Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Simple
Present
Affirmative/Negative/Question
A: He speaks.
N: He does not speak.
Q: Does he speak?
Present
A: He is speaking.
Progressive N: He is not speaking.
Q: Is he speaking?
Use
facts
Past
A: He was speaking.
Progressive N: He was not speaking.
Q: Was he speaking?
Present
Perfect
Simple
A: He has spoken.
N: He has not spoken.
Q: Has he spoken?
Signal Words
always, every ,
never, normally,
often, seldom,
sometimes,
usually
if sentences type I
(If I talk, )
at the moment,
just, just now,
Listen!, Look!,
action taking place only for a now, right now
limited period of time
putting emphasis on
the result
yesterday, 2
minutes ago, in
1990, the other
day, last Friday
if sentence type II
(If I talked, )
when, while, as
long as
Present
A: He has been speaking.
Perfect
N: He has not been speaking.
Progressive Q: Has he been speaking?
Past
Perfect
Simple
A: He had spoken.
N: He had not spoken.
Q: Had he spoken?
Past
A: He had been speaking.
Perfect
N: He had not been speaking.
Progressive Q: Had he been speaking?
Future I
Simple
Future I
Simple
A: He will speak.
N: He will not speak.
Q: Will he speak?
A: He is going to speak.
N: He is not going to speak.
Q: Is he going to speak?
(going to)
Future I
A: He will be speaking.
Progressive N: He will not be speaking.
Q: Will he be speaking?
Future II
Simple
Future II
A: He will have been speaking.
Progressive N: He will not have been
putting emphasis on
the course or duration (not
the result)
sometimes interchangeable
with past perfect
progressive
sometimes interchangeable
with past perfect simple
putting emphasis on
the duration or course of
an action
spontaneous decision
by Monday, in a
action that will
week
be finished at a certain time
in the future
already, just,
never, not yet,
once, until that
day
if sentence type III
(If I had
talked, )
in a year, next ,
tomorrow
If-Satz Typ I (If
you ask her,
she will
help you.)
assumption: I
think, probably,
perhaps
in one year, next
week, tomorrow
speaking.
Q: Will he have been speaking?
putting emphasis on
the course of an action
putting emphasis on
the course / duration of the
action
Conditional
II Simple
puts emphasis on
the course / duration of the
action
Conditional
I Simple
A: He would speak.
N: He would not speak.
Q: Would he speak?
if sentences type
II
(If I were you,
I would
go home.)
if sentences type
III
(If I had seen that,
I would have
helped.)
PRESENT TENSES
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
In Simple Present, the action is simply mentioned and there is nothing being said about its completeness.
I eat.
I sleep.
I play.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
In Present Continuous, the action is on-going/ still going on and hence continuous.
I am eating.
I am sleeping.
I am playing.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
In Present Perfect, the action is complete or has ended and hence termed Perfect.
I have eaten.
I have slept.
I have played.
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
In Present Perfect Continuous, the action has been taking place for some time and is still ongoing.
I have been eating.
I have been sleeping.
I have been playing.
PAST TENSES
SIMPLE PAST TENSE
In Simple Past, the action is simply mentioned and understood to have taken place in the past.
I ate.
I slept.
I played.
PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
In Past Continuous, the action was ongoing till a certain time in the past.
I was eating.
I was sleeping.
I was playing.
PAST PERFECT TENSE
Past Perfect is used to express something that happened before another action in the past.
I had eaten.
I had slept.
I had played.
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Past Perfect Continuous is used to express something that started in the past and continued until another time
in the past.
I had been eating.
I had been sleeping.
I had been playing.
FUTURE TENSES
SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE
Simple Future is used when we plan or make a decision to do something. Nothing is said about the time in the
future.
I will eat.
I will sleep.
I will play.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE
The future continuous tense is used to express action at a particular moment in the future. However, the action
will not have finished at the moment.
I will be eating at 9 a.m.
I will be sleeping when you arrive.
I will be playing at 5 p.m.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
Future Perfect expresses action that will occur in the future before another action in the future.
I will have eaten before 10 a.m.
I will have slept before you arrive.
I will have played before 6 p.m.
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Future Perfect Continuous is used to talk about an on-going action before some point in the future.
I will have been sleeping for two hours when you arrive.
I will have been playing for an hour when it is 5 p.m.
Tense
Example
Explanation
Simple
Present
I play football every week. Here you want to say that it happens regularly.
Present
Progressive
Simple Past
Past
Progressive
You were doing it in the past. It's not sure whether the
action was finished or not.
Present
Perfect
Present
Perfect
Progressive
I have been
playingfootball for 2 hours.
You want to say how long you have been doing it. (You
started in the past and it continues up to the present.
Past Perfect
Past Perfect
Progressive
I had been playing football Here you want to point out how long you had been
when Susan came.
doing it before the girl came.
will-future
going tofuture
Future
Progressive
Future
Perfect
Conditional
Simple
Conditional
Progressive
I would be playingfootball.
Conditional
Perfect
I would have
playedfootball.
Conditional
Perfect
Progressive
Example
Simple Present
Present Progressive
Simple Past
Past Progressive
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
will-future
going to-future
Future Progressive
Future Perfect
Conditional Simple
Conditional Progressive
Conditional Perfect
Questions
Tense
Example
Simple Present
Present Progressive
Simple Past
Past Progressive
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
will-future
going to-future
Future Progressive
Future Perfect
Conditional Simple
Conditional Progressive
Conditional Perfect
CAN
1. It is used to express the ability to do something.
I can swim very well.
Can he can speak English fluently? - No, he can't.
We cannot sing at all!
2. It expresses the possibility to do something.
We can go to the seaside at last. Our holidays start next week.
3. We use it to say that something is probable.
It can be John. He has blond hair and he is wearing glasses.
4. It expresses the permission to do something.
Why not? You can marry her. She is a nice girl.
MAY
1. It is used for permissions.
You may borrow my car. I won't need it.
May I smoke here? - No, you can't, I'm sorry.
2. It is used to express probability or prediction.
They may call tomorrow. I hope so.
The main difference between may and can is in style. May is more formal than can. Can is typical of
spoken English.
3. The opposite of may is must not or may not.
May I smoke here?
- You mustn't smoke here. (strong prohibition)
- You may not smoke here. (more polite, very formal)
- You can't smoke here. (informal spoken English)
MUST
1. It is used for strong obligations. It is personal, because it expresses the speaker's opinion or will.
WILL
SHALL
Shall is a form of will, used mostly in the first person. Its use, however, is decreasing, and in any
case in spoken English it would be contracted to "-ll" and be indistinguishable from will.
The only time you do need to use it is in questions, when:
Making offers
Shall I fetch you another glass of wine?
Making suggestions
Shall we go to the cinema tonight?
MAY
Talking about things that can happen in certain situations
If the monitors are used in poorly lit places, some users may experience headaches.
Each nurse may be responsible for up to twenty patients.
With a similar meaning to although
The experiment may have been a success, but there is still a lot of work to be done. (= Although it
was a success, there is still ...)
MIGHT
Saying that something was possible, but did not actually happen
You saw me standing at the bus stop! You might have stopped and given me a lift!
WOULD
As the past of will, for example in indirect speech
General possibility
You can drive when you're 17. (present)
Women couldn't vote until just after the First World War.
Choice and opportunities
If you want some help with your writing, you can come to classes, or you can get some 1:1 help.
We could go to Stratford tomorrow, but the forecast's not brilliant. (less definite)
Future probability
Could (NOT can) is sometimes used in the same way as might or may, often indicating something
less definite.
When I leave university I might travel around a bit, I might do an MA or I suppose I could even get
a job.
Present possibility
I think you could be right you know. (NOT can)
That can't be the right answer, it just doesn't make sense.
Past possibility
If I'd known the lecture had been cancelled, I could have stayed in bed longer.
MUST
Examples here refer to British English; there is some variation in American English.
Necessity and obligation
Must is often used to indicate 'personal' obligation; what you think you yourself or other
people/things must do. If the obligation comes from outside (eg a rule or law), then have to is
often (but not always) preferred:
I really must get some exercise.
People must try to be more tolerant of each other.
You musn't look - promise?
If you own a car, you have to pay an annual road tax.
Strong advice and invitations
I think you really must make more of an effort.
You must go and see the film - it's brilliant.
You must come and see me next time you're in town.
Saying you think something is certain
This must be the place - there's a white car parked outside.
You must be mad.
What a suntan! You must have had great weather.
