INTRODUCTION

Diode is an unidirectional device that allows current to flow through it

in one direction only. It is the most basic semiconductor device. An
understanding of it is essential to the mastery of other semiconductor devices.
In this experiment, we will learn about the response and operation of
three important types of diodes, namely the silicon diode, the germanium
diode and the Zener diode. We will investigate their current-voltage properties
by plotting the current versus voltage curves.
Moreover, we will also study the operation of a limiting circuit by
using the oscilloscope.

THEORY OF DIODES

(A) SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL

Semiconductor conducts less than metal conductor but more than
insulator. Some common semiconductor material are silicon (Si), germanium
(Ge) and carbon (C). Usually electron-hole pairs are generated thermally.
These are the charge carriers responsible for the conductivity of
semiconductors.
Intrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors in their purest form.
Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors with other atoms mixed in.
These other atoms are called impurity atoms. The process of adding impurity
atoms is called doping. The doping improves the conductivity of
semiconductors.
An n-type semiconductor is semiconductor doped with pentavalent
atoms such as antimony (Sb), arsenic (As) and phosphorous (P). At each
location of the pentavalent atom, there is one electron that is not used in the
covalent bond. Hence electrons are the majority charge carriers while holes
the minority charge carriers.
A p-type semiconductor is semiconductor doped with trivalent atoms
such as aluminium (Al), boron (B) and gallium (Ga). At each location of the
trivalent atom, there is one hole that is not filled with electron. Hence holes
are the majority charge carriers while electrons the minority charge carriers.

(B) PN JUNCTION
A diode is made by combining the p- and n-type semiconductor
materials as shown in fig. 1(a). Notice that the doped regions meet to
form a pn junction. Fig. 1(b) shows the schematic symbol for a
2

semiconductor diode. The p side of the diode is called anode while the
n side cathode.
Fig. 2(a) shows a pn junction with free electrons on the n side
and holes on the p side. The dashes (-) represent electrons while the
circles (o) represent holes.
At the instant the pn junction is formed, free electrons on the n
side migrate or diffuse across the junction to the p side. Once on the p
side, the free electrons are minority charge carriers. The lifetime of
these electrons is short, however, because they fall into holes shortly
after crossing to the p side. The important effect is that when a free
electron leaves the n side and falls into a hole in the p side, two ions
are formed : a positive ion on the n side and a negative ion on the p
side [see fig 2(b)]. As the process of diffusion continues, a barrier
potential VB is created and the diffusion stops. Electrons diffusing from
the n side sense a large negative potential on the p side that repels them
back to the n side. Likewise, holes from the p side are repelled back to
the p side by the positive potential on the n side. The area where the
positive and negative ions are located is called the depletion layer.
For silicon, the barrier potential VB is approximately 0.7 V and
for germanium, it is roughly 0.3 V.

Figure 1 (a) Basic construction of a diode showing the separate p and n regions.
(b) Schematic symbol of a diode.

Figure 2 (a) pn junction showing the electrons (-) in the n side and holes (o) in the p side.
(b) Formation of the depletion layer.

(C) FORWARD-BIASED PN JUNCTION AND

REVERSE-BIASED PN JUNCTION
Fig. 3(a) illustrates a pn junction that is forward biased. Notice
that the n material is connected to the negative terminal of the voltage
source, V, and the p material is connected to the positive terminal of the
voltage source, V. The voltage source, V, must be large enough to
overcome the internal barrier potential VB. The voltage source repels
free electrons in the n side across the depletion layer and into the p
side. Once on the p side, the free electrons fall into holes and will then

travel from hole to hole as it is attracted toward the positive terminal of

the voltage source,V.
Fig. 3(b) shows the schematic symbol of a diode with the
voltage source, V, connected to provide forward bias. Notice that the
conventional current flows in the same direction as the arrow on the
diode.
Fig. 4(a) depicts a pn junction that is reverse biased. Notice that
the n material is connected to the positive terminal of the voltage
source, V, and the p material is connected to the negative terminal of
the voltage source, V. The effect is that charge carriers in both sections
will be pulled from the junction. This increases the width of the
depletion layer. Free electrons in the n side will be attracted away from
the junction because of the attraction of the positive terminal of the
voltage source, V. Likewise, holes in the p side will be attracted away
from the junction because of the attraction of the negative terminal of
the voltage source, V.
Fig. 4(b) shows the schematic symbol of a diode with the
voltage source, V, connected to provide reverse bias. The result of
reverse bias is that the diode is in a nonconducting state and acts like
an open switch, ideally with infinite resistance.
Even a reverse-biased diode conducts a small amount of current,
called leakage current. The leakage current is mainly due to minority
charge carriers that exist in both sections of the diode. The minority
charge carriers are holes in the n side and free electrons in the p side.
The minority charge carriers exist as a result of thermal energy
producing many electron-hole pairs. Since temperature determines the
number of electron-hole pairs generated, the leakage current is also
affected by temperature. Any increase in temperature of the diode
causes the leakage current in the diode to increase. This current flows
in a direction that is opposite to the flow of current provided with
forward bias.

