Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chemical Engineering,
Chemical Engineer
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
ChE
ChEngineer
I.I.Ch.E.
MOC
Q and Q
QA
Thermochemistry
Chemical Reaction Equilibrium
Chemical Kinetics
Ideal Gas Laws
Phase Equilibrium
Unit Operations
Classification of Unit Operations
Plant Equipment
Chemical Reactors
Heat Exchangers
Mass Transfer Equipment
Ancillary Equipment
Transportation Equipment
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
Product Sales
Market Research
Product Development
Technical Sales and Customers Service
INTRODUCTION
Products all areas of everyday life
Chemical fertilisers
Food supplements
Building materials (metals, concrete, roofing materials, paints,
plastics)
Clothing (synthetic fibres, dyes)
Transportation (gasoline and other fuels)
Written communication (paper, ink)
Electronic communication (insulators, conductors)
Health (drugs, pharmaceuticals, soaps, detergents, insecticides,
disinfectants)
Intermediates (consumed within the Industry)
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY is a sprawling complex of raw material
sources, manufacturing plants, and distribution facilities
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
End Uses
Sulphuric acid
Fertilisers, chemicals
Petroleum refining
Paints
Pigments
Metal processing
Explosives
Nitric acid
Explosives
Fertilisers
Sodium hydroxide
Chemicals
Rayon and film processing
Petroleum refining
Pulp and paper processing
Lye
Cleansers
Soap
Metal processing
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Acetic
anhydride
Ethylene
glycol
End Uses
Rayon
Resins
Plastics
Antifreeze
Cellophane
Dynamite
Synthetic fibres
Formaldehyde
Plastics
Ethanol
Formaldehyde
Antifreeze
Solvent
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End Uses
Gasoline
Kerosene
Oils
Ammonia
Ethanol
Fuel
Fuel
Lubricating
Heating
Fertilisers
Chemicals
Acetaldehyde
Solvent
Other chemicals
Detergents
Styrene
Synthetic rubber
Plastics
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Paper
Cardboard
Fibreboard, etc.
End Uses
Books
Records
Newspapers, etc.
Boxes
Building materials
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End Uses
Pigments for paints, inks
Plastics
Rubbers
Ceramics
Linoleum
Drying oil
Basic lacquer
Varnishes
Enamel constituents
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Industry: Rubber
Typical Products
Natural rubber
(Isoprene),
Synthetic rubbers
(GRS, neoprene,
butyl)
End Uses
Automobile tyres
Mouldings and
sheetings
Footwear
Insulation
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Industry: Plastic
Typical Products
Phenolformaldehyde,
Polystyrene,
Polymethylmethacrylate,
Polyvinyl chloride,
Polyethylene,
Polyesters
End Uses
Various uses in
all areas of
everyday life
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End Uses
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Industry: Mineral
Typical Products
Glass,
Ceramics
End Uses
Windows
Containers
Bricks
Pipe
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End Uses
Household cleaning
Industrial cleaning
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Industry: Biochemical
Typical Products
Pharmaceuticals,
Drugs
End Uses
Health applications
Medicinal applications
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Industry: Metal
Typical Products
Steel,
Copper,
Aluminium,
Zirconium
Uranium
End Uses
Building materials
Machinery, etc.
Nuclear fuel
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additional
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Challenge
Opportunity
Two facets:
From the developed world through several International conventions
(existing and proposed)
The way Indian Chemical Process Industry is structured
very large
number of small and medium scale manufacturers, not yet geared to
meet minimum safety standards of environment and health
protection laid down in Indian (Central and State) Laws.
