IN TR O D U C TIO N TO H EA T

TR EA TM E N T
OF W ELDED STRUCTURES
A N D TE C H N IC A L D A TA

1. Welding Process & its Effects

The welding process applied to
metals joins two components
together by fusion. The surfaces to
be joined are raised locally to
melting point by a source of heat
provided by a variety of welding
methods based on electric arc,
electric resistance, flame. The
process energy creates a localised
molten pool into which the
consumable is fed, fusing with the
component surfaces and/or
previously deposited weld metal.
As the molten pool is moved along
the joint axis, the components are
heated, non-uniformly and
subsequently cooled, also nonuniformly. Neighbouring elements
of material try to expand and
contract by differing amounts in
accordancee with the sequence of
the localised thermal cycle.
Characteristically the cooling weld
metal contracts under conditions of
severe restraint, leading to the
introduction of thermally induced
stresses.
As contraction tries to take place
and the stress system strives to
reach its lowest level to achieve
stability, distortion will occur as
yielding takes place. If the joint is
restrained and cannot distort, then
high levels of stress will occur and
may lead to failure in the form of
cracking.

A longitudinal force on the weld is

required to close the gap giving a
tensile stress whilst corresponding
compressive stresses in the plate
material provide the equilibrium.
Fused Weld Metat

Residual stresses will act in two

principle directions; longitudinal
stresses parallel to the joint and
transverse stresses normal to the
joint.

Unfused Weld
Metat

(Tj Weld Metal (1Q HAZ (3}

Parent Plate

In steel the heat affected zones are

generally harder than the parent
material with corresponding loss of
ductility and resistance to impact.

Residual Stress Directions

The distribution of longitudinal

residual stresses in the section will
be as shown with tensile component
confined to the region of the joint.

Unrestrained Contraction Causes

Distortion

In making a joint, gaps would

occur at the plate ends if the weld
metal were allowed to expand and
contract without restraint.

'as cast' type of structure develops.

In the region of parent metat at the
fusion face raised to melting point,
metallurgical restructuring takes
place to give the heat affected
zone (HAZ).

Stress Distribution

It should not be forgotten that the

value of the tensile stresses can be
high often exceeding yield point
magnitude.
So far the mechanical effects of
welding in the form of residual
stresses have been considered. The
deposition of weld metal in a molten
pool and the localised melting of the
joint faces of the components, along
with subsequent cooling, all have
metallurgical implications affecting
the microstructure of these regions.
Cooling after welding can be
relatively rapid. From the molten pool
of weld metal an

Since the basic sources of weld

failure are a consequence of
thermal behaviour, a series of
potential solutions arise based on
the application of heat. The welding
processes have to be controlled so
that the residual stresses are
minimised to protect the integrity of
the overall fabrication and the
metallurgical structures of the weld
metal and heat affected zones are
controlled to give properties which
are not inferior to those of the
parent material which have been
used in the design of the product.
A series of heat treatment
operations are associated with the
welding processes, arising from the
need to control these changes.
These form the basis of the subject
of Heat Treatment Engineering.

2. Preheat & Postheat

Preheating involves raising the
temperature of the parent material
locally, on both sides of the joint to a
value above ambient. The need for
preheat is usually determined by the
pertinent fabrication code and
verified by the weld procedure
qualification test. Preheat may be
required as an aid to welding for
one of four basic reasons.
To control the rate of cooling,
especially in the heat affected zone,
to reduce hardness. High carbon
and low alloy steels harden if they
are quenched from high
temperatures (above cherry red).
Exactly the same process can
happen in a welded joint at the
fusion face with the parent material.
By raising the temperature of the
base metal to be welded, to reduce
the temperature differential between
ambient and the resultant heat
input, hardening may be controlled
as the weld cools. Reducing
hardness reduces the risk of
cracking.