The negative is expressed by can't:
SHOULD
Giving advice
I think you should go for the Alfa rather than the Audi.
You shouldn't be drinking if you're on antibiotics.
You shouldn't have ordered that chocolate dessert - you're not going to finish it.
Obligation: weak form of must
The university should provide more sports facilities.
The equipment should be inspected regularly.
Deduction
The letter should get to you tomorrow - I posted it first class.
Things which didn't or may/may not have happened
I should have renewed my TV licence last month, but I forgot.
You shouldn't have spent so much time on that first question.
Ought to
Ought to usually has the same meaning as should, particularly in affirmative statements in the
present:
You should/ought to get your hair cut.
Should is much more common (and easier to say!), so if you're not sure, use should.
Word
British English
meanings
AA
The Automobile
Association (US: AAA)
A&E
American English
meanings
Alcoholics Anonymous
[2]
a type of
bet
[3]
(US: parlay)
ace
air marshal
la mode
fashionable
alternate
(adj.) constituting an
alternative, offering a choice
(UK usu. & US
also alternative) ("use
alternate routes")
"alternative", unconventional
("alternate lifestyles")
(n.) an alternative *; a
substitute
amber
orange-yellow colour
fossilised resin; a material
used in the construction of
some tobacco pipes' stems;
female given name; (sealed in
physician trained to
induce anesthesia
(US: anesthesiologist)
anchor
a parka
hooded, rainproof outerwear
(slang) a socially
that lacks a full-length zipper in
awkward person
the front (UK: cagoule)
obsessively interested in
something (syn.
US: geek, nerd; dweeb;
etc.)
apartment
ass
athletics
to dispense (money), to
budget
donkey
slow-witted or stupid person,
often in combination (dumbass)
unpleasant or unthinking
person (less common
colloquially) ("you ass")
(often
vulgar) buttocks (UK: arse);
also, by synecdoche, the
person ("your ass is dead");
also (vulgar) anus (short
forasshole)
(vulgar) sex ("get some
ass")
(adv.) a postpositive
intensive (i.e., to add
emphasis to an adjective)
("He drove a big-ass truck")
kick-ass: to beat up or beat,
e.g. "I am going to kick his
ass" or, more positively,
something that beat (did
better than) everything else,
e.g. "The opening band was
kick-ass."
(vulgar) someone acting
inappropriately or
offensively ("That guy was
an ass!")
Athletic sports in general,
(e.g. College athletics)
an agent or representative
authorised to act on someone
else's behalf ("attorney-infact", "power of attorney")
(Attorney General) main legal
advisor to the government
attorney
aubergine
[edit]B
Word
Meanings common to
British and American
English
American English
meanings
backside
(n.)
posterior, buttocks
a type of firework
a particularly club-friendly
beat or song
a gang member (gangbanger)
bang(s)
small explosions or
reports;
(v.) have sexual
intercourse with (vulgar
slang) ( e.g. "bang some
chick" or "he's banging
her")
base
many meanings in
sciences, architecture,
politics, military
installation, etc.;
see base
bash
to strike physically
to attack verbally
a party or celebration
"they're having a little
bash this weekend" (orig.
US, but now probably
more common in UK than
US)
bath
bathroom
beaker
beater
beaver
bee
a four-winged insect
a meeting for communal
which collects nectar and work or amusement
pollen, produces wax and
honey, and lives in large
communities
bender
bespoke
pret. of bespeak
bill
billion
bin
bird (np.)
avian creature
an aircraft
blinkers
block (n.)
a solid piece of
something
to obstruct
(basketball) a blocked
shot, or (plural) in the low
post position near the
basket, as in "on the
blocks"
bloody
considered
a euphemism for more
emphatic swear words
blow off
to break wind
bogey
boiler (n.)
an explosive weapon
bonk
endurance sporting
event; see hitting the wall
bonnet
hinged cover over the engine in a hat tied under chin worn
car (US: hood)
by a baby or (archaically)
a woman
boob (n.)
boob tube
boost
boot
boss
bottle
stupid person
brace
bracers
braces
over-the-shoulder straps to
support trousers *(US
usu.suspenders, q.v.)
brew (n.)
beer
coffee
brilliant
bud
marijuana (slang)
hand-rolled marijuana
cigarette (slang),
compare joint
refreshment counter or
bar;
a meal set out on a table,
etc. for diners to serve
themselves
insect of the
order Hemiptera
pathogen, bacteria, germ
covert listening
device (orig. US)
defect in software (orig.
in a machine) (orig. US)
an enthusiast of
something (orig. US)
Volkswagen Beetle
(v.) to apply a covert
listening device (orig. US)
(v.) to annoy (colloquial)
bug
a type of sideboard
bugger
buggy
2-wheeled horse-drawn
(slang) an automobile
lightweight carriage
(orig. US)
baby transport vehicle also called see baby transport for
4-wheeled horse-drawn
lightweight carriage
baby transport vehicle also
slang)
butt)
bumps
a set of small
protuberances
bunk
to be absent without
authorization:
bureau
a public office or
government agency
burn (n.)
to travel by bus
bum
bus (v.)
butcher
butchery
(n.)
slaughterhouse, abattoir
a cruel massacre
a butcher's trade
a botch
butt (n.)
buzzard
vulture (slang)
[edit]C
Word
callbox (n.)
British English
meanings
Meanings common to
British and American
English
to require or advocate
can (n.)
a box with
compartments for
storing eating utensils,
silverware etc.
a military mess kit
water bottle, typically
used for military or
camping purposes.
overland
trading convoy
towed recreational
vehicle containing
accommodation
(US:travel trailer)
to take such a vehicle on
holiday
caretaker (n one who takes care of a
building, usu. a state.)
owned building, i.e.
school (US: janitor; cf.
s.v. custodian)
one put in charge of a
farm after eviction of
tenant
carnival
one who takes care of one who takes care of real estate
someone or something in exchange for rent-free living
stopgap government
accommodations *
or provisional
government
carousel (n.
)
a moving
a rotating fairground ride
luggage/baggage
(UK: merry-go-round, roundabout)
display unit, most often
at airports
4-wheeled horse-drawn
carriage (n.) railway coach (q.v.)
designed for the
private passenger
conveyance of
vehicle
passengers
the conveying of goods or
the price paid for it
("carriage-paid");
"handling"
carry on,
carryon
(n.) a
travelling circus or fair (UK: funfair
) comprising amusement rides
affair<Ltl.Oxfd.Dict.2002
ISNB 0198604521>
usu. 2-wheeled onehorse vehicle (as that
used in farming)
cart
casket (n.)
casualty
(person)
generally, someone
who has been injured
chaps [?]
check
checker
cheers
said to express gratitude
(interjection in England, or on parting
(slang). Also cheerio.
)
used as a toast or
valediction
chemist
pharmacist, pharmacy
student or researcher
(US
of chemistry
similar: druggist, drugstor
e)
to chew on something,
i.e. food
chew
chip in
to contribute (as
money) (orig. US)
chum
cider
Cinderella
a team which
underachieves, or is
overshadowed by
successful neighbouring
rivals*
city
London, London's
financial centre, hence
financial markets and
investment banking more
generally (c.f. US Wall
Street)
clerk
administrative worker
closet
coach
cob
The portion of
a corn plant around
which the kernels grow.
a building material
a type of horse
a male swan
cock
spring-activated
camera
(n.) A type of tap,
faucet, or valve (e.g.,
a stopcock).
collect
college
constituent part of
some larger
universities,
especiallyancient
universities
comforter
small cabinet
plumbing
compensati
on
the act of
compensating
damages awarded for
a legal wrong
(workers'
compensation)
payment to injured
workers
remuneration received by
employees
(unemployment compensation)
compensation paid to an
unemployed person (as a laid-off
worker), arising from government
resources
condominiu
m
a political
territory (state or border
area) in or over which
two sovereign powers
formally agree to share
equally dominium (in
the sense of
sovereignty) and
exercise their rights
jointly
constable
construction
technically, a police
officer of any rank, but
usu. understood to mean
a police officer of the
lowest rank (one who
holds no other more
specific rank)
(US: officer or patrolman)
assigning of meaning
to ambiguous terms
cooker
cookie
a bun (Scotland)
a small packet of
information stored on
a biscuit of a particular
users' computers by
variety, usually containing websites
chocolate chips (often
referred to as a
"chocolate chip cookie")
cop
copper
the metallic
element copper
police officer (slang,
orig. UK)
coriander
corn
orn
flour), cornbread, cornball, cornbla
de, etc.
something corny *, hence cornball
combination
(e.g. cornfield, a field of
any cereal)
(see also US)
cot
camp bed
a (solidified) stream of
lava
coulee
course
court shoe
cowboy
an unscrupulous or
unqualified tradesman
a legendary archetype
found in Wild West
genre works
crche
thin, hard,
unsweetened biscuit
(formerly chiefly US,
now common
everywhere)
crew
rowing as a sport
crib (n.)
nativity
scene, crche (q.v.) *
a manger or rack, or
stall for cattle
a plagiarism, as of a
student ("crib sheet")
cribbage
crisp
crumpet
an attractive female
(slang)
A savoury waffle-like
cake made from flour or
potato and yeast
cubicle
A compartment in a
bathroom with low walls
that contains a toilet.