Demand for pollutionfree processes: an overriding factor
Research and Development on Totally Clean Technologies, and
PollutionFree Alternatives WILL HAVE TO BE an integral part of
Industrys business
Opportunity in terms of more profit, in
the long run
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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Conservation of energy
Energy in out + generated = accumulated
First law of thermodynamics
E = Q W for batch processes
Q
WS
31
Thermochemistry
Concerned with the energy effects associated with chemical reactions
Enthalpy is the most convenient term to work with
Different types of enthalpy effects:
Sensible heat (CP)
Latent heat ()
Heat of reaction (HR): enthalpy change of a system undergoing
chemical reaction. If the reactants and products are at the same
temperature and in their standard states (pure chemical, 1 atm), the
heat of reaction is termed the standard heat of reaction.
Chemical reaction equilibrium
Chemical kinetics
Ideal gas law
Phase equilibrium
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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Chemical kinetics
2. How fast the reaction will go ? (Question 2 of the previous slide)
Study of reaction RATES and variables that affect these rates
RATE: time rate of change in the amount of any of the components
participating in the reaction
Based on arbitrary factor related to the reacting system size, geometry
(volume, interfacial area), mass, etc.
dn
1
A
R =
A V dt
dc
= A ... in case V = constant
dt
R
=R
c , P, T, catalyst variables
A i
R
= k
c
A i
34
P V = constant = n R
T
Works best at higher temperatures and lower pressures, that is, when
35
Phase equilibrium
PURE substances: Phase = state of matter solid, liquid, gas
(vapour)
MIXTURES: a phase is characterised by uniformity or homogeneity
of properties
Most important equilibrium phase relationship: liquid and gas
(vapour)
Roults law:
partial pressure of any component in the vapour = vapour
pressure of the pure component mole fraction of the component
in liquid
Henrys law:
partial pressure of any component in the vapour = Henrys
constant for the given system mole fraction of the component in
liquid
Alternately, phase equilibrium calculations:
Ki = yi/xi
36
Unit Operations
The seemingly different chemical, physical, or biological processes can
be broken down into a series of separate and distinct steps called unit
operations
Distillation: purification of ethanol; separation of hydrocarbons
(petroleum industry)
Drying of grain; other foods (food industry); drying of lumber;
filtered precipitates; rayon yarn
Reactive absorption of O2 from air in a fermenter; reactive absorption
of H2 in vegetable oil
Evaporation of salt solutions; evaporation of sugar solutions
Flow of liquid hydrocarbon; flow of milk
Although the number of individual processes is great, each one can be
separated into a series of steps or operations
The individual operations have common techniques and are based on the
same scientific principles
The treatment of all processes is unified and simplified
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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Fluid flow
Concerns the principles that determine the flow of transportation of any
fluid one point to another
Heat transfer
A unit operation that deals with the principles that govern accumulation
and transfer of heat and energy from one place to another
Evaporation
A special case of heat transfer, which deals with the evaporation of the
volatile solvent, such as water, from a nonvolatile solute, such as salt or
any other material in solution
Drying
An operation in which volatile liquids (usually water) are removed from
solid materials
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Distillation
An operation whereby components of a liquid mixture are separated by
boiling because of the differences in their vapour pressures
Absorption
A process whereby a component is removed from a gas stream by
treatment with a liquid
Adsorption
A process whereby a component is removed from a gas or a liquid stream
by treatment with a solid (adsorbent) whereby the component is adsorbed
either physically or chemisorbed on the solids surface
Liquidliquid extraction
A process in which a solute in a liquid solution is removed by contact
with another liquid (solvent) that is relatively immiscible with the solution
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Liquidsolid leaching
It involves treating a finely divided solid with a liquid that dissolves out
and removes a solute contained in the solid
Crystallisation
The removal of a solute such as a salt from a solution by precipitating the
solute from the solution
Membrane separation
The removal of a component from a liquid mixture or a gas mixture by
virtue of its molecular size and/or ()affinity with the separating
membrane and/or difference in the osmotic pressure
MechanicalPhysical Separations
Involves separation of solids, liquids, or gases by mechanical means, such
as filtration, settling, and size reduction, which are classified as separate
unit operations
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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Unit operations are applicable to processes that are physical and chemical
Most frequently, it is desirable to separate the original substance into its
component parts
Entirely mechanical: separation of solid from liquid during filtration;
classification of granular solid into fractions of different particle size by
screening; etc.
