International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences, 2(8) August 2013, Pages: 626-633

TI Journals

International Journal of Economy, Management and Social Sciences

ISSN
2306-7276

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The Nexus between Non Governmental Organisations and Rural

Development: The Case of Care Internationals Takashinga
Green Garden in Nyamandi Community Ward 19 Gutu District
Leonard Chitongo *1, Francis Kufakunesu 2
1,2

Department of Rural Development and Resettlement, Great Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe.

AR TIC LE INF O

AB STR AC T

Keywords:

The local community has succumbed to severe droughts in Nyamandi community in ward 19 Gutu
District as a result of climate change where erratic rainfall is being received causing crop failure.
With respect to such social distress in the localities, the study assesses the contributions of Non
Governmental Organisations (NGOs) in the process of rural development in an attempt to alleviate
poverty.

Non Governmental Organisations

Rural Development
Green Garden
Sustainable Rural Livelihoods
Food Security

The research assesses how the participants benefitted from participating in the project and also
highlights how the intervening of CARE International helped the local people in livelihood
development. The research also examined the challenges which were encountered by the
participating in the project.
The researcher used both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies to obtain information
pertaining to the study. Through the administration of questionnaires, Focus Group Discussions
(FGDs) and Key Informant Interviews (KIIs). Out of a population of 150 beneficiaries of the Green
gardens, a sample of 30 respondents was selected using stratified random sampling. The study
concludes that CARE International has been able to improve the rural livelihoods of the Nyamandi
community. The livelihoods introduced by the NGO include livestock projects, food for work and
the green gardens. CARE has helped in improving financial, human and social capital of the locals.
The researcher recommends that if water problems are resolved by irrigation the livelihoods of the
community members would greatly improve as they will have water supply throughout the dry
seasons.
2013 Int. j. econ. manag. soc. sci. All rights reserved for TI Journals.

Background of the study

In Zimbabwe, most people live in rural areas and agriculture is the major livelihood to support human life. Agriculture in rural areas is
being affected by climate change. Climate change has affected agricultural output globally because some areas are receiving low rainfall
which is causing crop failure. High temperatures are being experienced globally which are being caused by global warming (UNDP, 2010).
The erratic rains are threatening Southern Africas food output. Rainfall patterns in Southern Africa are becoming erratic as climate change
takes its toll threatening long term production of staple and cash crops in the region. Experts have said as climate patterns change, the
outlook for rain-fed agriculture was particularly bleak in Southern Africa (UNDP, 2010).
Since 1997, Zimbabwe experienced disturbances in agricultural sector resulting in ten years of failure in the agriculture sector and this
means that since the economy of Zimbabwe is agro based. The livelihood of the rural areas has been severely affected as agriculture is the
dominant livelihood in rural areas (FAO, 2006). Due to climate change rural livelihoods have been severely affected as agriculture is the
dominant livelihood. The hyper inflation of 2007 and 2008 coupled by the drought in the same years affected rural livelihoods. NGOs have
been helping with food handouts to reduce food insecurity. This saw the intervention of NGOs introducing sustainable approaches to
development, helping the poor to access basic needs through programmes like food for work. Kranzt (2001) posits that CARE
Internationals mandate as an International NGO is to focus its programmes on helping the poorest and most vulnerable either through
regular development programmes on helping the poorest and most vulnerable through regular development programmes or relief
programmes.
World Bank (2002) noted that most of the projects by people through the assistance of NGOs have convinced the needy people that NGOs
are effective agencies for the development of rural areas. Worldwide NGOs have become key in disbursing aid, money, inputs to
organisations and individuals mostly in developing countries. UNDP (2010) noted that Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee
(ZIMVAC) emphasised that NGOs are promoting community empowerment and individuals to make a sustainable living through the
* Corresponding author.
Email address: vachitongo@gmail.com

