INTRODUCTION

More than 273 million scrap tires are produced in United States each year.In addition to this, more
than 300 million tires are currently stockpiled throughout the united States. These stockpiles are
dangerous not only from potential environmental threat, but also from fire hazards and provide
breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Over the years, disposal of tires has become one of the serious
problems in environments, and filling is becoming unacceptable because of the rapid depletion of
available sites for waste disposal. Used tire are required to be shredded before land filling. Innovative
solutions to meet the challenge of the disposal problem have long been in development, and the
promising options are;
1. use of tire rubber in asphalt mixes,
2. thermal incineration of worn-out tires for the production of electricity or steam. and
3. reuse of ground tire rubber in number of plastic and rubber products. In addition, scrap tires can
also be used as fuel for cement kiln, as feedstock for making carbon black, and as reefs in marine
environment. Because of high capital investment involved in it, using tires as fuel is technically
feasible but economically not very attractive. The uses of rubber tires in making carbon black
eliminates shredding and grinding costs, but carbon black from tire paralysis is more expensive, and
has lower quality than that from petroleum oils. Table 1 shows some of the fact and figures as of year
2000, as reported by rubber manufactures association.
A tire is a composite of complex elastomeric formulations, fibers, textiles and steel cord. Tires are
made of plies of reinforcing cords extending transversely from head to bead, on top of which a belt is
located below the thread. Table 2 lists typical types of materials used to manufacture tires.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Overview
Concrete is one of the two most commonly used structural materials [Neville, 1996]. During the
1970s with the onset of the energy crisis and along with the increase in environmental consciousness
a lot of focus was placed on the use of industrial waste products such as waste tire as an additive to
concrete [Topcu, 1995]. Topcu in his study investigated the changes of the properties of rubberized
concretes in terms of both size and amount of the rubber chips. The compressive strength when tested
at 28 days was 29.5oMPa, it was however shown that that with the addition of 15, 30 and 45% of
coarse rubber chip, that value was reduced to 14.60, 8.91 and 5.51 MPa respectively. This represents a
51, 70 and 81 percent reduction in compressive strength. It was considered that the rubberized

concrete would be very suitable to be used in jersey barriers in which high strength is not necessary,
however toughness is desired as it is subjected to direct impact in crashes. The rubberized concrete
could reduce the damage to vehicles and also reduce the loss of lives from accidents. The disposal of
waste tires represents a major issue in the solid waste dilemma because there are more than
242,000,000 scrap tires, approximately one tire per person, generated each year in the United States
(Epps, 1994). Therefore, over the past few years, a number of researches have been focused on the use
of waste tires in different shapes and sizes in concrete. This literature review covered published
research reports, journal articles, and other documents that discussed the utilization of scrap tires in
civil engineering applications focusing on rubberized concrete with tire chips incorporated.

Typical Compositions of Waste Tires

Waste tires are the tires removed fiom automobiles and trucks. The typical weights of an automobile
tire and a truck tire are 20 lbs. and 100 lbs. respectively. The major materials used to manufacture
tires include natural & synthetic rubber (41%), carbon black (28%), steel ( 14-15%), fabric, filler,
accelerators and antiozonants (16-17%) (1). The percentages are given by weight.
Classification of Recycled Waste Tire Particles
Table 2-1 includes the terminology for recycled waste tire particles defined by ASTM D- 6270
Standard Practice for Use of Scrap Tires in Civil Engineering Applications. Chopped tires are
produced in tire cutting machines. These machines cut waste tires into relatively large pieces. The
primary shredding process can produce scrap tires with a size as large as 12-18 in. long by 4-9 in.
wide (1). Rough shreds, tire derived aggregates, tire shreds and tire chips are produced from the
secondary shredding, which cut the tires down to 0.5 - 3 in.. Granulated rubbers, ground rubbers and
powered rubbers are manufactured through cracker mill process, granular process, or micro-mill
process, two stages of magnetic separation and Classification Lower
Limit, in (mm) Upper Limit, in (mm)
Chopped Tire
Rough Shred] .97X1.97X1.97 (5oX5oX50)3oX1.97X3.94 (762X5oX100)
Tire Derived Aggregate 0.47 (12) 12 (305)
Tire Shreds 1.97 (50) 12 (305)
Tire Chipso.47 (12) 1.96 (50)

Granulated Rubber 0.017 (0.425) 0.47 (12)