RED HOT FILE aUENCHED IN WATER BECOMES HARD

RED HOT FILE COOLED SLOWLY BECOMES MALLEABLE

ANDDUCVLE
Ma\sfi3l Hardens

MB tan a! Softens

To control the diffusion rate of

hydrogen in a welded joint.
The intensity of the electric welding
arc breaks down water, present as
moisture, into its base elements of
hydrogen and oxygen. Both of
these gases are easily dissolved
into the weld metal at high
temperatures and hydrogen can
play an important role in weld and
heat affected zone cracking with a
phenomenon known as hydrogen or
cold cracking. Preheat can also
help by ensuring that the weld

preparartion area is dry and

remains dry throughout the
welding operation.
The presence of preheat, and
associated benefits on cooling
rate, helps to facilitate the diffusion
of the hydrogen molecules out of
the metallic structure.
Heat Affected
Zone iHaz)

Moisture is also introduced from

the welding consumables being
OXYGE
N

present in electrode coatings and

fluxes. To obtain the maximum
benefits from preheat in controlling
hydrogen, it must be accompanied
by careful controls over removal of
moisture from the welding
consumables by following
manufacturers baking and storage
instructions.
To reduce thermal stresses.
Thermal strains are set up as the
molten weld pool cools. Partially
made welds can crack as the
parent metal restrains the
contraction of the weld metal and
the cross sectional area of the joint
is insufficient to with stand the
resultant stress. Preheat can
control the level of strain by
reducing temperature differentials
and reducing cooling rates.
The solid curve shows the temperature in the heat
affected zone as the arc passes by The dotted
curve is the temperature when preheat is used.
Preheating provides slower cooling

Compensation for heat loss.

Thicker section steels with high
thermal conductivity benefit from
preheat during welding with
improved fusion.
Where preheat is applied, every
effort should be made to ensure
that the correct levels for a
particular application are attained,
both uniformly over the length of
the joint and for the duration of the
welding process.
Thin Section

Thick Section

Low

High

Guidance for the need to preheat

is generally obtained from the
national fabrication codes, which
will list recommended minimum
temperatures for steel types
grouped by composition and also
relate the minimum section
thickness to which they apply.
For the purposes of illustration,
the preheat requirements of high
pressure pipework codes BS2633,
ANSI B31.1rand ANSI B31.3 are
compared.

Post Heat This is the term given

to the extension of preheat on
completion of welding at the same
or increased temperature. Its
purpose is to effect diffusion of
hydrogen from the joint and
reduce susceptibility to the
associated form of cracking. It is
usually applied to the higher
strength carbon managenese
steels and the low alloy steels
where the risk of hydrogen
cracking is higher.
Post heat treatments are not
reflected in national standards or
codes, but are often specified by
the client who has incorporated
their equivalent into the weld
procedure qualification test. The
temperatures and soak times are
derived from numerous technical
papers published on this topic.

PREHEAT REQUIREMENTS FOR BS 2633:1987 - HIGH PRESSURE PIPEWORK

An estimate of weld metal

hydrogen levels can be made
from a knowledge of the potential
hydrogen level in the

Material

Y**............................H

Minimum preheat temperature fortig

Hydrogen controlled

welding of rooltun

weld metal IBS 1719)

Carbon steel

Matching root run.

Material

Minimum

root run

All diameter and

thickness

preheat

Material
thickness I

Minimum
preheat

Up to 30mm 5"C Above

Up to 30

5C

Up to 20

5t

ve-i

Up to 127mm

Above 127 mm

diameter and

diameter or

12.5mm thick

A......

Carbon Steel
10 0,25%C

PC

12,5mm thick
Up to 30mm
5'C

j:..........."

Above 30mm

4 .;

kw

SI"-Weld hydrogen levelOta

Non hydgrDgen
controlled weld metal

IDO-C

30m mlfflTC

Above 30

loot

Above 20

100T

Carbon steel
above 0.25%C
Up to 0.40%C

5fTC

ltt

loot

All

istre

All

200C

Carbon -moly

St

100T

Uptoi2.5 2rrc

Upto12.5

20C

Up to 38

150C

lCr 1,'j Mo

5"C

!00C

10FC

Upto12.5

100C
150C

Up to 12.5
Above 12.5
Up to 20

150'C

150C
200"C

Not permissable Low

H, rods required

Above 12.5

150C
200"C

Upto12,5 200'C Low

H rods required

All

200t

Low Hj rods required

MarJimti

Above 12.5

'tCrVjMD^V

50-C

10C C

lore

Up to 12.5
Above 12.5

2V CrlMo

50C

ra re

WC

ISO'C

5Cr V3M0

Carbon Steel

Carbon steel

7Cr VjMo

root run not

root run not

9Cr1Mo

allowed

allowed

Up to 12.5

200"C

Special Note re BS.2633

The table is for guidance only. It illustrates the contents of the preheat section of BS. 2633 (Table
5) which should be consulted in its entirety.
A number of other important standards give guidance on preheat, these include:
Hydrogen-induced cracks in
HAZ of a butt weld