Diffusional or mass transfer operations: involve changes in composition
of solutions. This involves TRANSFER of one substance through
another, on a molecular scale
For example: water evaporation from a pool into an air stream
flowing over the water surface. Water molecules diffuse through
those of gas at the surface into the main portion of the air stream,
from where they are carried away
Sometimes, one molecular species may diffuse through another which
is itself diffusing in the opposite direction
Mass transfer is a result of concentration difference (driving force)
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drying /
45
4) LIQUIDLIQUID:
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CONTACT OF
MEMBRANE
MISCIBLE
PHASES
SEPARATED
BY
1) GASGAS:
Gaseous diffusion OR effusion: if a gas mixture whose components
are of different molecular weight is brought into contact with a
porous diaphragm, the various components of the gas mixture will
diffuse through the pores at different rates. This leads to different
compositions on the opposite sides of the diaphragm and,
consequently, to separation of the gas mixture
2) LIQUIDLIQUID:
Separation of a crystalline substance from a colloid with a membrane
permeable only to the crystalline substance
dialysis
3) SOLIDSOLID:
The operation in the solidsolid category has found little, if any,
practical application in the chemical process industry
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Plant Equipment
Chemical reactors
Heat exchangers
Mass transfer equipment
Distillation
Absorption
Adsorption
Evaporation
Extraction
Drying
Ancillary equipment
Transportation equipmentc
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Distillation (Laboratory)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Heat source
Still pot
Still head
Thermometer/Boiling point temperature
5.
6.
7.
8.
Condenser
Cooling water in
Cooling water out
Distillate/receiving flask
9. Vacuum/gas inlet
10. Still receiver
11. Heat control
12. Stirrer speed control
13. Stirrer/heat plate
14. Heating (Oil/sand) bath
15. Stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules
16. Cooling bath
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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Distillation (Industrial)
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CHEMICAL REACTORS
Often the heart of a chemical process
Where the raw materials are usually converted into products
Reactor design is the vital step in the overall design of the process
Chemical factors: mainly the kinetics. Sufficient residence time for
the desired reaction to get the desired conversion
Mass transfer factors: The rates of heterogeneous reactions may be
controlled by the rates of diffusion of the reacting species, rather than
chemical kinetics
Heat transfer factors: These involve the removal, or addition, of the
heat of reaction
Safety factors: These involve the confinement of any hazardous
reactants and products, as well as the control of the reaction and the
process conditions
The above factors are interrelated, and often contradictory
design is a complex and difficult task
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
reactor
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Reactors types
The characteristics normally used to classify reactor design are:
1) Mode of operation: batch; continuous
2) Phases present: homogeneous; continuous
3) Reactor geometry: flow pattern and manner of contacting the
phases
5 major classes of reactors are:
1) Batch
2) Stirred Tank
3) Tubular
4) Packed (Fixed) Bed
5) Fluidised Bed
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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Batch processes
All the reagents are added at the beginning
Reaction proceeds
Composition changes with time
Reaction is stopped after the desired conversion is reached
Product(s) is(are) withdrawn
Suitable for small scale production, and for processes that
use the same equipment to make a range of different
products or grades
Examples: pigments, dyestuffs, pharmaceuticals, some
polymers
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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Continuous processes
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Semibatch processes
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Homogeneous processes
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Heterogeneous processes
Two or more phases exist
The overriding problem is promotion of mass transfer rate
between different phases
Possible combination of phases are:
Liquidliquid: with immiscible phases
Liquidsolid: with one or more liquid phases in contact
with a solid; the solid may be a reactant or a catalyst
Liquidsolidgas: where the solid is normally a catalyst
Gassolid: where the solid may take part in the reaction
or act as a catalyst
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Heterogeneous processes
Stirred tank reactor:
Basic chemical reactor, modeling on a large scale the conventional
laboratory reaction flask !