(US: stall)
A compartment in a
larger area separated
from similar adjoining
compartments by low
walls, such as in an
office area.
cuffs
The ends of a
garment's sleeves,
furthest from the
wearer
short for handcuffs
cunt
custodian
an association
football goalkeeper
[edit]D
Word
Meanings common to
British and American
English
American English
meanings
daddy longlegs,
daddy-long-legs
crane fly
Opiliones
davenport
dead
deceased
completely, perfectly
("dead straight", "dead
on", "dead right")
extremely quiet (e.g.
business or nightlife)
(dismissive usage)
boring
dead beat,
deadbeat
(slang)
DC
deck
Dennis the
Menace
depot
direct current
(see also other
expansions)
District of Columbia
a wooden, raised
platform adjoining a
house, usu. enclosed
by a railing
a packet of narcotics
(slang)
(v.) to pile up (logs) on
a deck of logs or a
skidway
(on deck) in baseball,
the hitter due up next
("Albert is on deck, so
they must be careful to
not walk this batter.").
A general usage
connotes availability,
e.g. "Who's on deck?"
(Who is available to do
this?). Occasionally
used to indicate who is
next in line.
a storehouse or
depository; a location
for the storage of
military or naval
supplies
(pronounced /dpo/ in
BrE, /dipo/ in AmE)
A slow-release drug
injection (usu.
psychiatric)
a railroad station or
bus terminal or station;
also, an air terminal
(pronounced /dipo/)
(pronounced /dpo/ in
both dialects)
DI
diary
personal calendar
*(US: appointment
book, appointment
calendar, datebook)
personal journal
digital radio
dim (trans.
v.),dimmer (switch)
to lower a
vehicle headlight's
beam, typically when
approaching vehicles
travelling in the
opposite direction at
night (UK: dip);
hence dimmer
switch (UK: dip switch)
diner
railroad dining
car (UK: restaurant
car)
a type of restaurant,
traditionally but not
necessarily often
resembling a dining
car
to use smokeless
tobacco
dirt
diversion
circuitous route to
avoid roadworks (US: detour)
deviation; recreation;
tactic used to draw
attention away from the
action
dock
(v.) to reduce an
constructed place to
employee's wages, usu. moor a boat or engage
as discipline
in water sports (largely
interchangeable
with pier or wharf,
although often with a
modifier, such as "ferry
dock", "swimming
dock", etc.)
docker
dockworker, stevedore
*(US: longshoreman)
dogging
pursuing diligently as a
dog would
dollar
dormitory, dorm
insulting in a persistent
fashion, often referring
to the dozens
pursuing someone
persistently
with many
beds,*typically in
aboarding school ("a
sleeping dormitory";
usu. abbreviated
todorm)
drape
an act of drawing, or
something drawn
a game result in which
no player/team wins
(also tie)
draw (n.)
cannabis (slang)
dresser (furniture)
a type
of cupboard or sideboard esp.
for kitchen utensils *
duck
a chest of drawers,
usu. with a looking
glass (mirror)
(UK:dressing-table)
a term of endearment
surface of water
(n.) a heavy cotton
fabric
duff
of poor quality
non-functional
(up the duff) pregnant (slang,
originally Australian)
a type of pudding
coal dust
dummy
mannequin, especially
for automobile crash
tests
fake, usu. legal
vegetable matter on
the forest floor
idiot (slang)
the contract
bridge player who faces
his hand after the
bidding/auction
dungarees
duplex
[edit]E
Word
earth
efficiency
el
Meanings common to
British and American
English
American English
meanings
the quality of
being efficient
the letter L
an elevated railway
(as that of Chicago or the
now-defunctThird Avenue El
in New York City)
elevator
elk
engaged
(adj.)
English
committed; involved in
something
betrothed
of or pertaining to
England
the English language
engineer
one employed to
design, build or repair
equipment
practitioner
of engineering
entre
estate
grounds of a large
piece of real property
which features
amansion and
evergreen
beautiful landscaping
property left by a
deceased person
[edit]F
Word
faculty
British English
meanings
Meanings common to
British and American
English
division of a university,
dealing with a specific
group of disciplines (e.g.
faculty of arts)
fag
cigarette (slang) *
male homosexual; vulgar
slur (short for faggot)
(in England; obs.)
young public
schoolboy who acted as a
servant for older pupils
drudgery, chore ("it is
such a fag I come back
tired to death" J.
Austen)
faggot
kind
male homosexual; vulgar
of meatball (see faggot
slur (see faggot (slang))
(food)), bundle of sticks,
usu. for use as firewood
(old-fashioned; often
spelled fagot), old musical
instrument similar to the
bassoon (often
In American English
"fag" always has the pejorative
meaning of male homosexual.
Use of the Americanism in the
media has rendered it
contextually understood by
Britons.
spelledfaggott)
fall
to become pregnant.
(Either as in 'I fell
pregnant' or as in 'She fell
for a baby.');
descend or tumble
autumn
become sick, come down
with an illness ("he fell
ill") (uncommon in US)
prove attractive ("fall for
someone", "fall in love")
fancy (v.)
fancy
dress
a costume worn to
impersonate a well-known
character, animal etc.,
typically at a fancy dress
party (US: costume party)
fanny
fender
a fire screen
a cushioning device to
fifth
ordinal number 5
one of five equal parts
into which something is
divided
filth
first
degree
first
floor (of a
building)
fit (adj.)
fix (v.)
flapjack
bar)
flannel
particular type of
fabric/material used for
the manufacture of
trousers or suits, but
more commonly
recognised in America as
a fabric used in warm
winter night clothes and
sheets
flat
(n.) self-contained
housing unit
(US: apartment)
(adj., of a battery)
discharged, exhausted,
dead
a type of footwear
an about-face or U-turn (UK
a type of electronic circuit also: about-turn), as in politics
flip-flop
fluid
ounce (fl.
oz.)
flyover
football
(usually) Association
football (US: soccer). Less
frequently applies to
Rugby football
(espec. Rugby union in
English private schools).
American football
footpath
(US: sidewalk)
forty (40)
forward
the number 40
a position in basketball,
nowadays split into power
forwards, who tend to play closer
to the basket, and small forwards,
who tend to either shoot from the
perimeter or drive from the
perimeter to the basket.
an outgoing disposition
a position in football
(soccer) in front of
midfielders
a collective term for
the ice
hockey players whose
main role is to score
goals, consisting of
two wingers and
acentre/center
next after third (e.g. the
fourth person, fourth
floor)
fourth
A musical interval
fringe
arrangement of locks of
hair on the forehead
(US: bangs)
frock
full stop
furnace
an amphibian
[edit]G
Word
Meanings common to
British and American
English
American English
meanings
gagging
(especially as in gagging
choking
for it) desperate, especially fighting the urge to vomit
for sex (colloquial)
("that was so disgusting, I
was gagging")
gallon
gangbanger
a participant in a "gang
garage
(see
alsopronunciation
differences)
garden (n.)
rapist
(parking garage)
building serving as a
public parking facility
(UK: multistorey car
park or
just multistorey)
garnish
gas
geezer
gangster, man
(esp. Cockney)
give way
old person
(derogatory; UK: old
geezer [not derog.])
glaze
a slippery coating of
ice (also known
as sleet, q.v.); a
stretch of ice
gob
lump
go down (fig.)
to be accepted or
remembered (e.g. go down in
history)
to fail, esp. of a computer
go down on, to engage in oral
sex
to go on, happen
(often a major event,
e.g. a drug bust "it's
going down right now!"
or "it went down last
week". But also used
as a greeting, "What's
going down?")
goods
gooseberry
governor
government
level or year of a
student in elementary,
middle, or high school
("in 10th grade") (UK
equiv.: year);
hence grader, a
student in a specified
grade ("a 10th
grader")
(grade school, the
grades) elementary
school
see also Grade Point
Average
grade (other)
graduate (v.)