ASME Code

Section III: Nuclear power plant components

Section VIII: ASME Boiler and pressure vessel code

BS 1113

Water tube steam generating plant

BS 4570

Fusion welding of steel castings

Part 1 - Production, rectification and repair Part 2Fabrication welding

8S5135

Metal arc welding of carbon and carbon-manganese steels

BS 5500

Unfired fusion welded pressure vessels

Special Note re ANSI/B31-1 &ANSI/B31-3

The table below is for guidance only. Reference should be made to the appropriate specification

!U

CH[iW /ncrEDSPdrasirfuarfflrflH

iffCHH Ifien if
Tare

Base
Metal
Number

1
Ifoa

Oirtt tff% struts tetitl is

oauuwrf by prflrfiwd'ug to
usvsl unvmwn

rw

im

fiwr

Weld hydrogen level of preheating on residual stresses

PREHEAT
REQUIREM
ENTS FOR
PETROLEU
M
REFINERY
PIPING
(ANSI B.311.1990) &
POWER
PIPING
(ANSI B31.11992)
Material

Mi
ni
mu
m
Re
co
m
me
nd
ed
Pre
he
at
Te
mp

erature 'F
ANSI 8.31.3
Carbon above 0.30% or 1" -175
Others 50
Abore60KSIORV "-175
2

Others 50
Above 60 KSI or V " - 250
3

Others 50
v

Above 60 KSI or both above <{ & chromium above 6%-400

Others-300

High Alloy Martensitic

30C

(00

High Alloy Ferritic

Group

High Alloy Auslenitic

9A9B
'.CA

50
Nickel Alloys

20C

Manganese Vanadium

10F

27 Chromium

Carbon Steel 11A

7t KSI & below V-50

Chromium V;% ma*

1"&
above
-175
71 KSI
& below
V " 50 V&
2

Above71KSI-175
above-175
Chromium V>%-2%

Chromium I'lfiWi
group 1 P21-P52

M
EC

S%.9% \ ckel

ANSI
B31.5

P-9A-250, P9B-300

175

30C

3. Post Weld Heat Treatment

Post Weld Heat Treatment. This
is a process commonly referred to
as stress relief, so called because
it is carried out at temperatures at
which yield strength has fallen to a
low value. If the structure is heated
uniformly, the yield strength of the
material around the weld is unable
to support the initial deformation.
Creep occurs at the elevated
temperatures and strain will occur
by a diffusion mechanism, relaxing
the residual stresses even further.
The extent to which residual
stresses are relaxed will depend
on temperature for any given
material and on material for any
given temperature.
The stress distributions at the
higher temperatures become more
uniform and their magnitude
reduces to a low level. On cooling,
provided it is carried out in a
controlled manner, the improved
stress distribution is retained.
In addition to a reduction and redistribution of residual stresses,
postweld treatments at higher
temperatures permits some
tempering or aging effects to take
place. These metallurgical
changes are very beneficial in that
they reduce the high hardness of
the as-welded structures,
improving ductility and reducing
the risks of brittle fracture.
Post weld heat treatment has
mandatory significance governed
by the national standards and
codes, as well as being required to
offer acceptable component life in
onerous environments. As with
preheat, the alloying content of the
steel is related to the significance
of heat treatment temperature.
Features of Post Weld Heat
Treatment. There are five aspects
to a post weld heat treatment that
must be addressed.
The hot zone is adequate to raise
the weldment to the

required temperature and provide

a temperature profile therein which
is uniform without creating
additional undue thermally induced
stresses. This aspect has greater
significance in the case of localised
heat treatments, but nevertheless
must also be considered with
furnace heat treatments.
The heating and cooling rates are
at least compliant with the
necessary code requirements.
These rates will indicate absolute
maximum values, and are
calculated from simple formulae
related to component thickness to
offer protection against thermally
induced stresses. With thicker and
more complex structures an
experienced heat treatment
engineer may wish to consider
lower rates than required by the
code to ensure acceptable
temperature profiles and gradients
with a view to keeping these
thermally induced stresses to an
absolute minimum.

engineered system is capable of

providing appropriate levels of
performance.
Benefits of Post Weld Heat
Treatment

100% J

Ejp

80% -

II

The heat treatment system

{including insulation), zonal division
and number of thermocouples is
such that the energy input and
level of control is capable of
enabling these objectives to be met
ensuring that the integrity of the
overall structure is not jeopardised.
For local heat treatments,
controls have to be
implemented to provide
assurance that the

80%

-.