Ground Rubber - <0.017 (0.425)
2.4 Basic Material Properties of Tire Rubber
This section presents the engineering properties necessary for design of scrap tires in civil engineering
applications, e. g. specific gravity, modulus of elasticity (MOE), etc. As discussed above, tires are
made of natural and synthetic rubber elastomers derived from oil, gas, and metallic intrusions. Other
compositions e.g. carbon black, polymers, steel, and additives are incorporated to enhance
performance of tires. The specific gravity of tire rubbers can be estimated using ASTM C 127 &128
Standard Test Method for Density, Relative Density (Specific Gravity), and Absorption of
Coarse/Fine Aggregate. The tire chips do not float when submerged in water, but the crumb rubber
particles do float on the water and do not displace water. Kardos (8) implemented a de-airing agent to
resolve this issue. The specific gravity of tire rubber is less than half of the mineral aggregates, which
means a legal 80,000-pound gross weight tractor-trailer delivering recycled tire chips would provide 2
to 2-1/2 times the volume of virgin coarse aggregate per delivery. Modulus of elasticity is the ratio
between the stress applied and the strain measured, which indicates materials' capability to resist
deformation. The MOE of sand ranges from 6,000 psi to 12,000 psi and the gravel is much larger.
Compared to sand and gravel, tire rubber has a much lower modulus of elasticity. When incorporated
in concrete, tire rubber behaves as weak inclusions. Some theoretical models were developed by
researchers to explain the compressive failure \ modes of the rubberized concrete

Hardened Concrete Properties of Rubberized Concrete

Compressive Strength Properties
The size, surface texture, and contents have been reported to affect compressive strength of the
rubberized concrete mixtures (10, 12, 14-16). Eldin and Senouci (10) noted when coarse aggregate
was 100% replaced by tire chips, there was approximately an 85% reduction in compressive strength
and a 50% reduction in splitting tensile strength. The rubberized concrete mixtures demonstrated a
ductile failure under compressive and tensile loads and they were capable to absorb a large amount of
energy. The rubberized concrete experienced a loss in compressive and tensile strength with increased
tire particle content. The primary cause of strength loss is a result of poor adhesion of the
cementitious products to the surface of the rubber particles. The tire chips could be chemically treated
to improve the interfacial transition zone (lTZ) bond between the rubber tire chips and 8 the
cementitious material within the rubberized concrete mixture. These methods include (1, 17-18):

Polyacrylamide pretreated

Sodium hydroxide soak

Magnesium oxychloride cement

The mixtures with pretreated rubber particles were reported to achieve 16%-57% higher compressive
strength than concrete containing untreated rubber aggregates
Toughness and Impact Resistance
Toughness indicates energy absorption capacity of a specimen, which is defmed as the area under
load-deflection curve of a flexural specimen. Researchers have reported the rubberized concrete
mixtures were able to carry additional loads after the ultimate load, and they have higher toughness
than control mixtures without rubber particles (IO-12; 19). As the rubber content increases, the
rubberized concrete specimens tend to fail gradually as opposed to brittle. The impact resistance of
concrete increased when rubber aggregates were incorporated into the concrete mixtures (10; 16; 2021).

Durability of Rubberized Concrete

A limited amount of literature is available concerning the durability of concrete mixture containing
rubber aggregates. The rapid freezing and thawing (ASTM C 666, Procedure A) durability was
investigated by Savas et al. (22) for rubberized concrete mixtures with 10%, 15%, 20%, and 30%
granulated rubber by weight of cement. After 300 freeze/thaw cycles, the mixtures with 10% and 15%
rubber particles had a durability factor higher than 60, but the other mixtures with 20% and 30%
failed the testing. The loss of weight ofall mixtures increased with increases in freezing and thawing
cycles. Research performed by Paine et a1 (23) indicates crumb rubber could be potentially used as a
freeze/thaw resisting agent in concrete.
A concrete sample with good resistance to chloride penetration will pass 1000-2000 coulombs (low
permeability) tested by ASTM C 1202 Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrctc's
Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration. Gcsoglu and Gimcyisi (24) evaluated the 9 effects of
chloride penetration in the rubberized concrete with silica fume incorporated. Rubber cxasperates the
chloride ion penetration significantly. But the use of silica fume can remarkably decrease the
magnitudes of chloride penetration especially for the rubberized concretes.

Summary
In Summary, literature has shown the following influences of rubber particles on hardened concrete
properties:

As rubber content increases, 28-day compressive and tensile strength decrease.

The compressive strength of rubberized concrete can be increased by pretrcating the tire
particles chemically

Rubberized concrete experiences a ductile failure under compressive and tensile loads.

Higher toughness can be achieved in rubberized concrete than control mixture without rubber
aggregates.

Limited literature on durability indicates that durable rubberized concrete mixtures can be
achieved at certain replacement levels.

What types of pollution results from tire fires?

Tire fires can result in air pollution, and in oily runoff that can contaminate soil, surface water, and
groundwater. The oily material is also highly flammable. Tire fires result in thick smoke throughout
the surrounding area which can contain pollutants harmful to human health including polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), benzene, styrene, phenols, and butadiene. Tire fires also threaten
nearby water supplies with harmful contaminants such as lead and arsenic contained in the oily
runoff.
When tires are used in new products that come in contact with soil or water, do they pollute the
environment?
There is no current evidence showing that products containing recycled rubber from scrap tires
substantially increases the threat to human health and the environment as compared to the threats
associated with conventional products.
Does EPA certify products with recycled tire content?
EPA does not certify products made with recycled tire content. Consult independent, non- profit
organizations such as green seal who certify and/or recommend products that cause less toxic
pollution and waste, conserve resources and habitats, and minimize global warming and ozone
depletion. Green Seal provides objective and unbiased information to direct the purchaser to
environmentally responsible products and services.