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provision of inputs for farming. Besley and Cord (2007) noted that ZIMVAC explains that NGOs focus on increasing rural incomes, aid
and service delivery to improve quality of life through income generation projects has improved livelihood outcome.
World Food Programme (2008) noted that NGOs activities are of great importance because NGOs are continuing and accelerating
economic development and this is a route of alleviating poverty. This can be evidenced by food for work programmes which are meant for
alleviating poverty. Besley and Cord (2007) posited that around the world mass poverty is found in rural areas which constitute 75% of the
people living in rural areas where they depend directly or indirectly on agriculture. Makumbe (1996) posited that NGOs make significant
contribution to Zimbabwes rural development by sponsoring selected programmes among the poor, NGOs have become important
agencies of promoting beneficiary participation in development. Rural development encompasses the improvement of livelihood and
capital (for example social, human and financial). Worldwide NGOs are seen as integral and institutional form of civil society thus NGOs
are seen as key players in the process of rural development and NGOs have become an important cornerstone of modern day rural
development process. In Zimbabwe people have explained that NGOs have pioneered development approaches to rural development which
seek to work with rural people, landless household through a combination of consciousness raising (for example credit for income
generation, education, health) and group formation for building solidarity among the disadvantaged households (Wallace et al, 2001).
NGOs provide local people with resources for carrying out development projects in which beneficiaries participate actively for instance
Takashinga Green Gardens where CARE International provided constructional material of the garden. Due to shortage of water since the
area receives erratic rainfall, CARE International constructed wells and boreholes to ensure continuous supply of water. Various crops
grown in the garden include vegetables, tomatoes and beans. Tools such as wheelbarrows, cans and water pumps where supplied by CARE
International.

Statement of the problem

Subsistence agriculture is the major livelihood of the Nyamandi community, due to climate change agriculture has been negatively affected,
which resulted in the problems of food insecurity of the households in the community. Crop failure was largely due to climate change as
low rainfall than expected was received. Food insecurity is a problem to the community as there is massive crop failure due to climate
change. Matiza (1999) noted that the climate of Zimbabwe has been variable and extreme droughts have been frequent in the last decades
and recently noted are the 1980/81, 1983-85, 1991-92, 1994-95, 2000-05 agricultural seasons. This prompted CARE international to
intervene in order to address this devastating scenario.

Aim of the study

To assess the role played by CARE International in rural livelihood development in Nyamandi ward 19 Gutu District.

Objectives of the study

To identify the rural livelihoods brought by CARE International in Nyamandi Community Ward 19 Gutu district.
Assess if the programme has managed to improve livelihood outcome and reduce vulnerability.
To examine beneficiary perceptions about the programme.

Study area
The research was conducted in Masvingo Province, Gutu District in the area of Chief Nyamandi. Takashinga Green Garden is located east
of Mpandawana Growth Point and is surrounded by Guzha and Chadzamira primary schools. Nyamandi community lies in agro-ecological
region 4 where rainfall is erratic. The area receives rainfall which is not adequate to support crop life. Near Takashinga Green Garden there
is a heavily silted Sote River which flows during the rainy season and during the dry season the river is dry. The garden lies in
Mukonoweshuro village.

Justification of the study

The study sought to evaluate how NGOs have improved livelihoods of the people in the community. Hence effectiveness and efficiency can
be enhanced through a detailed analysis of the intervention. It is also of importance to the government so as to recommend policies which
are relevant such as external support services to the local community and to promote grass root participation. The research also explores the
obstacles which are affecting rural food security. Invariably there is still some homework to be done in the area of NGOs and food security.
Knowledge gaps, for example, the unavailability of a research that specifically looks at Takashinga green garden provides the impetus and
rationale for undertaking this study. Inevitably the study is bound to share similarities with other studies that have been done in the past but
what differentiates it from the rest is its issue and area specificity.

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Methodology of the study

The research was carried out in the rural district of Gutu. It covered ward 19. Data was obtained from people through open ended and face
to face interviews with the respondents. In order to investigate how they view their plight and what they think can be the best solution to
their vulnerability. Structured and semistructured interviews were used for obtaining information. Household interviews were done using
30 questionnaires. In all these methods of collecting data, stratified random sampling method was used to qualify different persons for
giving data in question. Purposive sampling was used to target, focal point people such as traditional leaders, member of parliament and
CARE officials. Data was also obtained from the official records of several departments of government. Previous research works, published
books as well as reports were used to provide secondary data.