40% -

-*

T-lTO

20% -

Complete relief of
residual stresses
2".

niiir
100

200

300

400

500

600

Stress relieving temperature CC)

Effect of stress relieving at
various temperatures

Reduced Residual Stresses

With localised heat treatment, the

temperature gradients away from
the hot zone must not be unduly
severe, again the objective being
the minimisation of thermally
induced stresses. British Standards
BS 5500, BS 2633 offer guidence
in this issue, quoting the 2.5 V Rt
rule.
The soak tempertures are held
within the upper and lower limits of
the soak range for the appropriate
period of time.

60% -

tuOl

bi
B.
cS>

90%

tOO 200 300 400 500 600

Temperature C
Improved Metallurgical Structure

v
Postheated \
Weld

\
\
W CAUSTIC
1
l SOLUTIONS
.L NOT ATTACK j
THIS WELD
J

Weld not

IfYiproved Corrosion Resistance

Remove

<&&&
^ & >

Welders
V]

Without
. PWHT

With
PWHT

Improved
Machinability

POSTW ELD HEAT TREATMENT REQUIREMENTS FOR BS 2633:1987 - HIGH PRESSURE PIPEW ORK
Male rial

Time at temperature: Minutes/mm thickness

Soaking
temperature

Temperature in furnace (pipework and welds!

Local heat treatment

(welds onlyl

580-620

2.5 (minimum 30)

2.5 (minimum 30!

Carbon 0 26 up to 0.4%C 630-670

2.5 (minimum 30)

2.5 (minimum 301

Carbon up to 0.25%X

Carbon-Moly

630-670

2.5 (minimum 60)

2.5 (minimum 601

ICr'/jMo

630-670

5 (minimum 120)

2.5 (minimum 180)

VjCrVjMoViV

680-720

2V Cr IMo

680-720 (optimum creep)

710-750 (softening where
optimum creep properties
not required)

160 irrespective of thickness but thin wall up to 127mm

diameter & 12.5mm thick may he 30 minutes minimum b
(minimum 120)

2.5 (minimum 60)

710-760

5 (minimum 120)

2.5 (minimum 1201

12CrMoV(W)

720-760

180 irrespective of wall thickness

2.5 (minimum 60)

3V;Ni

690-620

2.5 (minimum 60i

2.5 (minimum 60)

9Ni

None

Not required

Not required

180 irrespective of thickness but thin wall up to 127mm

diameter 6112.5mm thick may be 30 minutes minimum

2.5 (minimum 130)

2.5 (minimum 60)

5Cr V3M0
7Cr '/?Mrj
9Cr1Mo

S pecial N ote re B S .2633

The table is for guidance only. It illustrates the contents of the post w eld heat section
(Table
of BS . 2633
6) w hich should be consulted in its entirety.
A lso see BS . 1113 for post w eld heat treatm ent requirem ents for w ater tube steam generating plant.

For certain service conditions and for pipes of 0.15% C m axim um , post w eld heat treatm ent of w elds in pipes up to and including 12.5m
and fillet w elded attachm ents where the throat thickness does not exceed 12m m is not required subject to satisfactory w elding procedure te
S pecial N ote
re A N SI/B 31-1 & A N S I/B 31-3
The table below is for guidance only. R eference should be m ade to the appropriate specification

POST W ELD HEAT TREATM ENT REQUIREMENTS FOR PETRO LEUM PIPING (ANSI B.31.1.1990) & POW ER PIPING (ANSI B31.1-1992I
Base
Metal