(education)
graduate (adj.)
(education)
to finish studying at
any educational
institution by passing
relevant examinations
relating to a student
taking a higher degree
(UK equiv.:
"postgraduate"), e.g.
graduate school
graft
hard work
horticulture)
grass
grammar school
grill
elementary school
(less common today)
to interrogate.
guard
grazing; to feed
(livestock) with grass
(UK: at grass, to put
out to grass)
in (American) football,
positions on either
defensive position
common division is
(nose-guard)
between point
guards (playmakers)
and shooting guards (more
often score-first).
guff
extraneous or useless
things, ideas, or
nonsense, insolent
paperwork/documentation;
also to break wind ("Have
you guffed, Dr Watson?")
gum
cement consisting of a
sticky substance that is
used as an adhesive (US
usually: glue)
a type
of confectionery composed
of chicle used for chewing
the soft tissue around the
teeth, or to chew something
with no teeth (also, gum at)
gutted
gyro
gyroscope
a sandwich,
the Greek gyro, more
familiar to Americans
than the
similar Turkish dner
kebab, which is more
common in Britain
[edit]H
Word
Meanings
common to
British and
American
English
half
word 'hauf')
halfway
house
drug
rehabilitation or
sex offender
centre. (Archaic)
An inn halfway
between two
towns, still seen
in many pub
names.
hamper
to impede or
hinder
hash
highway
hike
hire
(highway
robbery)
something too
expensive; see
alsohighwayman
a usu.
an increase in amount (as in
recreational walk wages) *
(to take a hike) to go away (also
used as a command)
hob
trouble (as in
"raising hob"
chiefly US)
(UK has less
common "playing
hob")
hock
a German wine ("down their fourand-twenty throats went four-andtwenty imperial pints of such rare
old hock" Charles Dickens)
(US: Rhine wine)
Hocktide, an ancient holiday
hock (zoology)
hockey
hockey played with a ball on grass hockey played on hockey played on ice with a puck
(field hockey) *
(ice hockey) *
a hard surface
(e.g. concrete) or
indoors
hog
hole-in-thewall
adult pig
motorcycle, especially a large
one such as a HarleyDavidson (derived
from Harley Owners Group, a
club for Harley-Davidson
motorcycle owners.)
holiday
home run
homely
hood
head covering
forming part of a
garment
component
of academic
regalia
argument
female genitalia
hooker
prostitute (informal) *
hooter
hull
hump
a rounded mass
sticking out from
its surroundings
(v., vulgar slang)
engage in sexual
intercourse,
animals breeding
or trying to breed
see
also Glossary of
rail terminology
[edit]I
Word
icebox
British English
meanings
Meanings common to
British and American
English
Indian corn
indicator
direction-indicator light
on a vehicle (US: turn
signal)
inspector
(police)
intern
replacement
international
interval
inventory
itemisation of goods or
the stock of an item on hand in a
objects (of an estate, in a store or shop
building, etc.)
the process of producing an
inventory in a store or shop
(UK:stocktaking)
IRA
Irish Republican
Army [not abbreviated in
U.S. without context]
[edit]J
Word
Meanings common to
British and American
English
jab
an injection with a
hypodermic needle, as in
the case of an inoculation
(US: shot)
janitor
an officer in a Masonic
Chapter (specialist
language)
a person employed to
oversee the cleaning and
security of a public building,
e.g. a school.
jelly
a clear or translucent
preserve made from the
liquid of fruits boiled in sugar
and set with pectin,
specifically without pieces of
fruit (e.g. 'crab apple jelly')
Jesse
jock
a Scotsman or a Scottish
Terrier (Scottie) (slang)
a private soldier (slang)
(UK: squaddie)
joint
jolly
happy; jovial
jug
jumper
pinafore dress
jump suit
just
fair, equitable
merely, simply, exactly,
barely (when used before
word it modifies)
[edit]K
Word
kebab
Meanings
common to
British and
American English
(often spelled
"kabob" in the US)
meat served on a
skewer together
with onions,
tomatoes, etc.
(e.g. shish kebab)
American English
meanings
keen
keeper
a curator or a goalkeeper
kit
kitty
affectionate term
for a housecat
piggy bank
vagina (vulgar slang)
("Singin' 'hey diddle
collective source of diddle' with your kitty in
the middle"
funds (esp. for a
Aerosmith, Walk this
group of people)
Way)
kleenex
specific brand of
disposable paper
handkerchief
(Kleenex)
a Genericized
trademark)
knickerbockers
a rounded door
handle
fool, idiot, dimwitted person
knock
over
to tip over
something
to cause an object
to fall over.
knock
up
to prepare quickly
("Knock us up
something to
eat" L.M. Alcott)
to impregnate, esp.
unintentionally*
(slang, sometimes
vulgar)
[edit]L
Word
British English
meanings
Meanings common
to British and
American English
ladder
a vertical or inclined
set of rungs or
steps.
lavatory
toilet
to stow
crop
(v.) to cultivate (a crop) for the last time
lead
leader
newspaper editorial
main violin in an
orchestra
(US: concertmaster)
see also Leader of the
Opposition
lecturer
let
levee
allow, give
(let out) to end (of school, meetings, etc.)
permission.
leave (as in let him
be or let it be)
ease (as in let up on
the accelerator)
indicate (as in don't
let on)
a first bad serve
which is allowed to
be retaken, as in
tennis, table tennis,
and volleyball
an early
a reception in
afternoon assembly hel honour of a
mechanical
take advantage of a capability (business)
advantage of a lever the use of debt finance (UK: gearing)*
knowledge not immediately revealed to
be used to one's advantage *
leverage
liberal
(politics)
a person who generally a person who holds a person who advocates modern
supports the ideas of
the political ideals
liberalism; see alsoLiberalism in the
the UK Liberal
of Liberalism.
United States for historic background
Democrats, a centre
left-party
life
preserver
lift (n.)
line
liquor
a distilled beverage *
(hard liquor) strongly alcoholic beverage;
spirits
(liquor store) retail establishment selling
liquor (usu. for consumption off the
premises) (UK similar: off-licence) ("I held
up and robbed a hard liquor store" Paul
Simon)
(malt liquor) a type of beer with high
alcohol content
the state of a
firearm with bullets
or shells in its firing
chamber.
bearing a load.
(slang; of a person)
rich
loaded
lolly
Frozen water-based
dessert on a stick (US:
popsicle).
lounge
love (in
informal term of
addressin address
g people)
loveseat
lox
lot
a seat which
accommodates two
people facing in
opposite directions.
Can be wooden or
padded.
drunk or high
a room for
a bar
relaxation in a public
place
beloved person,
darling (often a term
of endearment)
a two-seater couch
liquid
thin-sliced smoked salmon, commonly
oxygen (engineering consumed
on bagels;Yiddish from German 'Lachs',
)
salmon.
Luck out
To be unlucky
To be lucky
lugs (n.)
ears (lugholes)
a small projection
(engineering)
lumber
(v.) to move
awkwardly or
heavily ("he
lumbered out the
door")
lush
(slang; of
a person)
Conversation Practice
1. Practice telling your partner or classmates about your daily activities.
For example,
Every day I get up at _____o'clock.
Then, I eat my breakfast.
I go to work/class at _____ o'clock.
I usally finish work/class at _____o'clock.
In the evenings, I like to watch television.
I always go to bed at 10:30 p.m.
2. Ask your partner about his/her daily activities.
Example
Where do you work?
I work at Penny's.
When do you (usually) start work?
At 9:00 (a.m.)
I finish at 5:00 (p.m.)
Example
Tyra usually gets up at 7:30.
Then she takes a shower and brushes her teeth. . .
Cory and Lori are twins.
They live in Omaha.
They ride the bus to school every day.
I am John.
I am doing business.
I am a housewife.
He is my father.
She is my mother.
He is my elder brother.
He is my grandfather.
She is my grandmother.
He is my neighbour.
He is my classmate.
He is my colleague.
How are you?
How is life?
Fine.
I am fine.
Pretty well.
Fantastic.
Fit as a fiddle.
I am fine.
Fine.
He is fine.
Oh, well.
He is doing fine.
How is everybody?
Everybody is fine.
I am Mary.
I am Miss. Catherine.