Figure 3 (a) Forward-biased pn junction.

Figure 4 (a) Reverse-biased pn junction.

(b) Schematic representation.

(b) Schematic representation.

(D) VOLT-AMPERE CHARACTERISTIC

OF A DIODE

Fig. 5 is a graph of diode current versus diode voltage for a silicon

diode. The graph includes the diode current for both forward- and reversebiased voltages. The upper right quadrant of the graph represents forwardbias condition. Notice that very little diode current flows when the forward
voltage, VF, is less than about 0.6 V. Beyond 0.6 V of forward bias, however,
the diode current increases sharply. Notice that the forward voltage drop, VF,
remains relatively constant as IF increases. 0.7 V is approximate value
assumed for the barrier potential of a silicon pn junction. For germanium, the
barrier potential is approximately 0.3 V and therefore the current would
increase sharply for a forward voltage of 0.3 V.
The lower left quadrant of the graph represents the reverse-bias
condition. Notice that only a very small current flows until the breakdown

voltage, VBR, is reached. The current is a result of the thermally generated

minority charge carriers. As mentioned earlier, it is called leakage current.
When the breakdown voltage is reached, avalanche occurs. Thermally
produced free electrons on the p side are accelerated by the voltage source to
very high speeds as they move through the diode. These electrons collide with
other valence electrons in other orbits. These electrons are also set free and
accelerated to very high speeds, thereby dislodging even more electrons. The
process is cumulative, hence we have an avalanche effect.
When the breakdown voltage, VBR, is reached the reverse current, IF,
increases sharply. Diodes should not be operated in the breakdown region.

Figure 5 Volt-ampere characteristic curve of a silicon diode.

(E) DIODE APPROXIMATIONS

Three different diode approximations can be used when analyzing

diode circuits.

FIRST APPROXIMATION
When analyzing diode circuit, we often model a diode as an ideal
diode defined by the voltage-current characteristic shown in fig. 6 and
summarized as below:
For all V 0, I = 0
For all I 0, V = 0
( Equation 1 )

Figure 6 (a) Ideal diode.

(b) Voltage-current characteristic of an ideal diode.

SECOND APPROXIMATION
In the second approximation of a diode, we model a diode as shown in
fig. 7 and summarized as below:
For all V VB, I = 0
For all I 0, V = VB
( Equation 2)
VB is the potential barrier of the diode.

Figure 7 (a) Second model of a diode.

(b) Voltage-current characteristic of the second model of a diode.

THIRD APPROXIMATION
In the third approximation of a diode, we model a diode as shown in
fig. 8 and summarized as below:
For all V VB, I = 0
For all I 0, V = VB + IRB
( Equation 3)
VB is the potential barrier of the diode.
RB is called the bulk resistance of the diode.

Figure 8 (a) Third model of a diode.

(b) Voltage-current characteristic of the third model of a diode.

(F) DIODE LIMITING CIRCUIT / CLIPPER

The circuit shown in fig. 9 is a diode limiting circuit also known as a
negative series diode clipper.

Figure 9 Diode limiting circuit.

VS is a voltage source which provides a sinusoidal voltage of rms value

V and frequency f .Vs is the value that would be displayed if an oscilloscope
were placed across the voltage source. The peak of the source voltage Vs(pk)
is given by
Vs(pk) = 2V
( Equation 4 )
Fig. 10 shows the waveform of the source voltage.

Figure 10 Waveform of the source voltage.

During the positive alternation of the source voltage, the diode D is

forward biased and a current flows in the load R. Fig. 11 shows the
equivalent circuit of the circuit in fig. 9 at the instant the source voltage is at
its positive peak value Vs(pk).

Figure 11 Equivalent circuit of the limiting circuit at the instant the source voltage
is at its positive peak value.

Using Kirchhoffs Voltage Law,

Vo(t)(pk) = Vs(pk) - VB
( Equation 5 )
During the negative alternation of the source voltage, the diode D is
reverse biased and no current flows in the load R. The diode acts like an
open switch. Hence Vo(t) = 0.
Therefore, the output voltage Vo(t) is a series of positive pulses as
shown in fig. 12.

Figure 12 Waveform of the output voltage.