A tank fitted with a mechanical agitator and usually a cooling
(heating) jacket or coil. Operated batch or continuous mode
Several tanks in series is a possibility
Tank size: a few litres to several thousand litres
Homogeneous reactions
Heterogeneous LL, GL, GLS reactions
Degree of agitation is under designers control
suitable for
reactions that require good mass transfer and/or heat transfer rates
When operated in a continuous manner, the composition in the
reactor is constant, and is the same as that of the product (except for
very rapid reactions)
limits the conversion that can be obtained in
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one stage
Heterogeneous processes
Tubular reactor:
Generally used for gaseous reactions, but also suitable for
liquid phase reactions
If high heat transfer is required
smaller diameter tubes to
increase the surfacetovolume ratio
Several tubes may be arranged in parallel
For very high temperature reactions, tubes are arranged in
furnace
Two basic types of tubular reactors:
1) Solid as reactant(s)
2) Solid as catalyst(s)
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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Heterogeneous processes
Tubular reactor :
1) Solid as reactant(s): in extractive metallurgical industries
2) Solid as catalyst(s): catalytic reactors. Industrial packed bed
catalytic reactors are used for gas and gasliquid reactions.
If high heat transfer rates are required, fluidised bed reactors
are considered
Fluidised bed reactors: the solids are suspended by the
upward flow of the reacting fluids high heat and mass
transfer rates. The solid may be a catalyst, a reactant, or
an inert powder to promote heat transfer
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HEAT EXCHANGERS
Transfer of heat to and from process fluids
The chemical process industry uses 4 principal types of heat exchangers:
1) Doublepipe heat exchanger: concentric pipe arrangement. Made from
standard fittings. Useful only for a small heat transfer area is required
2) Shell and tube heat exchanger: bundle of tubes enclosed in a cylindrical
shell. The tube ends are fitted into tubesheets, which separate the
shellside and tubeside. Baffles are provided to direct the fluid flow
and to increase heat transfer. most commonly used, because of the
following advantages:
Large surfacetovolume ratio (compact)
Good mechanical layout (good shape for pressure operations)
Reliance on well established fabrication techniques
Wide range of construction materials available
Easily cleaned equipment
Well established design procedures
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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HEAT EXCHANGERS
3) Plate and frame heat exchangers: very compact, high heat transfer
rates
4) Direct contact heat exchanger: no wall to separate hot and cold
streams, very high heat transfer rates are achieved. For example,
reactor offgas quenching, vacuum condensers, desuperheating, and
humidification. Water cooling tower is an example of direct contact
cooling. Considered whenever the process stream and coolant are
compatible. The equipment is simple, for example, spray chamber,
spray column, plate column, packed column
Heat exchangers contribute to WASTE generation by the
presence of CLING formation (process side), and SCALE
formation (service side). This can be corrected by designing for
lower film temperature and high turbulence.
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fractionation of
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1) DISTILLATION
In stripping section (below the feed), the more volatile components
are stripped from the liquid.
In enrichment (rectification) section (above the feed), the
concentration of more volatile components increases
In the case of multiple feed and/or multiple products, the basic
operation remains the same; complicates the analysis
Rectification section may be omitted, if the requirement is to strip the
MVC from a relatively nonvolatile solvent stripping column
If the top product is required a vapour, the liquid condensed is
sufficient only to provide the reflux to the column
partial
condenser
In a partial condenser, the vapour leaving is in equilibrium with the
reflux
When the vapour is totally condensed, the reflux will have the same
composition as the top product
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2) ADSORPTION
Operation can be applied to either gas or liquid mixtures
One or more components from a mixture are preferentially removed
by a solid (called adsorbent)
Influenced by the surface area of the adsorbent, nature of the
substance to be adsorbed (adsorbate), pH of system (in case of
liquids), and temperature of operation
Normally performed in a column
Either a packed bed or a fluidised bed
The adsorbent, after its useful life, can either be discarded or
regenerated
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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3) ABSORPTION
Intimate contacting of a mixture of gases with a liquid so that part of
one or more constituents of the gas dissolves in the liquid.