Conceptual framework
Livelihood Activities
All over the world, NGOs are increasingly influencing and mobilizing people at the grassroots level by strengthening their institutions and
raising their awareness calling for a equality led strategy that gives priority to achieving broad participation, ownership, control and
management of natural resources by people to serve their own resources by introducing more diversified livelihoods for example on-farm
activities (World Bank 2002).
NGOs and Rural Livelihoods
Muir (2000) noted that, generally NGOs concentrate on issues which are unique to each country and to a specific area for example,
Makumbe (1996) noted that, in Gutu the local people of Serima were engaged in rabbit production this helped the local people to improve
their livelihood outcome through income generation from that project.
Ashley and Carney (1999) noted that globally NGOs are seen to be in a better position to empower societies by improving their capitals
(human, social, financial) and via peoples organizations and to strengthen communities for instance in Africa, NGOs act as countervailing
force to community development and in the case of Zimbabwe NGOs are fostering and promoting grassroots organizations to become
numerous sizeable, resourceful and self reliant. NGOs are promoting grassroots development membership through which members secure
for themselves socio-economic interest.
NGOs adopt more effective approaches in mobilizing the rural populace in the development activities which result in alleviation of poverty.
World Bank (2005) posited that, NGOs are helping local people to develop noble approaches that smoothen transition from traditional
production practices to systems that are aligned with current markets and growing scarcity of natural resources. Barsley and Cord (2007)
noted that in Bangladesh the diffusion of new agricultural technologies is being done by NGOs and NGOs have featured prominently as
providers of microfinance, health provision and non formal education to the poor and particularly to poor women.
Sustainable Livelihood Approach
Serrat (2008) noted that Sustainable Livelihood Approach facilitates the identification of practical priorities for actions that are based on the
views and interests of those concerned. The Sustainable Livelihood Approach makes the connection between people and the overall
enabling environment that influences the outcomes of livelihood strategies. It brings attention to bear on the inherent potential of people in
terms of their skills, social networks access to physical and financial resources and ability to influence core institutions.
NGOs and the concept of Sustainable Livelihoods
The livelihood framework can be utilized for thinking through diversified rural livelihoods. This is a version of the asset-mediating process
activities framework that is utilized in various different guides by researchers concerned with poverty reduction, sustainability and
livelihood strategies. Muir (1992) posited that, inquest for solutions to development problems besetting the African continent, the donor
community are increasingly regarding NGOs as essential for democracy and empowering people thereby leading to more effective local
development of capitals than those promoted by governments for example in Zimbabwe and Zambia where Oxfarm is constructing and
building toilets thereby facilitating community development and the improvement of capitals. Robinson (1991) noted that NGOs have
become important actors in development assistance because of their scale operations for example in 1989, NGOs contributed US $6.4
billion to developing countries. Many NGOs have close links with poorer people, moreover their resources are largely additional, hence
NGOs compliment the development effort. In some instances NGOs fill in the gaps left by private and public sectors (Robinson 1991).
The role of NGOs in improving the vulnerability context
Eade and Ligtennigen (2001) posited that globally NGOs usually arise over necessities to read to more competent circumstances where
conventional structures will be failing to deliver and to sustain communities in the face of inabilities of governments to deliver because of
lack of determination and resources or capacity to respond to urgent social problems for example in Rwanda during the civil wars, NGOs
were operating giving food to the local communities. In Zimbabwe, many NGOs were operating in 2002 providing food aid to the rural
dwellers thereby improving human capital. Allen (2003) noted that NGOs have emerged as an influential force in development that has
alleviated the casts of institutional weaknesses which include administrative shortcomings and inefficiency to carryout development
initiatives such as compacting drought and providing social service.