I am Mrs. Obama.
I am working in Google.
What is he?
I live in London.
I am living in London.
I am residing at London.
I am from Chicago.
I belong to Chicago.
I am an Engineer.
I am a graduate in Engineering.
We are six people at home. My father, my mother, my two sisters and a brother besides
myself.
I am frank.
I am bold.
I am rather shy.
I am friendly.
I am reserved by nature.
I am very strict.
I am outspoken.
I am always positive.
I am a native of Washington.
I feel shy.
I feel hungry.
I feel thirsty.
I feel sleepy.
I feel tired.
I feel giddy.
I feel guilty.
I feel feverish.
I feel powerful.
My name is Raja.
He is a Business Man.
I belong to Chennai.
I am a B.E. graduate.
I am friendly person.
Very good.
Bear in mind.
Eat slowly.
Give it to them.
Hide it up somewhere.
Listen to me.
Meet me tomorrow.
Get up.
Remind me.
Return it safely.
Throw it out.
Don't go there.
Don't cry.
Don't shout.
Don't move.
Is it number 17?
Is he at home?
Is it true?
Is it Jolarpet?
Is it 8-3 coach?
Is he a teacher?
Is it useful?
Are you
ready?
Who is he?
Who said?
Is he bringing a file?
Is he buying fruits?
Is he learning English?
Is he running?
Is it raining?
How is it?
Thanks a lot.
That's OK.
That's alright.
No problem.
Go to hell.
Get lost.
Keep cool.
I get up at 6.30.
I get up at 5.15.
Yes. I have.
I leave at 9.15.
I go by train.
I go by bus.
I go by scooter.
I go by cycle.
I go to bed at 10.30.
Did you type the letter?
Did he come?
He came here.
He came to my office.
He came by bus.
He came by car.
You just wait there. I will come and pick you up.
I have a scooter.
I have a car.
He has a car.
He has no time.
I have no problem.
I have no objection.
By all means.
Yes. Certainly.
Oh. Sure!
No problem.
I don't mind.
I am sorry.
I asked you several times not to believe them, but you didn't listen to me.
I have asked you several times not to keep anything on the T.V., but you never listen to
me.
Your friend Sundar called. He has asked you to come to the Regal theatre at 6.30.
Mahesh called and said Mr. Surya had come from Mumbai. He has asked you to meet
him at Welcome hotel room no.302.
Hey Nagaraj. The manager has asked you to wait till he returns.
An important meeting is going on. The M.D. has asked us not to allow anybody inside.
Daddy, somebody came from your office. He said that he wanted to talk to
you something important.
Ravi came here yesterday. He said that he would be leaving for Madurai this Monday.
Mala rang up this morning. Her sister is getting engaged this Friday. She asked us to
be there by 4 o'clock.
Your tuition miss called. She said that there would be no class tomorrow.
Your aunt called this morning. She has asked you to come to her house tomorrow.
Dad... Our driver Kumar rang up. He said that his mother was not well. He could not
come today.
There was a call from Vasanthi. She said that her mother-in-law had come, so she
would not be coming to temple tomorrow.
The grocer came this morning. He said that a part of last month's bill is still due. And
he asked us to clear it this month.
The postman came again today. He said that if we didn't collect the parcel by
tomorrow, it would be sent back.
Do I adopt a child?
Was I appointed?
Did he attempt?
Does he complain?
It was my mistake.
I could have come by auto, but who would pay the fare?
On which platform is the Brindavan Express?
It is very cold.
Sir, it's midnight. Please switch off the light. I feel sleepy.
When is the next flight to Delhi?
Would you mind telling me when we get there? I am new to this town.
Sir, would you mind keeping this bag under the seat?
Conductor, you haven't paid the balance. I am to get down at the next stop.
Is introduction a must?
Sir, I am new to this town. I am working in Kaveri chemicals. This is my identitycard. Will
this card do to open the account?
What is the minimum balance I should keep to have cheque book facility?
Last week I deposited a cheque. Has the amount been credited to my account?
Is it S.M. Travels?
Is it Prasad's residence?
Is it Johns residence?
Yes, speaking.
Just a minute please.
He is on leave.
When is he expected?
He is out of town.
When is he returning?
He is on leave.
Anything to convey?
He knows my number.
I am Saravanan calling from Singapore. Would you please call Mr. Raja your neighbour?
Excuse me madam, May I come in?
Please do.
I am Mrs. Radha. I have come here regarding my son Mahesh's admission in your
school.
I am Mrs. Clinton.
He is 10 years old.
I have come to enquire about my son's performance in the class. How is he doing?
Is he coming regularly?
Sir, I am a paper supplier. It seems you wanted some papers. Whom should I meet in
this connection?
Sir, I am Ramesh Kumar from Alpha Agencies. We were informed that our cheque is
ready. Whom should I meet to collect the cheque?
I feel feverish.
Should I take these tablets before the meal or after the meal?
Is it serious?
Can I travel?
I am a graduate in commerce.
I am a B.Com., graduate.
I am a B.Sc., graduate.
You have no experience at all. How do you expect us to give you the job?
Sir, I agree with you I have no experience. But I am a fast learner sir.
Sir, I have necessary qualifications and a lot of experience in this field, so I think I am fit
for this job.
Sir, this is not new to me and I have three years of experience in this field.
Sir, I have been in the field of marketing for 5 years. I like the job that involves
marketing. And I am good at it.
Yes, sir. I have been working in Microsoft for the last seven years.
Sir, I am basically a science graduate, but am working as an accountant and the job is
not to my taste, so I am looking for a new job.
Can you suggest a nice gift for a two year old female child?
Is there nobody here at this counter? I have been waiting for half an hour.
I am sorry I am late.
It's okay.
My floppy drive is not working properly and at times my computer keeps freezingup.
Please be seated.
Shall we start?
It is quite tasty.
1. Letter
2. Word
3. Phrase
4. Clause
5. Sentence
All these five Units make a sentence or a paragraph a meaningful one.
Let us see these Units of English individually.
1. Letter:
There are twenty six letters in English language.
They are:
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y and Z .
These letters have been written in Capital forms.
The same letters can also be written in Small forms.
They are:
a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y and z.
All these twenty-six letters are collectively called ALPHABET.
So the alphabet of English language has twenty-six letters.
These twenty-six letters can be classified into two groups.
They are:
I. Consonants
b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y and z. are calledCONSONANTS. That
means there are 21 consonants.
II. Vowels
a, e, i. o and u are called VOWELS. That means there are five vowels.
2.Word:
A word converts the group of letters into a meaningful one. A word plays a pivotal role in
the Units of English.
A word is a group of letters with a meaning.
Ball, nation, ocean, boy, courage, install, save and organization are words.
The word ball is having four letters b..a..l..l.
The word organization is having twelve letters o..r..g..a..n..i..s..a..t..i..o..n.
In this way all the words are collective forms of few letters.
Every word carries a meaning.
Let us see few more words which we use regularly in our daily lives.
b. Noun-Gender
c. Noun-Number
d. Noun-Functions
e. Noun-Cases
2.Verb:
A verb is a word used to express an action or state.
Examples:
These are the only eight parts of speech.We have seen these parts of speeches only
briefly.
Examples:
1. To err is human, but to forgive is divine.
2. To retreat was difficult; to advance was impossible.
3. To seek admission in a US college is the purpose with which I take TOEFL.
4. To bribe a public servant is a penal offence.
5. To score high marks in this examination means to have bright future.
The subject may be gerund or a gerund phrase as in the following sentences.Examples:
1. Reading French is easier that speaking it.
2. Looking after children requires patience.
3. Hunting of tigers was a favorite sport of Indian Kings.
4. Bribing of public servant is a penal offence.
5. Scoring high marks in this examination is not as easy as you think of.
The subject may be a full subordinate clause as in the following cases.
Examples:
1. How he reached home after the accidents was mystery to himself.
2. Why the people voted against the ruling party can be easily explained
.3. What the minister spoke was not audible because of the failure of the microphone.
4. Where the prisoners went after escaping from jail was not known to the police.
5. How he scored high marks is open secret.
OBJECT:
The object is the person or a thing upon whom or upon which the action of the verb is
carried out.
Examples:
Monkeys are destroying the garden.
In this sentence the action is destroying. That action is carried by the monkeys. But
the action (destroying)is carried upon the garden. So Monkeys is theSUBJECT and
GARDEN is the object of the verb.
Mr. Clinton is teaching Algebra to the students.