Usually packed column
Also, plate column, bubble column, venturi scrubbers, mechanically
agitated contactors, etc.
Countercurrent packed column is the most common equipment:
The gas stream moves upward through the packed bed against a
physically absorbing and reacting liquid that is injected at the
top of the column
This results in the highest possible contacting efficiency
Since the concentration of the gas stream decreases as it rises, it
comes into contact with fresher liquid coming from the top
This provides the maximum average driving force for the
diffusion process
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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4) EVAPORATION
Operation involves heat transfer to a boiling liquid
Results in an increase in the concentration of certain species in the
feed stream
Most common application: removal of water from a process stream
Food, chemical, petrochemical industries
Factors affecting: concentration of the liquid, solubility, pressure,
temperature, scaling, materials of construction
Major types of evaporators:
Open kettle or pan evaporator
Horizontal tube natural convection evaporator
Vertical tube natural convection evaporator
Forced convection evaporator
Efficiency can be increased by operating the equipment in multiple
effect mode
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5) DRYING
Involves removal of small amounts of water or other volatile liquids
Drying removes the liquid as a vapour by warm gas (usually air)
currents
Batch or continuous processes
4 basic dryer types:
Continuous tunnel dryer: warm air is blown over the trays
Rotary dryer: inclined hollow cylinder that rotates. The wet
solids are fed from one side, hot air is passed countercurrently
over the wet solids
Drum dryer: a heat cylinder in which the wet solids spread
across the outside of the hot, rotating drum, are dried on this
surface, and are then scraped off
Spray dryer: a liquid or slurry is sprayed through a nozzle, and
the fine droplets are dried by a hot gas. This may be operated
cocurrently, countercurrently, or in some combination of the
two modes
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT
These are devices for transporting gases and liquid to, from, or
between various units of process equipment
Some are simply conduits (pipes, ducts, fittings, stacks)
Some control the flow of material (valves)
Some provide mechanical driving force for the flow (fans,
pumps, compressors)
Storage facilities
Holding tanks
Materialshandling devices and techniques
Utilities (gas, steam, water)
Air, water, and solid waste control equipment
Pollution prevention and loss prevention can be implemented by the use
of sealless pumps, bellowsealed valves, and other specified equipment.
Selection of proper equipment in the Design and Construction phase of
a transport system is very important
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT
PIPES
Pipes and tubings
Pipes: larger diameter, thicker walls, hence can be threaded
Tubings: smaller diameter, thinner walls, hence can NOT be threaded
Many materials of construction = f (corrosivity of fluids, system pressure)
Steel pipes can be LINED with Sn, plastic, rubber, lead, or other
corrosionresistant coating
Special MOCs such as glass, porcelain, thermosetting plastic, or hard
rubber are available
Several techniques to join pipe sections
For small pipes, threaded connections are most common
For larger pipes, FLANGED fittings, WELDED connections
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT
DUCTS
Only for gases
Always thinwalled, generally used for flows at ambient pressure
0, , , etc. shapes are available
Larger cross sections gases are often transported with low density and
high flow rates
Fieldfabricated galvanised sheet steel, fibrous glass board,
factoryfabricated round fibrous glass, spiral sheet metal, flexible duct
materials, black steel, plastic and plasticcoated steel, cement, asbestos,
copper
For maximum resistance to corrosion, stainless steel and copper are used
where their cost can be justified
Aluminum sheet is used where lighter weight and superior resistance to
moisture are needed
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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FITTINGS
A piece of equipment that has one or more of the following functions:
1. Joining of 2 pieces of straight pipes (coupling, union, etc.)
2. Changing the direction of pipeline (elbow, T, etc.)
3. Changing of pipeline diameter (reducer, bushing, etc.)
4. Joining of 2 streams (T , Y)
Coupling: short piece of pipe threaded on the inside (some plastics are not
threaded). Used to connect straight sections of pipe
Union: Used to connect straight sections of pipe, but differs from the coupling
in that it can be opened conveniently without disturbing the rest of the
pipeline
Elbow : an angle fitting for changing flow direction usually by 900
T joint : change of direction or mixing of 2 streams
Y joint : similar to T joint
Reducer: a coupling for 2 pipe sections of different diameter
Bushing: a connector for 2 pipe sections of different diameter, but is threaded
from both inside and outside
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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VALVES
Control the amount of flow, redirect the flow
GATE valve and GLOBE valve are most commonly used
GATE valve
Contains a disk that slides perpendicular to the flow direction
Primarily used for onoff control of a liquid flow
Not suitable for adjusting the flow rates because small lateral
adjustments of the disk cause extreme changes in the flow
crosssectional area.
GLOBE valve
Designed for flow control
Liquid route is circuitous
The seal is a horizontal ring in which a plug with a slightly beveled
edge is inserted when the stem is closed
Good flow control, but pressure losses are more than those in gate
valve
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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VALVES
Some other types of valves are:
Check valve: permits the flow in one direction only
Butterfly valve: operates in a damperlike fashion by rotating a flat
plate to either || or position relative to the flow
Plug valve: a rotating tapered plug provides onoff service
Needle valve: a variation of the globe valve, which gives improved
flow control
Diaphragm valve: specially designed to handle fluids such as very
viscous liquids, slurries, or corrosive liquids that might clog the
moving parts of the other valves
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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FANS / BLOWERS
For low pressure drop operation, generally < 2 lbf/in2
For generating pressure heads in the range of 2 14.7 lbf/in2
Operations at higher pressures require COMPERSSORS
Centrifugal and axial flow type
Centrifugal fans: the gas is introduced at the centre of the revolving wheel
(eye), and is discharged at angles to the rotating blades
Axial flow fans: the gas moves directly (forward) through the axis of
rotation of the fan blades.
Both types are used in industry
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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PUMPS
1) RECIPROCATING PUMP (positive displacement type)
Direct action of piston on the liquid in the cylinder
During the piston compression, higher pressure forces the liquid
through the discharge valve of the pump outlet
During the piston retraction, the next batch of lowpressure
liquid is drawn into the cylinder
This cycle is repeated
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PUMPS
ROTARY PUMP (positive displacement type)
Combination of liquid rotation and positive displacement
the rotating elements MESH with the elements of stationary
casing
As the rotating elements come together, a pocket is created that
first enlarges, drawing in liquid from the suction line
As the rotation continues, the pocket of liquid is trapped, reduced
in volume, and then forced into the discharge line at a higher
pressure
Flow rate = f (size and speed of rotation)
Liquid of any viscosity without abrasive solids, can be handled
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PUMPS
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS:
Consists of an impeller rotating within a casing
Fluid enters near the centre of the impeller, and thrown
outward by the centrifugal force
The kinetic energy of fluid increases from the centre to the
tip of the impeller
The kinetic energy is converted to higher pressure in the
discharge line
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COMPRESSORS
Same working principles
Same classification as that of pumps
Obvious difference: large decrease in GAS volume, but negligible change
in LIQUID volume
CENRIFUGAL: large volumes of GASES, at lowtomoderate pressure
enhancements (P = 0.550 lbf/in2)
ROTARY: small capacities, at discharge pressures up to 100 lbf/in2
RECIPROCATING: most common type. Capable of compressing small
gas flows to as much as 3,500 lbf/in2.