10

Note that the frequency of Vo(t), fo = f.

( Equation 6)
Note also that the negative alternation is completely clipped off.
When displayed together, the source and output voltages are as below.

Figure 13 Waveform of the source and output voltages displayed together.

(G) ZENER DIODE

A zener diode is a special diode that has been optimized for operation
in the breakdown region. These devices are unlike ordinary rectifier diodes,
which are intended never to be operated at or near breakdown. Voltage
regulation is perhaps the most common application of a zener diode. The
zener diode is connected in parallel with the load of the power supply. The
zener voltage remains constant despite load current variations. Fig. 14(a)
shows the schematic symbol for a zener diode.
Fig. 14(b) shows the volt-ampere characteristic curve for a typical
silicon zener diode. In the forward region the zener acts the same as an
ordinary silicon rectifier diode with a forward voltage drop of about 0.7 V
when conducting.
In the reverse-bias region, a small reverse leakage current flows until
the breakdown voltage is reached. At this point, the reverse current through
the zener diode increases sharply. The reverse current is called the zener
current and is designated IZ. Notice that the breakdown voltage designated by
VZ remains nearly constant as the zener current, IZ, increases. Because of this
characteristic, a zener diode can be used in voltage regulation circuits, since
the zener voltage, VZ, remains constant even though the zener current, IZ,
varies over a wide range.
In most cases manufacturers specify the zener voltage, VZ, at a
specified test current designated IZT.
Perhaps the most important zener rating is its power rating. In terms of
power dissipation
P Z = VZ IZ
(Equation 7)
where Pz equals the power dissipated by the zener, Vz equals the zener
voltage and Iz equals the zener current.

11

Figure 14 (a) Schematic symbol of a zener diode.

(b) Graph for a zener diode showing forward- and

reverse-bias regions.

The power dissipation in a zener diode must always be less than its
power dissipation rating. The power rating of a zener is designated PZM. The
maximum current a zener can savely handle is given by
I ZM = PZM/ VZ
(Equation 8)
where VZ is the zener voltage. IZM is shown in fig. 14. Exceeding the value of
IZM means the zener will burn out.

APPROXIMATIONS OF ZENER DIODES

The first approximation treats a zener like a constant voltage source

with zero internal resistance. This is shown in fig. 15(a).
The second approximation of a zener includes the zener impedance,
RZ, as shown in fig. 15(b). The zener impedance, RZ, is the reason why the
zener voltage, VZ, can change with fluctuations in the zener current, IZ. The
changes in zener voltage are then given by
VZ = IZRZ
(Equation 9)
The total zener voltage, Vout is therfore given by
Vout = Vz + IZRZ
(Equation 10)

12

Figure 15 (a) First approximation of a diode.

(b) Second approximation of a diode.

(H) ZENER LIMITING

Zener diodes can be used in voltage ac applications to limit voltage
swings to desired levels. Fig. 16 shows three basic ways the limiting action of
zener diode can be used. Part (a) shows a zener used to limit the positive
peak of a signal voltage to the selected zener voltage. During the negative
alternation, the zener acts as a forward-biased diode and limit the negative
voltage to -0.7 V (assuming a silicon zener). When the zener is turned around,
as in part (b), the negative peak is limited by zener action and the positive
voltage is limited to 0.7 V. Two back-to-back zeners limit both peaks to the
zener voltage plus 0.7 V, as in part ( c). During the positive alternation, D2 is
functioning as the zener limiter and D1 is functioning as a forward-biased
diode. During the negative alternation, the roles are reversed.
Hence, we have in the fig. 16(c),
VZ2 = VZ + 0.7
(Equation 11)
VZ1 = VZ + 0.7
(Equation 12)

13

Figure 16 Basic zener limiting action with a sinusoidal input voltage.

EXPERIMENT : DIODES

OBJECTIVES
In this experiment,
1. we examine the characteristics, response and operation of a
(a) silicon diode
(b) germanium diode
(c) Zener diode
(d) we also examine the use of silicon diode and Zener diode
in limiting (clipper) circuits.

EQUIPMENT
1. Electronic universal trainer
2. Set of cables
3. Set of bridging plugs
4. Multimeter
5. Oscilloscope

14

(A) RECORDING OF CHARACTERISTICS

PROCEDURES
1. The upper part of the printed circuit board of module SO4201-7A as
shown in the circuit below is used.

Circuit used to study the characteristics of the three diodes.

Note: D1 - silicon diode

D2 - germanium diode
D3 - Zener diode
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.