Material

1
'1

Poshveld Heat Treatment Requirement "F Soak

ANSI B.31.3

ANSIB3.1 Boiler External Piping

Carbon Steel

Above V-11DC/12001 liourmin

Above V IIOd'12001 hour /inch

ChromiumVi% max

Above V," or above71 KSI -110071325 1

Above s/" & Carbon aboveO.25% 110071200

hourmin. 225 Brinell max

1 hour/inch

Above Vr above 71 KSI-130071375 2

AboveV,'. i" 0D, 0.15% carbon 130071375

1 hour/inch

Chromium'/,%-2%

hours min. 225 Brinell max

Chromium 2>/
%-10%

Highalloymartensiric

Above V' O.M carbon, 3% chromium

Above V2", 4" 00,0.15%carbon 3%chromium

1300/1400 1 hour min. 2)1 Brinell max

1300714001 hour/inch

1350714502hoursmm. 241 Brinell max

1*00/14751 hour/inch

A240 Grad 429. Temp range 1150/1225

High alloy ferritic

None

1350/14251 hour/inch

High alloy austenitic

None

None

Nickel a Hoy steels

Above 3/,"-1100-11751 hour min

9A above V;", 400,0.15% carbon 1100/1200 1

9A96

hour min. 0B - above Vj", 1100 -1175

10A

Manganese vanadium

Above V"or71 KS11100/1300

4

1 hourmin. 225 Brinell max

10E

High Chromium

1225/1300! hour min

stainless steal
11A
group 1

9% nickel sleel

Above 2" 1025/1085 1 hour min Inole;

cooling
rate to be above 300/Hr down to 800)

1250/13001 hour/inch

Heat Treatment of Pipewelds with

48kVA Heat Treatment Unit and Pad Elements

II

II
415V 3 PHASE 60 AMP SUPPLY

CIRCUIT 1

CIRCUIT 2

J.

Note:
'Circuits 3, 4, 5 and 6 have not been shown for clarity,

TYPICAL 48kVA 6 CHANNEL HEAT TREATMENT UNIT PACKAGE

Item No.

Qty.

Stock No.

Page

Description

10334

48kVA 6 Channel Heat Treatment Unit

35024

Triple Cable Sets

32001

2 way Splitter Cables

32002

3 way Splitter Cabies

15

See Range

12-18

42011

22

2m Thermocouple with Plug

As Req.

43007

22

High Temperature Cement

See Range

19

Ceramic Fibre Insulating Mats

41756/7

11

Thermocouple Attachment Unit

Heating Elements

Items 5, 6, 7 and 8 are consumables and quantities required will depend on extent of work and production rate.

Circumferential Stress Relief of Pressure Vessel

Welded Seams using Twin Bulkhead Method
and Channel Elements
CABLE ENTRY THROUGH VESSEL
'MAN-WAYS'
ROLLER SUPPORTS FOR
EXPANSION

STEEL BULKHEADS
TYPICAL RECOMMENDED
IRON MESH WIRED
TO BULKHEADS
HEIGHT FOR MILD STEEL
CHANNELS

6 CHANNEL 415V DISTRIBUTION UNIT AND

TEMPERATURE RECORDER

MILD STEEL CHANNELS

TO SUPPORT ELEMENTS

WEATHER PROTECTION
FIXED SUPPORTS

4-12mm RODS

THERMOCOUPLES
ATTACHED TO WELDED
SEAM AND AT GRADIENT
POSITIONS

MINERAL WOOL MATS 60mm THICK WITH

SINGLE LAYER OVER GRADIENT ZONES
AND DOUBLE LAYER OVER THE HEATED
ZONE

TYPICAL PACKAGE FOR PWHT OF 3M DIAMETER SEAM

Item No.

Qty.

Stock No.

Page

14002

6 Channel 415V Distribution Unit

12

30001

19

Feed Cable (4/3 Heating Elements)

32002

19

3 way Splitter Cable (1/Phase)

27750

18

4-Bank Channel Elements (3/Phase)

40006

10

6 Point Temperature Recorder

34000

21

30m Compensating Cable (2 Pts/Heater)

3
4
5
6

Description

6'

42011

22

2m Thermocouple with Plug

As Req.