In this sentence, the action is teaching. That action is carried out by Mr. Clinton. That
action is carried upon Algebra. So Mr. Clinton is the SUBJECT of the verb whereas
algebra is the OBJECT of the verb. The word The students is the INDIRECT OBJECT of
this sentence.
PREDICATE:
The predicate in a sentence is what tells about what a person or a thing does or did or
what happened to a person or to a thing?
The predicate must (1) agree in number with subject, (2) have the correct tense and (3)
be in the proper voice {active or passive}.
Examples:
Monkeys are destroying the garden.
In the above sentence, the word monkeys is subject. Whereas the phrase are
destroying is the predicate.And the word the garden is the object.
Mr. Clinton is teaching Algebra to the students
In the above sentence, the word Mr. Clinton is the subject. The phrase is teaching is
the predicate. The words Algebra & The students are objects.
Words (or participles) such as coming, eating, can not form full predicates of a
sentence.
Similarly, Phrases (or infinitives) such as to come, to eat also can not form full
predicates of a sentence.
Phrases involving participles and infinitives with auxiliary verbs such as will to come,
will to go, may expecting, must starting etc can not form the predicates of the
sentence.
Grammar :
Noun-Types
In this lesson we are going to see only Noun-Types. Other parts will be dealt with in the
following lessons.
What is NOUN?
A Noun is a word used as a name of a person, place, thing, state, quality, activity, action
etc...
Examples:
Grammar
Noun-Gender
The Noun-Gender tells us about the sex of the noun.
In Grammar-Nouns, there are FOUR GENDERS.
1. Masculine gender:
A noun is said to be in the Masculine gender if it refers to a male character or member of
a species.
Man, lion, hero, boy, king, horse and actor are nouns of masculine gender.
Example:
A boy is playing in the play-ground.
Hero of the movie is not a native of this country.
In these sentences the words boy and hero are masculine-gender nouns.
The next in the Noun-Gender is feminine gender.
2. Feminine gender:
A noun is said to be in the feminine gender if it refers to a female member of a species.
Woman, lioness, heroine, girl, mare, niece, empress, cow and actress are few of the
feminine-gender nouns that we use.
Example:
A girl is playing in the play-ground.
Heroine of the movie is not a native of this country.
In these sentences the words girl and heroine are feminine-gender nouns.
The next in the Noun-Gender is common gender.
3. Common gender:
In these sentences the words, computer, tree, stars and books are the neutergender nouns.
NOTE:
a. Collective nouns, even if they refer to living-beings, are used as neuter-nouns.
Example:
i. The army is doing its task.
ii. The police are called to manage the situation.
In these sentences the nouns (army and police) refer to only living-beings. But they are
used only as neuter-nouns.
b.Objects noted for their power, strength, and violence are used as Masculine gender
nouns.
Grammar :
Noun-Cases
NOUN-CASES is another topic which comes under NOUN. The CASE of a noun tells us
about the position of that noun in a sentence. In English there are FIVE CASES.
They are:
Nominative case
Objective case (or Accusative case)
Dative case
Possessive case (or Genitive case)
Vocative case
A noun is said to be in the Nominative case if it is the subject of a verb. (SUBJECT is the
person or the thing who or which carries out the action of the verb in the sentence)
Examples:
Mr. Ram is an intelligent boy.
Mr. Ram is a proper noun in Nominative case.
The painter paints the portraits.
The painter is a common noun in Nominative case.
I am buying vegetables for my family.
I is a pronoun in Nominative case.
These examples carry another term "pronoun" which is a word used to represent a noun.
For example:
I, We, You, He, She, it and they are the seven pronouns.
There are only seven pronouns.
Only other variations of these seven pronouns are there.
Those variations can be used in place of the nouns.
The next one in the Noun-cases is:
2. Objective case (or Accusative case):
Nouns or pronouns are said to be in Objective cases if they are the direct objects of
verbs or if they are the objects of preposition. (Direct object is the person or the thing
upon whom or upon which the action of the verb is carried out).
Examples:
I met your sister.
Your sister is in objective case.
The vendors sell mangoes.
Mangoes is in objective case.
The book is on the table.
Table is in objective case.
It is object of the preposition on.
This is one of my policies.
Policies is in objective case.
It is object of the preposition of.
The next one in the Noun-cases is:
3. Dative case:
A noun is said to be in dative case if it is the Indirect object of the verb. (Indirect object
of the verb is the noun for whom or for which the action of the verb is carried out).
There should not be a preposition before the indirect object because in that case it will
be the object of that preposition.
Examples:
The teacher gave the students few exercises.
Students is in dative case. It is the indirect object of the verb give.
The Postman brought me a letter.
Me is in dative case.
Get him a pen.
Him is in dative case.
The next one in the Noun-cases is:
4. Possessive case (Genitive case):
A noun is said to be in possessive case, if it denotes possession or ownership. A noun or
pronoun in the possessive case is governed by the noun that follows it.
Examples:
This is your pencil.
(Your is in possessive case.
It is our idea.
Our is in possessive case.
Johns sister has been hospitalized.
Johns is in possessive case.
The last one in the Noun-cases is:
5. Vocative case:
A noun or a pronoun is said to be in Vocative case if it is used to call (or to get the
attention of) a person or persons.
Examples:
Mr. Bill, students are waiting for you in the main hall.
Mr. Bill is in vocative case.
You there, stand up.
You is in vocative case.
Brother, a letter for you.
Brother is in vocative case.
Grammar :
Noun-Number
There are two numbers in Noun-Number: Singular and Plural.
1. Singular:
When we speak about one person and one thing, we use the noun in singular form.
Single means one.
Plural means many.
Examples:
a. A man is smoking within the premises.
b. A group of cows is called Herd.
c. Joy is what we want in our lives.
d. Church is the worshipping-place of Christians.
e. This chair is made of plastic.
In these sentences, the nouns man, group, joy, church and chair are in singular forms.
Joy, run, wife, knife, army, hero, ox, life, loaf, baby, city and tooth are few singularnouns which we use. We have seen the singular form of Noun-Number.
The Noun has various dimention in its usages.
The same Noun can be used in different manner in different contexts.
Let us go to the next form of Noun-Number.
2. Plural:
When we speak about more than one person and one thing, we use the noun in plural
form.
Examples:
a. Few men are standing in the foyer.
b. The groups of cows, coming back to their sheds, are not milch cows.
c. These chairs are made of plastic.
d. Children should be given proper guidance.
e. Keep the knives in a safe place.
In these sentences, the words men, groups, chairs, Children and knives are pluralnouns.
Joys, runs, wives, knives, armies, heroes, oxen, lives, loaves, babies, cities and teeth
are few singular-nouns which we use.
How to form plural from singular?
1. By suffixing s to the singular-noun.
Examples:
Joy-joys
Run-runs
Chair-chairs
Radio-radios
Canto-cantos
Momento-momentos
Dynamo-dynamos
Piano-pianos
2. By suffixing es to the singular-noun
Examples:
Glass-glasses
Bench-benches
Bush-bushes
Church-churches
Watch-watches
Buffalo-buffaloes
Negro-negroes
Hero-heroes
Echo-echoes
Mango-mangoes
Potato-potatoes
Noun-Number is another part under Noun.
3. By changing the last letter y into ies.
Examples:
Baby-babies
Lady-ladies
Story-stories
City-cities
Army-armies
4. By changing the inside vowel of the singular.
Examples:
Man-men
Woman-women
Foot-feet
Tooth-teeth
Goose-geese
5. By suffixing en to the singular.
Examples:
Ox-oxen
Child-children
6. By changing f or fe into ves.
Examples:
Thief-thieves
Life-lives
Wife-wives
Calf-calves
Knife-knives
Wolf-wolves
Leaf-leaves
Shelf-shelves
Exceptions:
Chief-chiefs
Roof-roofs
Gulf-gulfs
Safe-safes
Proof-proofs
Hoof-hoofs
c. Few nouns have the same forms both in singular and plural forms.
Examples:
Sheep, deer, swine, cod etc
d. Few nouns are used only in the plural forms.
Examples:
Trousers, scissors, spectacles, drawers, thanks, billiards, draughts, annals, tidings etc
e. Few nouns have two different forms in plural. But the two forms have
differentmeanings.