The input voltage values Ue from table 1 are applied one after the other.
The values required to complete table 1 are determined using the
multimeter.
The individual characteristics are drawn.
The characteristics of the three diodes are displayed on the oscilloscope
and recorded in the graticules 1 - 3. For this, an ac voltage of 12 V, 50
Hz is applied at the input.
The experiment record and exercises are completed.

RESULTS
15

Table 1

Ue (V)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0

2.

V1
UF (V) IF (mA)
0.10
0.00
0.20
0.00
0.30
0.00
0.39
0.03
0.45
0.11
0.49
0.24
0.51
0.39
0.53
0.56
0.54
0.73
0.55
0.91
0.61
2.88
0.63
4.89
0.65
6.87
0.66
8.91
0.67
10.96
0.67
12.96
0.68
15.00
0.69
17.00
0.69
19.05
0.70
21.5
0.70
23.5

V2
UF (V) IF (mA)
0.09
0.00
0.16
0.00
0.21
0.19
0.24
0.33
0.27
0.47
0.30
0.62
0.32
0.78
0.34
0.93
0.36
1.10
0.38
1.26
0.54
3.02
0.71
4.82
0.78
6.62
0.88
8.46
0.99
10.32
1.08
12.16
1.17
14.02
1.26
15.85
1.35
17.74
1.44
19.9
1.53
21.8

V3
UR (V) IR (mA)
0.10
0.00
0.20
0.00
0.30
0.00
0.40
0.00
0.50
0.00
0.60
0.00
0.70
0.00
0.80
0.00
0.90
0.00
1.00
0.00
2.01
0.00
3.02
0.03
3.83
0.35
4.33
1.40
4.56
2.98
4.69
4.74
4.78
6.63
4.83
8.53
4.88
10.51
4.91
12.7
4.93
14.7

Draw the characteristics (on-state stage) of the diode V1 (1N4007)

and V2 (AA118) in the following diagram.

16

3.

Draw the characteristic (off-state stage) of the Zener diode V3 in the

following diagram.

17

4.

Graticule 1 characteristic V1 : 1N4007

18

Note : U(TO) = threshold voltage

5.

Graticule 2 characteristic V2 : AA118

Note : U(TO) = threshold voltage

6.

Graticule 3 characteristic V3 : Zener diode

19

7. Compare the silicon and germanium diode characteristics with one

another and state the characteristic features and differences.
Answer:
Both the silicon and germanium diodes show similar current-voltage
characteristics. For forward bias, initially a very small current flows
and when the forward voltage exceed a certain threshold voltage, current
increases sharply. Beyond this threshold voltage, the forward voltage
remains almost constant. For reverse bias, an extremely small leakage
current flows until the breakdown voltage is reached. When this
breakdown voltage is reached, current increases sharply and avalanche
breakdown occurs.
However, there are a few characteristic features and differences
which contrast the two. First, for the silicon diode, the threshold voltage
is approximately 0.7 V while that for the germanium diode is about 0.3
V. The breakdown voltage for silicon diodes usually exceeds 75 V
whereas that for germanium diodes usually exceeds 50 V. The responses
of the diodes towards temperature change are also different for both types
of diodes. For silicon diode, the temperature constant which measures the
change in voltage per unit change in temperature, is about - 2.0 mV/C.
While the temperature constant for germanium diode is approximately 2.5 mV/C.
8. Explain briefly the operation of a diode.
Answer :
The figure below illustrates a diode that is forward biased. The n
material is connected to the negative terminal of the voltage source, V,
and the p material is connected to the positive terminal of the voltage
source, V. The voltage source, V, must be large enough to overcome the
internal barrier potential VB. The voltage source repels free electrons in
the n side across the depletion layer and into the p side. Once on the p
20

side, the free electrons fall into holes and will then travel from hole to
hole as it is attracted toward the positive terminal of the voltage source,V.
Thus a large current flows when the diode is forward biased.
The figure below depicts the same diode above when it is reverse
biased. The n material is connected to the positive terminal of the voltage
source, V, and the p material is connected to the negative terminal of the
voltage source, V. The effect is that charge carriers in both sections will
be pulled from the junction. This increases the width of the depletion
layer. Free electrons in the n side will be attracted away from the junction
because of the attraction of the positive terminal of the voltage source, V.
Likewise, holes in the p side will be attracted away from the junction
because of the attraction of the negative terminal of the voltage source, V.
The result of reverse bias is that the diode is in a nonconducting state and
acts like an open switch, ideally with infinite resistance.
Even a reverse-biased diode conducts a small amount of current,
called leakage current. The leakage current is mainly due to minority
charge carriers that exist in both sections of the diode. The minority
charge carriers are holes in the n side and free electrons in the p side. The
minority charge carriers exist as a result of thermal energy producing
many electron-hole pairs.