The EPA has developed Comprehensive Procurement Guidelines for designated products, with
accompanying recycled-content recommendations. EPAs Environmentally Preferable Purchasing
(EPP) website includes an online searchable database of environmental information for
environmentally preferable products including tires and products made from recycled tires.

Is there a risk to human health from tire piles?

Disease carrying pests such rodents can inhabit tire piles. Mosquitoes can also breed in the stagnant
water that collects inside tires. Several varieties of mosquitoes can carry deadly diseases, including
encephalitis and dengue fever. Tire fires also release thick black smoke and air pollutants, and ground
and surface water pollution that can be harmful to human health and the environment.

Research findings
Early investigations on the use of wom-out tires in asphalt mixes had been very encouraging. Results
showed that rubberized asphalt had better skid resistance, reduced fatigue cracking, and achieved
longer pavement life than conventional concrete road pavement.
Fresh Concrete Properties
Slump
We have reported that mortars incorporating rubber shreds achieved workability comparable to or
better than a control mortar without rubber particles. Khatib and Bayomy investigated the workability
of nibcrete, and reported that there is a decrease in slump with increase in rubber content by total
aggregate volume. They further mentioned that at rubber contents of 40% by total aggregate volume,
slump was almost zero, and concrete was not workable manually. It was also observed that mixtures
made with fine crumb rubber were more workable than those withcoarse tire chips were or a
combination of tire chips and crumb rubber.
The workability of the concrete was measured by the slump test for each mixtureused scrap- tyre
(0.15 to 4.8mm) in the replacement of sand reporting a slumpdecrease along with the increase of
scrap-tyre content. However, these authors used 1% by cement mass of an unknown plasticizer in the
mixtures with tire wastes, so the workability reduction is probably related to the low performance of
the plasticizer.Topcu&Bilir studied the influence of rubber waste with a maximum dimension of 4mm
in self-compacting concretes noticing that rubber replacing sand increase concrete workability which
is due to the presence of viscosity agents even to a volume of 18okg/m3. Aiello &Leuzzi used

threshers to replace fine and coarse aggregates (1omm to 25mm) with 1% by cement mass of a
plasticizer observing increase workability with tire shreds content
Table - Slump performance according to crumb rubber content

Experimental procedure, materials and mixes

Materials used in experiment
1. Cement
Ordinary Portland Cement (53 Grade) conforming to IS: 12269 - 1987 was used in this investigation.
The specific gravity and specific surface of the cement was found out to be 3.15 and 335ogm2/gm.
respectively. The nonnal consistency of the cement as determined by Vicar Apparatus was found to be
29%.
OPC 43-Grade as per IS: 8112-1989 Compressix'e strength: 7- Days = 39.8 N/mmz, 28- days = 49.5
N/mm2
Portland cement Characteristics are shown in Table.
Table 5.1Physical characteristics of 43 grade type cement

for 28 days, in accordance to IS 456. After the cure process, the specimens were remolded, recapped
and sent for laboratory tests.

Tyre chips
Tire chips was made by cutting the 5;:11: truck tyres into sizes of12mm and 16mm and used by
mixing them in proportion oil}. T31: taxing was done by hand by labour with Chisels cutters. The
maximum and minimum 1ips as 16mm and 12mm respectively. The specific gravity and water
absorption was as aster filied in the laboratory was 0.96 and 0.45% respectively.

Uses of Waste Tire Modified Concrete

After the detailed study of the rubber concrete, closelly examination we have suggested that rub Crete
could possibly be used in the following areas:

Where vibrations damping is needed, such as in foundation pad for machinery, and in railway
stations.

For trench filling and pipe bedding, pile heads and paving slabs.

Where resistance to impact or blast is required such as in railway buffers, jersey barriers and
bunkers.

Rub Crete because of its light unit weight may be suitable for architectural applications like;

nailing concrete,

false facades,

stone backing, and

interior construction.

Recreate may be used in highwayconstruction as a;

shock absorber, in sound barriers.

as a sound boaster, and

also in buildings as an earthquake shock-wave absorber.

However, more significant research is needed before strong recommendations can be made
Also following are varies uses of rubber concrete:

Waste tire modified concrete can be used in industrial floorings such as factory and
warehouse floors where the increased impact resistance and post-cracking ductility will be
beneficial.

The properties which are important from the point of view of pavement performance are
increased flexural strength, improved post-cracking ductility, increased resistance to impact
and repeated loading and improved spalling resistance.

Waste tire concrete can be usein applications where energy and impact attenuation is required
due to its high flexibility.

Unlike the control concrete which disintegrated when the peak load was reached, the
rubberized concrete underwent a considerable deformation without disintegration. In fact, the
control concrete sample broke into two halves afier unloading, while the rubberized concrete
sample kept its integrity and the crack opening width was reduced, and sometimes even

closed. This suggests that rubberized concrete offer a great potential for it to be used in
sound/crash barriers, retaining structures, and pavement structures.