Examples:
Brother.Brothers (sons of same parents) Brethren (members of a society)
Cloth.....Cloths (pieces of cloth) Clothes (items of cloth)
FishFish (more than one of same variety)Fishes (of different varieties)
GeniusGeniuses (persons of great talent)Genii (spirits)
Index..Indexes (tables of contents)Indices (signs used in algebra)
10.Few nouns have different meanings in the singular and in the plural:
Examples:
Advice (counsel).advices (information)
Air (atmosphere).airs (artificial manners)
Good (morally correct)goods (merchandise)
Force (strength)...forces (troops)
Physic (medicine).physics (a branch of science)
Wood (portion of tree)woods (a grove of trees)
11.Few nouns have one meaning in singular but two or more meanings in
plural.
Examples:
Custom (habit)customs (habits & taxes collected on imports
Quarter (one fourth & a direction)quarters (fourth parts, living places & directions)
Effect (result)...effects (results & property)
12.Letters, numbers and other symbols form their plural by adding an
apostrophe ands.
Examples:
Write your is and ls clearly.
Add two 8s and six 4s.
These are various kinds of Noun-Number. That means a Noun can be classiffied by the
number of units that the Noun denotes.
Grammar :
Noun-Functions
A noun or a pronoun can perform five functions.
Those five noun-functions are:
1.It can be THE SUBJECT of a verb.
Examples:
Mr. Ram leads the team.
Mr. Ram is the subject of the verb leads.
He is writing.
He is the subject of the verb is writing.
The monkeys destroyed the garden.
The monkeys is the subject of the verb destroyed.
The children are playing joyfully.
The children is the subject of the verb are playing.
The second one in Noun-functions is:
2. A noun or a pronoun can be THE DIRECT or INDIRECT OBJECT of a verb.
Examples:
I took the book.
Book is the direct object of the verb took.
The Government will take the decision.
Grammar : Pronoun
write about the same person in the following sentence, we use the wordHe.
So, he could not attend the meeting meant only for the members.
In this sentence the word he represents Ramu.
He is a pronoun.
Example-2:
Sri Lanka is a big island. It has many tourist-attractions.
In these sentences, Sri Lanka is a noun. It is a pronoun.
Example-3:
I do not know why he did not continue his studies. It is a mystery for many of us.
In these sentences, the phrase why he did not continue his studies is noun but in
phrase form. It is a pronoun.
Example-4:
Oxygen is essential for life on earth. It is a purifying element.
In these sentences, the word oxygen is a noun. The word it is pronoun.
There are seven types of pronouns.
They are:
1. Personal
2. Reflexive
3. Demonstrative
4. Indefinite
5. Distributive
6. Relative
7. Interrogative
Let us see one by one.
1. Personal :
There are only seven personal pronouns.
They are He, She, It, They, You, We and I.
Here we use the word you to indicate both the singular and plural forms.
Here we use the pronoun they to indicate the plural form of both neuter gender and
masculine or feminine gender.
SINGULAR PRONOUNS:
I, He, She, It and You.
PLURAL PRONOUNS:
We, They and You.
Examples:
Mr. Gandhi, why not you seek his help?
Here the word you is used to indicate only Mr. Gandhi (singular).
See another sentence.
Students, you have to be assembled at the Lawtey hall by 11pm.
Here the word you has been used to indicate the students (plural).
Examples:
Mr. Clinton is the Chairman of this company. He has gone to Paris to attend a
meeting.
Here, Mr. Clinton is noun and he is pronoun.
Mrs. Clinton is the author of the book Why not you?. She has been nominated to the
Nobel Prize for her book.
Here Mrs. Clinton is noun whereas the word she is pronoun.
This University was founded in 1907. Then it had only 75 students.
Here the University is noun whereas it is pronoun.
The students of this university participated in the foot-ball competition. They have won
the competition.
Here, the students of this university is noun whereas They is pronoun.
Mr. John, why can not you take more training in this field?
Here Mr. John is noun whereas you is pronoun.
We, the natives of England, will support you for your humanitarian approach.
Here, the natives of England, is noun whereas we is pronoun.
I, the father of the child, will attend the parents-meet scheduled to be held on 13th of
this month.
Here the father of this child is noun whereas I is pronoun.
The pronoun it is used to indicate only the neuter gender.
Tree, lion, river, sky, book, car, computer and language can be denoted by the
pronoun it.
Al these seven Personal Pronouns as such are called Nominative forms ofPersonal
Pronouns.
All these seven Personal Pronouns have their own Possessive forms of Personal
Pronouns.
Mine( I ), ours(we), his(he), hers(she), its(it), yours(you) and theirs(they).
Examples:
This book is not mine.
That house of hers is beautiful.
That is the college of ours.
This book is his.
All these seven Personal Pronouns have their own Accusative forms of Personal
Pronouns.
Me( I ), us(we), you(you), him(he), her(she), it(it) and them(they).
Examples:
He gave a book to me.
The presents are meant for you and her.
The Dean warned all of them.
He gave us his house to stay for ten days as he went to Tokyo.
I, we, you, he, she, it and they are the seven personal pronouns. Because, they stand
for the three-persons.
i. The person speaking
ii. The person spoken to
iii. The person spoken of
The pronouns I and we, which denote the person or persons speaking, are said to
be Personal Pronouns of the FIRST PERSON.
The pronoun you, which denotes the person or persons spoken to, is said to be a
Personal Pronoun of SECOND PERSON.
YOU is used both in the singular and in the plural.
The pronouns, he, she, it, and they which denotes the person or persons spoken of, are
said to be Personal Pronouns of THIRD PERSON..
The following are the different forms of the personal pronouns.
A.FIRST PERSON:
I and We are First Persons.
Nominative forms:
I will come to your house today evening.
We will do our best to get the job.
Possessive forms:
That book is mine.
That University is ours.
Accusative forms:
He gave me a five-rupee note.
He called on us.
B.SECOND PERSON:
You is the only SECOND PERSON.
Nominative Form:
You are our best friend.
You are welcome.
Possessive form:
That suitcase in brown cover is yours.
Accusative form:
We gave you your room-key.
C. THIRD PERSON:
He, She, They and It are THIRD PERSONS.
Nominative forms:
Possessive forms:
That book
That book
That book
Japan is a
is his.
is hers.
is ours.
workaholic country. The growth that it has attained is its.
Accusative forms:
These are the only seven pronouns. The pronouns that you are going to see under other
different-types of Pronouns as mentioned below are various forms of these seven
pronouns only.
2. Reflexive (or Emphatic pronouns):
The pronouns which are used to reflect upon the person or persons or thing or things
which the pronouns represent are called reflexive pronouns.
Himself, herself, itself, themselves, yourself, yourselves, ourselves and myself are
the reflexive pronouns.
Examples:
Mr. John himself called on us two days back.
Mrs. Clinton herself came forward to contest the election to the post of Presidency of
this association.
Students themselves went out of the class-room in protest against the increases in
the admission fees.
You yourself can not cut you hair.
You yourselves can organize a meeting to seek the opinions of all the students.
We ourselves will come to your seeking your support.
I motivated myself.
The singular form of the pronoun you has its reflexive form yourself.
The plural form of the pronoun you has its reflexive form yourselves.
3. Demonstrative :
This, that, those, and these are the demonstrative pronouns.
Examples:
I want only this book.
Those incidents changed his mind drastically.
These people are not qualified to attend the training program.
That train is not the one for which we are waiting.
4. Indefinite :
Mr. Kobe who is a native of London is not the owner of this car.
What you did is my problem.
A grove of trees that is at the outskirts of the city is for sales.
7. Interrogative :
The interrogative forms of the pronouns are used here.
Whom, which, whose, what and that are interrogative pronouns.
Examples:
Mr. Kodak whom we are searching for is a native of Japan.
Mrs. Goosd whose son is studying in Harvard has been hospitalized.
Grammar : Verbs
1. Transitive verbs.
A transitive verb is the verb which takes an object.
2. Intransitive verb.
An intransitive verb is a verb which does not take an object.
3. Auxiliary verb:
A verb which helps another verb to form its tense, voice or mood is called an Auxiliary
verb.
4. Modal verbs:
The following verbs are called Modal verbs:.
Shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, must, ought and dare are called modal
verbs.
Let us see them individually.
1. Transitive verbs:
Examples:
Mr. Hales takes the class today morning.
By this sentence, Mr. Hales takes the class.
Here
The word Mr. Hales is the noun.
The word the class is the object.
The word takes is the verb.
Only when all the three words are there, the whole sentence becomes complete and
meaningful.
In case the object word is not there, the sentence Mr. Hales takes conveys no meaning
and
the sentence does not become complete. In that case what does Mr. Hales take? is not
clear.