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The NGOs exist since they are viewed as possible alternatives to government in addressing the needs of the population otherwise unreached
by official development resources. Besley and Cord (2007) noted that the significance of NGOs lies in their capacity to work with
communities at the grassroots level for example the Nicaguan cooperative in India that makes and markets hammocks and the cooperative
have been assisted by NGO which increased the benefits gained by women derived by women from rural development (Kottak 2009). The
NGOs wants to develop rural areas by trying to reduce the vulnerability context where people in rural areas are affected by shocks (for
instance droughts and floods) seasonalitys (for example unemployment).
NGO activities in poverty alleviation
Wallace et al (2000) noted that NGOs are seen as an alternative conduct for aid which would allow for development funds to be channeled
to certain countries as to improve the living conditions of the poor. NGOs have pioneered approaches which seek to work with rural people
through a combination of consciousness raising.
Eade (2000) posited that NGOs focuses on the great deal on the bottom up process of development which is constructed through
participatory actions by putting people at the centre of development. NGOs approach aims to increase effectiveness in poverty reduction by
mainstreaming a set of core principles which determine that poverty focused development activity should be people centered, responsive
and participatory. NGOs are applying a holistic perspective in the programming of support activities to ensure that these correspond to
issues or areas of direct relevance for improving poor peoples livelihoods.
State perception on NGOs
NGOs focus more on gradual change development of human resources usually group formation. NGOs main concern has been to identify
the needs of rural poor in sustainable development and they have therefore pioneered a wide range of participatory method of diagnosis and
in some contexts have developed and introduced system approaches for testing new technologies for example in Bangladesh that the
approach has extended beyond farming systems into processing and marketing as with soya production in Bangladesh and NGOs have
helped to organize landless labourers to acquire and operate water pumping technology (Carol 1992).
The Zimbabwean government noted that NGOs are providing lasting solutions to local problems for example in Honde Valley. The
Catholic Agency for Development initiated a smallhouse irrigation project to women where they practice vibrant horticulture and peoples
socio-economic conditions were improved (FAO 2006). NGOs improve the capitals of rural dwellers, improve vulnerability and reduce
food insecurity and at the same time fostering participation at local levels. However, the government of Zimbabwe also pointed out that the
NGOs have poor project identification in which local communities are not financially viable. The government also posited that NGOs cause
dependence syndrome in which people wait for donors to provide initiatives and the means to initiate and sustain them (FAO 2006).
Beneficiary perceptions towards NGOs
Makumbe (1996) noted that the participation of NGOs in the process of rural development is of vital importance for the provision of social
service and reduction of poverty. NGOs make a significant contribution to Zimbabwes rural development by sponsoring selected
programmes among the poor and NGOs have become important agents of beneficiary participation in development process for example the
case of Buhera where locals were engaged in cattle fattening which the local people viewed the project as a way of reducing vulnerability
and also as a way of improving livelihood through improving the income of the locals (Makumbe 1996). World Bank (2002) noted that
most of the projects undertaken by the people in the African countries through the assistance of NGOs have convinced the needy people
that NGOs are effective agencies for the development of rural areas. In Zimbabwe, the local people noted that NGOs have pioneered
development approaches which seek to work with rural people, landless households through a combination of consciousness raising (for
example credit, income generation, education and health) and group formation, building, solidarity among disadvantaged households.
NGOs and food security
The 1980s and the 1990s have seen an increase in the number of NGOs active in relief and development. The rise of the international scene
is an important phenomenon which has implications for the development prospects for the poor marginalized rural households, for the
future of these organizations themselves and for wider political economy of which they form a small but a growing part (Edwards 1998).
NGOs are seen as the most effective and efficient entitles for delivering international rural development. NGOs have done significant
improvements in some aspects of poor peoples standards of living in Zimbabwe. NGOs themselves claim that working directly with the
poor is the most efficient way to alleviate poverty and to improve food security and their projects contribute to lasting developments by
adhering to principles of sustainability and participation (Eade 2000). Deverajan et al (2000) noted that NGOs are effective in areas of relief
and rehabilitation as well as development programmes geared towards education, water supply for agriculture.

Findings of the study

Demographic characteristics of respondents
Gender distribution of the respondents
The majority of the respondents 65% are females, women are dominant in most production systems in rural areas both on farm and offfarm.