43007

22

High Temperature Cement

10 Bales

506-014

19

Mineral Wool Insulation

41756/7

11

Thermocouple Attachment Unit

9
10

Temperature Conversion Tables

Example
Find the knowntemperat re to be nverted in the Red column. Then
cc to th
read Centigrade uconversion
e
and
heit to right

204

400

752

therefore
40CTC
=
752T
400T
=
204C

98.9

210

410.0

204

400

752

510

950

1742

816

1500

2732

99.4
100.0
100.6
101.1

211
212
213
214

411.8
413.6
415.4
417.2

210
216
221
227

410
420
430
440

770
788
806
824

516
521
527
532

960
980
990

1760
1778
1795
1814

821
827
832
838

1510
1520
1530
Tj40

2750
2768
2786
2804

101.7

215

419.0

232

450

842

538

1000

1832

843

1550

2822

102.2
102.8
103.3
103.9

216
217
218
219

420.8
422.6
424.4
426.2

238
243
249
254

460
470
480
490

860
878
896
914

543
549
554
560

1010
1020
1030
1040

1850
1868
1886
1904

849
854
860
866

1660
1570
1580
1590

2840
2858
2876
2894

104.4

220

428.0

260

500

932

566

1050

1922

871

1600

2912

105.0
105.6
106.1
106.7

221
222
223
224

429.8
431.6
433.4
435.2

266
271
277
282

510
520
530
540

950
968
986
1004

571
577
582
588

1060
1070
1080
1090

1940
1958
1976
1994

877
882
888
893

1610
1620
1630
1640

2930
2948
2966
2984

107.2

225

437.1

288

550

1022

593

1100

2012

899

1650

3002

107.8
108.3
108.9
109.4

226
227
228
229

438.8
440.6
442.4
444.2

293
299
304
310

560
570
580
590

1040
1058
1076
1094

599
604
610
616

1110
1120
1130
1140

2030
2048
2066
2084

904
910
916
921

1660
1670
1680
1690

3020
3038
3056
3074

110.0

230

446.0

316

600

1112

621

1150

2102

927

1700

3092

110.6
111.1
111.7
112.2

231
232
233
234

447.8
449.6
451.4
453.2

321
327
332
338

610
620
630
640

1130
1148
1166
1184

627
632
638
643

1160
1170
1180
1190

2120
2138
2156
2174

932
938
943
949

1710
1720
1730
1740

3110
3128
3146
3164

112.8

235

455.0

343

650

1202

649

1200

2192

954

1750

3182

113.3
113.9
114.4
115.0

236
237
238
239

456.8
458.6
460.4
462.2

349
354
360
366

660
670
680
690

1220
1238
1256
1274

654
660
666
671

1210
1220
1230
1240

2210
2228
2246
2264

960
966
971
977

1760
1770
1780
1790

3200
3218
3236
3254

115.6

240

464.0

700

1292

677

1250

2282

982

1800

3272

116.1
116.7
117.2
117.8

241
242
243
244

465.8
467.7
496.4
471.2

377
382
388
393

710
720
730
740

1310
1328
1346
1364

682
688
693
699

1260
1270
1280
1290

2300
2318
2336
2354

988
993
999
1004

1810
1820
1830
1840

3290
3308
3326
3344

118.3

245

473.0

399

750

1382

704

1 300

2372

1010

1850

3362

118.9
119.4
120.0
120.6

246
247
248
249

474.8
476.6
478.4
480.2

404
410
416
421

760
770
780
790

1400
1418
1436
1454

710
716
712
727

1310
1320
1330
1340

2390
2408
2426
2444

1016
1021
1027
1032

1860
1870
1880
1890

3380
3398
3416
3434

121

250

482

427

800

1472

732

1350

2462

1038

1900

