTION 6
sample averages ( RP ) is calculated by subtracting the lowest (213.0) from the highest (219.2), or
RP 6.2 . The part-to-part variation is then calculated using Eq. (7) as
PV
515
. x 6.2
12.875
2.48
where d 2* is given in Table 1 and is dependent on the number of parts (m=5) and g which is 1 since
there is only one range calculation.
The total process variation from the measurement study is calculated using Eq. (8) as
2
2
TV 7.570 12.875 14.936
Applying Eq.s (11) through (13) then gives the study results in terms of % variation of each factor:
%EV = 50.2%
%AV = 6.87%
%R&R = 50.7%
%PV = 86.2%
CONCLUSION: Per the guidelines, the study suggests that the measurement system is not
appropriate for the analysis of the process.
Page 136
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GROUP TECHNOLOGY
Page 137
GROUP TECHNOLOGY
SECTION 7
*Adapted from Mikell P. Groover and Emory W. Zimmers, Jr., CAD/CAM Computer-Aided
Design and Manufacturing, Prentice-Hall, 1984, Chapter 12.
Page 138
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ME 340-2

SECTION 1: PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING...

Process and Tooling....

SECTION 2: GEOMETRIC MODELING...

Introduction to Geometric Modeling .....

Introduction to Machine Programming...

SECTION 4: GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING

SECTION 5: STATISTICAL TOLERANCING.

SECTION 6: METROLOGY ...

Measurement System Analysis...

SECTION 7: GROUP TECHNOLOGY... 137

ME 340-2 Course Objectives

(THIS PAGE DELIBERATELY LEFT BLANK)

(THIS PAGE DELIBERATELY LEFT BLANK)

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

(THIS PAGE DELIBERATELY LEFT BLANK)

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

PROCESS AND TOOLING

INJECTION MOLDING PROCESS

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

Figure 1 Reciprocating screw injection molding machine [1].

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

Figure 2 Schematic of a "two-plate" mold [2].

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

Figure 3 Gating designs [2].

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

Figure 4 Externally operated cam for molding hole in plastic [2].

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

Figure 5 Mechanical cam action using cam pins [2].

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

(THIS PAGE DELIBERATELY LEFT BLANK)

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

DESIGN FOR PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

PROCESS LIMITATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

(a) Effects of Shrinkage

(b) Dimensional Instability

Radiusing inside corners eliminates stress and improves

Figure 2 Shrinkage defects are avoided by nominal wall design.

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

Shrinkage defects are eliminated or avoided by employing a uniform wall thickness

The detail shape of the part.

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

Figure 3 Basic elements of a plastic part.

Maintain nominal wall

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

DESIGN RELATED COST INTERACTIONS

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

Figure 9 Draft is essential for reliable ejection.

2. Identify the key design related cost drivers.

where CT = total tooling cost ($)

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

Design to minimize tooling cost.

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

Table 1 Suggested Wall Thickness for Various Thermoplastic Materials

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING

Decrease projection thickness to limit thickness in region of

Figure 12 Design projections to maintain nominal wall.

Figure 13 Design holes and depressions to maintain the nominal wall.

Figure 14. A demonstration of the impact of the parting line selection