9. Explain briefly the operation of a Zener diode.

Answer :
Zener diodes are designed to operate in reverse breakdown. There are
two
types of reverse breakdown in zener diode namely avalanche and zener.
The avalanche breakdown is the same as other diodes and occur at
sufficiently high reverse voltage. Zener breakdown occurs at a lower
reverse voltage. A zener diode is heavily doped and this causes a very
thin

21

depletion zone. As a result, an intense electric field exists within the

depletion zone and near the zener breakdown voltage, VZ, the field is
intense enough to pull electrons from their valence band and create a large
current. The zener breakdown voltage remains almost constant during the
breakdown. Therefore the voltage is essentially unchanged as the zener
current increases.

(B) LIMITING CIRCUIT 1

PROCEDURES
1. The left half of the printed circuit board of the module SO4201-7A is
used. The circuit is as below.

22

Diode limiting circuit.

Ue = 20 Vpp, f = 1 kHz is applied to the circuit input.

3. The input and output voltages are displayed on the oscilloscope. The
curves are drawn in graticule 1.
4. The experiment record and exercises are completed.
2.

RESULTS
1.

Graticule 1 : Ue; Ua

23

2. Explain the output voltage curve.

Answer :
Ue is a sinusoidal voltage. Its positive voltage peak = 10 V.
During its positive alternation, the diode V4 is forward biased and a
current flows in the load R3. The peak value of the output is, since a
silicon diode is used,10 V - 0.7 V = 9.3 V 9 V as we find in the
experiment. During the negative alternation, the diode is reverse biased
and so no current flows through the load R3. Therefore, the output
voltage is zero as is the case. The input and output voltages are in the
same phase. The experiment agrees with this.

(C) LIMITING CIRCUIT 2

PROCEDURES
1. The right half of the printed circuit board of the module SO4201-7A is
used. The circuit is as below.

24

Zener diode limiting circuit.

Ue = 20 Vpp, f = 1 kHz is applied to the circuit input.

3. The input voltage, the voltage Ua and the voltage U1 are displayed on the
oscilloscope. The curves are drawn in graticule 1 and 2.
The experiment record and exercises are completed.
2.

RESULTS
Graticule 1 : Ue; Ua

25

2. Graticule 2 : Ue; U1

3. Describe the operation of the circuit

Answer :
During the positive alternation of the input voltage, V5 is forward bias
while V6 is reverse biased and acts as the limiter. Therefore Ua is limited to
the zener voltage of V6 plus the barrier potential of V5. Also U1 is equal to
the zener voltage of V6. During the negative alternation of the input
voltage, V5 is reverse biased and acts as the limiter while V6 is forward
biased. Therefore Ua is limited to the zener voltage of V5 plus the barrier
potential of V6. Also U1 is equal to the barrier potential of V6.

26

DISCUSSIONS
In the experiment, we have studied the characteristics and operations of
three diodes, namely the silicon diodes, the germanium diode and the zener
diode.
All these agree with our theory of diode. For example, the currentvoltage characteristics of these diodes have the general shape predicted by
our study of forward- and reverse-bias of pn junction. We see that the
threshold voltages in those curves correspond to the potential barrier existing
in the pn junction. The behaviour of these diodes before and after this
threshold voltage can be fully accounted by our theory.
Further we have examined the use of diodes in limiting / clipper circuit.
The models we adopt to describe diodes and zener diodes give results
compatible to the experiment outcome. For instance, the waveform of the
output voltages are similar. The peak values are consistent within
experimental error.

CONCLUSIONS

27

From the experiment, we conclude that diode is an unidirectional

device which only allows current to flow in one direction. We see that there is
a threshold voltage beyond which current in the diode increases sharply.
It is roughly 0.7 V for silicon diode and roughly 0.3 V for germanium diode.
We also learn that zener diode can be operated at the zener breakdown
region. When the zener voltage is reached, current increases sharply but the
voltage remains almost constant.
Both diode and zener can be used in limiting / clipper circuit to clip off
voltages.

REFERENCES
1. B. L. Theraja, A. K. Theraja : A Text Book Of Electrical Technology,
21th ed., Nirja Construction & Development Co. (P) Ltd., 1994
st
2. Mitchel E. Schultz : Electronic Devices, 1 ed., Glencoe Macmillan /
McGraw-Hill, 1994
th
3. Malvino : Semiconductor Circuit Approximations, 4 ed.,
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., 1993
4. Savant, Roden, Carpenter : Electronic Design - Circuits And Systems,
2nd ed. Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Co., Inc., 1991
5. Floyd : Electronic Devices, 4th ed., Prentice Hall, 1996

28