3452

127
132
138
143

260
270
280
290

500
518
536
554

432
438
443
449

810
820
830
840

1490
1508
1526
1544

738
743
749
754

1360
1370
1380
1390

2480
2498
2516
2534

1043
1049
1054
1060

1910
1920
1930
1940

3470
3488
3506
3524

149

300

572

454

850

1562

760

1400

2552

1066

1950

3542

154
160
166
171

310
320
330
340

590
608
626
644

460
466
471
477

860
870
880
890

1580
1598
1616
1634

766
771
777
782

1410
1420
1430
1440

2570
2588
2606
2624

1071
1077
1082
1088

1960
1970
1980
1990

3560
3578
3596
1614

177

350

662

482

900

1652

788

1450

2642

1093

2000

3632

182
188
193

360
370
380

680
698
716

488
493
499

910
920
930

1670
1688
1706

793
799
804

1460
1470
1480

2660
2678
2696

1099
1104
1110

2010
2020
2030

3650
3668
3686

371

9 70

199

390

734

504

940

1724

810

1490

2714

1116

2040

3704

Conversion Factors
Length

Density

Power, heatflow rate

1 cm
1m
1 km

= 0.394 in
= 3.281 ft
= 0.621 mile

1 kg m~3
1 kg m-3
1 kg m'3

= 0.0624 lb f t" 3
= 0.1 lb (Imp gal)"1
= 0.835 lb (US gal)"'

1W
1 kW
1 kW

=0.86kcalh-1
=3412 Btu lr'
=56.87 Btu min"1

1 in

= 25.4 mm

1 lb ft"3

= 16.02kg nv3

1 Btu h"'

=0.293 W

1 kcal h-'

=1.163 W

1 ft
1 yd
1 mile

= 30.48 cm
= 0.9144 m =
1.609 km

1 kg
1kg
1 tonne
1 tonne
1 tonne

Mass
= 35.27 ounce
= 2.205 lb
= 2205 lb
= 0.984 Imp ton
= 1.102 US ton

1 ounce
1 lb
1 Imp ton
1 Imp ton
1 US ton

= 28.35 g
= 0.4536 kg
= 1016 kg
= 1.12 US ton
= 907 kg

1 lb (Impgal)" 1 =99.8 kg rrr

1 lb IUS gall- = 119.8 kgnrr3

Specific heat capacity

1 kJkg-^C-'
1 kJm-^C"1

=0.239 Btu Ib^F"1

=0.0149 Btufr3F-1

Area
1 cm2
1 m2
1 km*
1 ha

= 0.155 in2
= 10.76 ft2
= 0.386 mile2
= 2.471 acre

1 Btu lb'F-' =4.187 k J k g - , 0 C - '

1 Btu fr 3 0 F - 1 =67.07 kJm-3C-'

1 in;
1 ft2
1 mile2
1 acre

= 6.452cm2
= 0.093 m2
= 2.590 km +
0.405 ha

Thermal conductivity
1 Wm-^C"'
1 Wm-^C"1

=0.578 Btu ft"1 Ir^F"1

=6.93 Btu in fr2rr'F-'

1 Btu ft"' h-10F-' =

1.73Wm-,0C-'
1 Btu in ft"2 rr10F-' =

0.144Wrrr1oC-1

Energy
Volume
1 m3
1 m3
1 m3
1 m3
1 litre
1 litre

= 35.31 ft3
= 220 Imp gal
-264 US gal
= 6.29 barrel
= 0.22 Imp gal
= 0.264 US gal

1J
1J
1J
1 kJ
1 MJ
1 MJ
1 kWh

= 0.239 cal
= 0.738 ft Ibf
= 107 ergs
= 0.948 Btu
= 0.0095 therm
= 0.3725 hp hour
= 3.60MJ

1 ft3
1 ft3 1

= 0.0283 m3
= 28.32 litre =

1 cal
1 Btu 1

= 4.187 J
=1.055 kJ =

1 ft:*
1 barrel
1 barrel

= 7.48 US gal
= 42 US gal
= 159 litre

1 therm
1 therm
1 ft Ibf

= 105.5 MJ
= 29.31 kWh
= 1.356J

Heat transfer coefficient

1 Wm-2C-' =0.176 Btu ft^h"1 QF-1
1 Wm-^C"1 =0.86 kcal m-2h'C-1
1 Btu ft-ioF-' = 5.678 Wm^C"1
1 kcal m-2lr10C-1 =
1.163 Wm-2C-'

Temperature intervals
1 deg C
= 1.8 deg F = K
1 deg F
=0.556 deg C

Nominal Wall Thickness for Standard Imperial

(Non-Metric) Pipe (inches)
Nominal
Pipe Size

%1

1 V,
V/z

2
2K 3
3K
45
G
8
10
12
14
16

Outside
Dia.

Sch.
5S

Sch.
10S

Std.
Wt.