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Distribution of respondents by age

Table 1 below shows age distribution of respondents
Table 1. Age composition of the respondents

Age Groups
20 years and below
21-30
31-40
41-50
51+

Number of Respondents
4
6
9
5
6

Percentage
13.3
20
30
16.7
20

Total

30

100

Source Fieldwork 2012

All the respondents are in the economically active age group

Marital status of respondents

Results show that the majority of respondents are married 44%. Married households are more resilient to shocks and uncertainties.
Educational Qualification of Respondents
The majority of the respondents attained primary education 66% whilst only 2% reached tertiary education. The level of education
influences the level of adoption of the programme hence extension services are greatly needed.
Rural livelihoods brought by Care International in Nyamandi Community.
Various responses came out from the respondents about the various livelihoods brought by Care International. The majority of respondents
noted that the livelihoods brought by Care International acted as shock absorbers in addressing shocks and uncertainities in the area
precisely in food insecurity. Figure 1 below shows the livelihood activities brought by CARE International.

Livelihoodsbrought by CARE International

Livelihood Activities

Livestock Projects

Green Garden

Food For Work

10

20

30

40

Percentage of respondents

Figure 1. Livelihood activities

Source Fieldwork 2012

50

60

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Half of the respondents noted that the livelihoods brought by Care International increased food security, this involved beneficiaries
engaging in projects like food for work in the form of gully filling, dam construction and maintenance of roads. In return they were given
mealie-meal, beans and cooking oil. Kaseke et al (1998) noted that the Food for Work programme acts as drought mitigation measure. The
objective was also to mobilize labour for the development of community infrastructure. The food for work programme acted as a shock
absorber in time of stress especially in 2008 where they were experiencing food insecurity. The respondents further rated that the project
helped to rehabilitate their environment from further environmental degradation thereby protecting their environment.
30% of the respondents argued that the Green Gardens managed to reduce vulnerability since the project promoted social connectedness as
co-operatives were largely encouraged. The green garden improved the social and financial capital. Income increased through sales from
the produce. Extension services from both Care and AREX officers improved yields through improved farming methods.
17% of the respondents revealed that Care International brought livestock projects where the locals were given goats and some small
livestock such as chickens to breed. The project helped to reduce vulnerability and improved the financial capital of the locals. The project
helped the poorest and vulnerable groups which included the orphans and the elderly by strengthening their capability in order to enable
them to take initiatives to secure their own livelihoods. The respondents explained that the project empowered the locals by reducing their
vulnerability context this is a prerequisite for sustainable rural livelihoods development.
Programme Achievements
Issues of social exclusion are inevitable in rural development hence not all the intended beneficiaries were selected. The majority of the
rural poor were left out from most of the projects this entails that if efficiency is to be realized there is need to scale up the magnitude of the
intervention. Yields increased significantly which resulted in improved livelihood outcomes the income generated was used for other
livelihood diversification strategies.

Average Crop Yield

350
300

Kilo grams

250
200
150

Onions
Beans

100
50
0
2010

2011
Years
Figure 2. Average yield for beans and onions
Source Filed work 2012

There has been improvement in the yield of both onion and beans. The increase in yields in 2011 was largely because of more efficient cooperation inputs were delivered on time as compared to 2010. This boosted production to the farmers which resulted in some of them
buying production equipment like water pumps, wheel barrow. Krantz (2001) noted that, NGOs support household livelihoods security
primarily at community level. Thus the programme improved the livelihoods outcomes and reducing vulnerability. Figure 3 below shows
production assets of beneficiaries.

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Namber of tools

Production Assets Owned

50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Wheelbarrows
Shovels
Watering Cans