With specially designed compressors, discharge pressures as high as
25,000 lbf/in2 can be reached, but these devices are capable of handling
very small capacities, and do not work well for all gases
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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STACKS (chimneys)
Discharge of flue gases into atmosphere
STUB (short stacks)
fabricated of steel (unlined or refractorylined) or refractory brick
Extend a minimum distance up from the discharge of an induced
draft fan
Tall stacks
Constructed of the same material as short stacks
Provide a greater driving force (draft)
Ensure more effective dispersion of flue gases into atmosphere
Some chemical and utility applications use metal stacks made of
doublewall with an air space
The insulating air packet prevents condensation on the inside of the
stack, thus avoiding corrosion of the metal sheets.
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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Process Diagrams
Key in defining, refining, and documenting a chemical
process
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Flow sheets
Equipment symbols, process stream flow lines, equipment
identification numbers and names, temperature and pressure
designations, utility designations, mass / volumetric / molar flow rates
of each process stream, material and energy balance tables pertaining
to all process flow lines, physical properties of process streams
Instrumentation
Provides coherent picture of the overall process, point up some
deficiencies in the process that may have been overlooked, for
example, byproducts and recycle requirements
Basically, FLOW SHEET symbolically and pictorially represents the
interrelations among the various flow streams and equipment, and
permits easy calculations of M & E B.
Universal symbols to represent equipment, equipment parts, valves,
piping, etc.
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OR
1. Block diagram
2. Graphic flow diagram
3. Process flow diagram
4. Process piping and instrumentation flow diagram
5. Utility piping and instrumentation flow diagram
6. The combination of (4) and (5) above
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Economics
The process is a failure if the product can not be sold at a profit
Thorough market analysis (how much, what price) before the
construction of a chemical process plant
Often MORE SALE with LOWER PRICE !
PRESENT AND FUTURE COMPETITION
During plant design: determine the least expensive (least fixed capital
investment) design, with least expensive PRODUCT COST
If the product is successful and profitable, a competitor may find the
market attractive and enter it with (definitely) a somewhat better product
produced at a lower price, and moreover, sold at a lower price, by an
improved or the same process !
It is necessary for the older producer to improve her/his PROCESS and
PRODUCT, or she/he will be FORCED OUT of the market.
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WHAT IS ChE ?
Synthesis of Chemistry and Engineering
Grew out of Industrial Chemistry
fundamentals
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Market research
Product development
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RESEARCH
Fundamental research
Exploratory research
Process research
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Fundamental research
New knowledge of the principles of unit operations, industrial
reaction kinetics, chemical process control, etc.
Development of new theories, and their experimental testing.
For example, turbulent fluid flow
To increase the general knowledge rather than for specific
application
Requires excellent background in
mathematics AND principles of ChE
physics,
chemistry,
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Exploratory research
To find a particular reaction with commercial possibilities
Less frequently the responsibility of a ChEngineer. Typically, it is the
task of a Chemist
To find a particular catalyst, reaction temperature, pressure product
having higher Octane Number
A Chemist investigates several PURE compounds for the reaction in
question. For example, CYCLOHEXANE is a common constituent of
NAPHTHA (octane number = 78.6, too low for modern petrol)
H2
C
H2C
CH2
catalyst, 500 F
H2C
CH2
500 lb/in
C
H2
H
C
HC
CH
HC
CH
octane number = 113.6
C
H
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catalyst, 900 F
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
octane number = 0
500 lb/in2
CH3
CH3CCH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
CH3 octane number = 93
The exploratory research group would try many catalysts and various
operating conditions on a small laboratory scale to explore a wide range
of possibilities.
The research programme would extend over several months or even years
Many attempts would prove infeasible
A few results may be commercially promising, and will be passed on to
the process research group
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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Process research
Takes promising results from exploratory research, and intensively
studies them on a bench scale to determine their commercial feasibility
Determines operating conditions for a commercial process
Yields data for a preliminary economic evaluation
Provides information for the design of a pilot plant
Studies not only pure starting materials, but also the real feed
Relatively more expensive because of more complex equipment
requirement and greater operating costs.