Sch.
40

0.840
1.050
1.315
1.660
1.900

0.065
0.065
0.065
0.065
0.065

0.083
0.083
0.109
0.109
0.109

0.109
0.113
0.133
0.140
0.145

2.375
2.875
3.500
4.000
"1.500

0.065
0.083
0.083
0.083
0.083

0.109
0.120
0.120
0.120
0.120

10.750
12,750
14.000
16.000

0.134
11156

0.165
0.180
0.250
0.250

Sch.
20

0.250

0.250
0,250
0.312
0312

Sch. 30

0.277

0.307
0.330
0.375
0.375

Sch. 60

Double
Double
Strong

0.147
0.154
0.179
0.191
0.200

0.137
0,218
0.250
0.250
0.231

0.294
0.308
0.358
0.382
0,400

0.218
0.276
0.3GO
0.318

0.218
0.276
0.300
0.318

0.343
0.375
0.438

0.436
0.552
0.600
0.636

0.337
0.3/5
0.432
0.500

0.337
0.375
0.432
0.500

0.531
0.625
0,718
0.906

0.674
0.750
0.864
0.875

0.500
0.500
0.500
0.500

0.593
0.687
0.750
0843

Sch. 80

0.109
0.113
0.133
0.140
0.145

0.147 0
154
0.179
0.191
0.200

0,154
0.203
0.216
0.226

0.154
0,203
0.216
0.226

0.237
0.258
0.280
0,322

0.237 0
258
0.280
0322

0,365
0.375 0
375
0.375

0.365
0.406
0.438
0.500

0.406

0.500
0.562
0.593
0.656

Sch,
140

Sch.
160

Extra
Strong

Sch.
100

0.593

0.718
0.843
0.937
1.031

Sch.
120

0.438
0.500
0.563
0,718
0,843
1.000
1.093
'.218

0.812

1.000
1,125
1.259
1.438

1.12-3
1.312
1.406
1.593

18

20
24

18.000
20.000
24.000

0.250
0.250
0.250

0.312
0.375
0.375

0.438
0.500
3.562

0.375
0.375
0.375

0.562
0.593
0.68/

0 750
0.812
0.968

0.500
0.500
0.500

0.937
1.031
1.218

1.156
1.281 1
531

1.375
1.500
1.8-2

1.562
0.750
2.062

1.781
1.968
1,343

Engineering Data
Physical Properties Of Typical Pressure Part Steels
Temperature

Density

Coefficient
of Thermal
Expansion
20C to Temp

Specific
Heat
20C to Temp

Kg ,nr3

Carbon Steel

20
200
400
600

7850
7850
7850
7850

12.7
13.8
14.6

511
561
611

54
49
43
36

Ferritic alloys

20
200
400
600

7850
7850
7850
7850

12.7
13.8
14.6

503
545
602

45
42
38
33

20
200
400
600
700

7970
7970
7970
7970
7970

16.7
18.0
18.7
19.2

520
541
555
562

14
17
20
23
25

Austenitic steels

K-U0-6

Thermal
Conductivity

J.Kg-i.K-1

Wm-i.K-i

Tensile Properties Of Typical Pressure Part Steels

Tensile
Strength
N .mm-2

Yield
Strength
N .mm-2

0.2% Proof Stress 0% for Austenitic Steels) at

various temperatures C N.mm-2
200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

Plates

430

230

190

180

160

155

150

140

135

130

Carbon Steel ICr

420

285

210

185

160

150

145

175

160

145

V2 Mo 2V4CMM0

480

280

205

200

195

190

185

115

110

105

18Cr 12Ni 2Mo

510

215

140

130

127

122

120

Pipes & Sections

490

340

260

240

220

200

185

170

165

160

Carbon Steel 1CrV2Mo

440

290

245

235

190

180

175

170

190

165

2V4Cr 1Mo

490

275

245

235

230

225

220

205

135

130

18Cr12Ni2Mo

510

245

170

165

160

150

145

140

Tubes

440

245

170

160

150

140

170

165

Carbon Steel 1Cr

460

180

195
150
190

145

190

180

175

190

165

187

225

220

205

128

125

135

130

178

175

182

179

V2M0 2V4Cr IMo

490

18Cr 12Ni2Mo

510

245

140

Esshete

540

270

184

275

600 .
100

125

122
170