2009

2010

2011

Years
Figure 3. Production Asset Ownership
Source Field work 2012

Since 2009 the programme faced a challenge of shortage of production assets. In the year 2010 there was a notable increase in these assets
the increase is attributed to Care Internationals donation as part of the integrated package this ensured efficiency in the preparation of the
land. Robinson (1991) noted that NGOs have become important actors in development assistance because of their large scale development
operations in rural areas. Robinson (1991) further noted that many NGOs have demonstrated an ability to reach out to the poor people,
work in inaccessible areas hence achieving things which are difficult to accomplish under normal circumstances. These production tools are
collectively owned by all the beneficiaries and they are monitored by the Chairperson of the programme.
Beneficiary Perceptions about the Programme.
Generally all the respondents were happy with the intervention an improvement in livelihood outcome was noted. Beneficiaries highlighted
that the income generated was used to pay school fees, buying food for the household, starting small projects like rearing rabbits and
poultry production.
Expenditure patterns
The expenditure patterns are outlined as follows 28% paid school fees for their children. Makumbe (1996) pointed out that, NGOs make a
significant contribution to Zimbabwean rural development by sponsoring selected programmes among the poor and NGOs have become
important agent of beneficiaries participation in development. Whilst 40% used the income they generated to buy food for household
consumption hence the programme improved food security. As for the small livestock project 17% used their income to sustain poultry,
rabbit production. Makumbe (1990) posits that small projects have helped the local people to improve the rural livelihoods as the local
people are engaged in projects which have high turnover. 20% of the respondents indicated that they are using the income for various
purposes which can generally be termed sundry. The majority of the beneficiaries noted that production increased through extension
services from Field Officers and Arex Officers and they further explored that this has boosted their farming morale as the farmers are being
supported by Care International.
The programme promoted social connectedness among the local people as the participants are engaged in a micro finance project
(mukando) which have promoted and improved both social and financial capital. The Care International workers helped to improve cooperation among the local people as there was another way for boosting production. Ashely and Corney (1999) noted that, globally NGOs
are seen to be in a better position to empower society by improving their capitals (human, social and financial) and NGOs act as
countervailing face to development. Care International is increasingly influencing and mobilizing people at the grass root level by
strengthening their local institutions thereby promoting social connectedness and raising their awareness by advocating for equality. The
respondents further explored that the programme helped to improve their financial capital or previously noted that the programme helped to
improve their financial capital as previously noted in the previous projects. The respondents noted that the programme helped them by
improving their financial capital as compared by improving their financial to the poor and to some of the non-participants. A major
challenge is what of unreliable and inconsistent rainfall hence there is need to develop irrigation systems to address this perennial problem.
Some of the constructed wells dry during the dry season leaving farmers with little provision of water. Another challenge of the
programmes was that of late distribution of inputs which affects the growing calendar which they use when planting crops. 27% of the
respondents explained that in the programme they face a challenge of Theft of their produce once their produce are ripe for harvest. Their
arguments are that the theft is from non-participants.

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Conclusion
CARE International has been able to improve the rural livelihoods of the Nyamandi community. The livelihoods brought by the NGO
include livestock projects, food for work and the green garden. The NGO have helped in improving the capitals of the community. The
capitals improved include financial, human and social. NGOs are the modern day corner stones of rural development because of their
activities which are perceived to be apolitical. The programmes brought by the NGO reduced food insecurities for instance the food for
work where the locals rehabilitated the environment and in return were given food handouts to reduce food insecurities.
NGOs have a positive impact in improving rural livelihoods outcomes and reducing vulnerability. Livelihood outcomes were improved
through increases in the output of crops grown in the garden and this was largely because of cooperation. NGOs support household
livelihoods security primarily at community level as evidenced by increase of production assets donated to the garden from 2009 -2011.
The interventions were able to improve rural poverty through income generation which was used for various purposes like paying school
fees and starting small projects at their homesteads and this improved their capitals.

Recommendations
Since Nyamandi community is in region four which receives erratic rainfall ,there is need to drill more boreholes and wells such that during
dry season the community will not run into water problems. There is also need for the farmers to stock in fuel such that water is pumped all
the time in the tanks. This will increase efficiency in the irrigation services.
Takashinga Green Garden participants face the problem of marketing of their farm produce hence they need to liase with boarding schools
like Dewure, Gutu High and Mutero High such that they could sell their products. Contract farming is another solution for this problem of
marketing.
The intervention is not adequate hence the number of gardens need to be increased so that it expands to other non participants which meet
the beneficiary selection criteria. If more green gardens are introduced in the area it would solve the problem of theft since more people will
be participants. CARE International should also distribute inputs in time so that the farmers planting calendar will not be affected. Late
distribution of inputs affects the moral of the farmers.

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Authors
Chitongo Leonard is a lecturer in the Department of Rural Development and Resettlement, Great Zimbabwe University P.O. Box 1235 Masvingo, vachitongo@gmail.com,
+263773 293 3431.
Kufakunesu Francis is a High School Teacher who specialized in Rural Development and Resettlement.