Demonstrates chemical feasibility of the new process, preliminary
economic feasibility, market evaluation (satisfactory profit level)
PROCESS DEVELOPMENT
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PROCESS DEVELOPMENT
Admission of ignorance !
If all the fundamentals of ChE were well understood, it would be possible
to build a full size plant based on the results of the extensive process
research !!
Large uncertainties regarding process operating conditions and product
yield semiworks or pilot plant
Expensive to build and operate, but saves much more money by
eliminating uncertainties in the construction, startup, and operation of
the commercial plant
Also required to produce new product for market research
Pilot plant must duplicate the proposed plant the proposed fullsize plant
Planning the development programme
Designing and building the pilot plant
Operation of the pilot plant
Correlation, presentation and evaluation of the data obtained
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PLANT DESIGN
Translation of results of Process Design Engineer
specifications construction of the plant
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CONSTRUCTION
Role of ChE is limited
Construction Supervisor:
Responsible for completing the plant in shortest time within the allotted
budget
Must establish a construction schedule, and must expedite it
Must set up equipment delivery schedules
Must carefully schedule manpower requirements, keeping in mind the
craft union regulations
Must maintain good labour relations to avoid poor workmanship,
slowdowns, or complete work stoppages
Must test the equipment after construction
Must be available for startup of the plant
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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PRODUCTION SUPERVISION
Production Supervisor:
Gets the new plant running to give Q and Q of the product
Checks the daily record
Improves the plant operation (element of unknown in Design)
Improves product Quality by removing contamination and reducing
deterioration
Reduces steam, water, power, materials requirement
Reduces labour costs by maintaining good labour relations, efficient
methods, and workable safety practices
Develops efficient maintenance procedures to ensure minimum shutdown
for routine repairs
Sets up a procurement schedule to maintain adequate inventories of raw
materials
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PRODUCT SALES
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MARKET RESEARCH
Begins long before the new process is launched
Fundamental question: Will It Sell ?
Starts as soon as promising results are reported by the
Exploratory Research Group
For new product: contact potential users to determine their
needs and establish whether a market exists. Pilot Plant
produces sufficient samples for potential users
For existing product: how much more could be sold ?; New uses
Continual surveys of the chemical market to find out facts on
general trends in New Products
May suggest areas of possible economic return to the
Exploratory Research Group
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
Uses of new products and new uses of existing product
Applied research:
problems
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greenhouse effect
global
If the oceans are heated up, they will loose part of their absorbed CO2
further global warming (selfaccelerating or autocatalytic effect)
We can not stop the rate of increase in energy usage to reduce CO2 !
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2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Industrial gases
7)
Industrial carbon
8)
9)
10)
Nitrogen industries
11)
Phosphorous industries
12)
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13)
14)
Potassium industries
15)
16)
Fertiliser industries
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18)
19)
Glass industries
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Nuclear industries
21)
22)
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23)
24)
25)
Rubber industries
26)
Plastic industries
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28)
29)
Essential oils
30)
31)
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34)
35)
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Agrochemical industries
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Pollution control
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Acknowledgements
1st year B.Tech. (2006 entrants ChE) students: suggested an
INTRODUCTORY lecture on this topic
Professor Dibyendu Mukherjee (Head, Chemical Engineering
Department, IIT Kharagpur): instantly supported the idea
My present and past students: shared their valuable experiences. I learn
from them more than I can teach them
All my teachers from UICT (Mumbai): introduced to me, not only the
wonderful words and world of ChE, but also the tricks of the trade !
Some of my bosses, colleagues, and peers from M/s. Indian Organic
Chemicals Limited (Khopoli, Raigad, Maharashtra) and M/s. Asian
Paints Limited: mentored me in knowledgebased problemsolving
All the Plant Operators in the abovementioned organisations: imparted
those lessons, which are not available in any textbook !
My esteemed colleagues in Chemical Engineering Department, IIT
Kharagpur: for their latent contribution and support
Anand V. Patwardhan, IIT Kharagpur
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