So only when the verb takes gets an object, the meaning behind the verb takes
becomes complete.
That means the verb takes needs an object to make itself complete.
Such a verb which needs an object is called transitive verb.
That means the action of the verb is transmitted to another noun or another thing.
They brought the suitcase two days back.
Here the verb brought (bring) needs an object to become meaningful.
What was brought?
The suitcase was brought by them.
So the verb bring (brought) is a transitive verb.
Examples:
I have few urgent works. (Main)
They have done very well in the examinations. (Auxiliary)
God is in Heaven. (Main)
He is liked by all. (Auxiliary)
The man does his work quietly. (Main)
Did he come here? (Main)
4. Modal verbs:
The following verbs are called Modal verbs.
Shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, must, ought and dare are called modal
verbs.
SHALL:
When shall is used in the second or third person, it has the force of a command, a
promise,
a thread, determination, certainty
i. You shall not go out without my permission.
ii. He shall get my help.
iii. She shall be punished for his mistake.
iv. He shall apologize for his behavior.
v. No man shall take this way.
WILL:
When will is used in the first person, it can express (in addition to the future tense)
willingness,
a promise, a threat, determination
i. I will help you.
ii. I will be there in your wedding.
iii. I will not allow him to go.
iv. I will not miss this opportunity.
MAY:
May has the force of possibility and permission. In the past tense might is used.
When this verb need is used to mean obligation in the negative or interrogative form,
s is not added to need in the third person singular(present tense).
i. She need not come here.
ii. It need not be white in the Shirt.
iii. He need not have educational qualifications.
For you attention please:
The list of verbs is long one.
Every sentence will have a noun and a verb(predicate as well).
For your kind attention, few verbs have been given below.
1. arise
2. bear
3. beat
4. behold
5. bid
6. bite
7. blow
8. break
9. begin
10. become
11. bind
12. bleed
13. build
14. burn
15. carry
16. catch
17. cling
18. come
19. deal
20. creep
21. do
22. draw
23. drink
24. eat
25. fall
26. feed
27. feel
28. fight
29. find
30. fling
31. flee
32. forbid
33. forget
34. forsake
35. freeze
36. get
37. give
38. grind
39. have
40. hold
41. kneel
42. know
43. lay
44. lead
45. learn
46. leave
47. lend
48. lie
49. loose
50. make
51. mean
52. meet
53. pay
54. read
55. rid
56. ride
57. ring
58. run
59. rise
60. see
61. set
62. shoot
63. sling
64. slit
65. speak
66. slay
67. shake
68. shed
69. slide
70. spin
71. split
72. spring
73. stand
74. wed
75. write
Negative:
Examples:
i. I am not your enemy.
ii. He was not responsible for the accident.
iii. The people were not excited.
Interrogative:
Examples:
i. Where is the building?
ii. How was the film?
iii. Were all the materials available?
Note:
The verbs do and have can be used as main verb and auxiliary verb.
Main verb:
Examples:
i. I do a lot of exercises.
ii. He does his work rather carelessly.
iii. I have no difficulty.
iv. They had a solution to this problem.
v. She has no compassion for others.
Auxiliary verb:
Examples:
i. I do not know anybody here.
ii. She does not love him.
iii. I have seen this film.
iv. A plan has been prepared.
Examples:
i. I do not have an answer to your question. (auxiliary verb)
ii. The committee has submitted the report. (auxiliary verb)
iii. They are investigating into the matter. (auxiliary verb)
Adjective
2. Adjectives of quantity:
Little, some, much, enough etc
Examples :
I know little about music.
Adding some sugar will make the coffee tastier.
We have enough study-materials for the forth-coming examinations.
3. Definitive numeral adjectives:
One, two, three, four, five, six, seven etc..
Examples :
One student came forward to become a leader of this class.
Two children make a perfect family.
Four subjects of Management Studies are very difficult.
Ten employees have resigned their jobs.
4. Indefinite numeral adjectives:
All, no, many, few, several etc
Examples :
All the employees have to be here by 10am tomorrow.
No one will be exempted from paying the monthly due.
Few birds have become extinct.
It rained several days continuously.
5. Distributive numeral adjectives:
Each, every, either, neither etc
Examples :
Each one of you should support this cause.
I mean that every employee has stake in the growth of this company.
Either of you should take care of your child.
Neither of you can go away from other.
6. Demonstrative adjectives:
This, that, these, those, such etc
Examples :
This dog is ours.
That gentleman donated his fortunes to a charitable trust.
These flowers are not for sales.
7. Interrogative adjectives :
What, which, whose, when etc
Examples :
What happened after I came out of the house is not known to me.
Which team won the match is not our problem.
Whose child is this is a mystery.
8. Adjectival Phrase:
Sometimes a phrase may be used as an adjective. In that case the phrase is called
adjectival phrase.
Very often this adjectival phrase appears after the noun that it qualifies.
In the following sentences, the adjectival phrases are colored blue.
Examples :
The chief lived in house built-of-stone.
A friend in need is a friend indeed.
A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
He was a student of great promise.
9. Adjectival Clause:
Often a full-clause may add meaning to a noun in which case it is known as an adjectival
clause.
In the following sentences the adjectival clauses are colored blue.
Examples :
Nehru was a statesman whom everyone responded.
The house which caught fire is in the street.
John is the boy who broke the window.
Adverb
Conjunction
Conjunction is word or a phrase which connects two words or two phrases or two
clauses or two sentences.
Examples:
If our generation persists in mining the soil so that we may eat, many of our children
and their children may go hungry as a result.
Whereas the 60% of the trees in France had been affected by acid rain in 1982, 75%
of them were suffering in 1983.
Because the last bus already left, we had to take a taxi.
If the business goes on losing money, we will have to close it down.
I shall get my air ticket to USA as soon as I receive the visa.
What do you propose to do after you complete your graduation?
The plane will not take off until the fog clears.
5. Coordinating conjunctions:
The conjunctions which coordinate two words are called coordinating conjunctions.
The following conjunctions are called Coordinating conjunctions:
1.and
2. but
3. for
4. or
5. nor
6. also
7. only
8. till
Examples:
Mr. John and Mr. Rams are the only invitees to meet the Prime Minister.
The whole country is waiting for the results of this international-tournament.
We have to be here in London till we are acquainted by the court.
6. Subordinating conjunctions:
You can not get a new telephone connection before 1st of next month.
7. Compound conjunctions:
There will be few words in every conjunction of this type.
1. in order that
2. in order to
3. on condition that
4. even if
5. so that
6. provided that
7. as though
8. in as much as
9. as well as
10. as if
Examples:
He comes to this function on condition that we should leave him by 8pm.
London is so big that you can not go by walk to reach your office.
You as well as your father can go by the train.
You will not catch your train even if you take a taxi now.
Grammar : Preposition
Examples:
1. A bird is on the tree.
2. I am fond of music.
3. The man was standing under the tree.
4. He runs after money.
5. I have to go to London to meet him.
6. Do not look at Sun at noon.
7. He is from your office.
8. One of you has to attend the meeting.
9. Go out.
10. You have to study English till you become a master of it.
11. He, with his friends, has gone to hotel to celebrate his birthday.
In the above sentences, the simple ones are colored red.
Few others are:
By, in, of, off, on, through, up, with, from, after, about, above,
across, amidst, among, around, before, behind,
below, within, between, inside, outside, without, beside, etc
2. Phrasal prepositions:
A phrasal verb is formed by combining a verb with a preposition.
According to, agreeable to, along with, away from, in addition to,
in course of, in favor of, in honor of, in order to,
in spite of, with reference to, with regard etc
Nouns, verbs, adjectives and participles are often combined with
prepositions such as Noun + Preposition, Verb + Preposition,
Adjective + Preposition, and Participle + Preposition.
Each combination has a separate meaning, sometimes totally different from the meaning
of the main verb.
Examples:
1. Every citizen should abide by the laws of his country.
NOTE:
One can give thousands of examples. There is no grammatical rule to describe why a
particular preposition is used along with a particular word to convey a particular
meaning.
These combinations have come out of mere conventions and usages.
You would yourself be using such phrases in your writings and speeches without your
even being aware of them.
There are two ways, a preposition can be used.
The first is as in the following phrases:
Examples:
1. On the table
2. In the year
3. With his friend
4. From the village
5. At the post office
6. Between the books
21. Fond of
22. Anxious about
23. Grateful for
24. Tantamount to
25. Sympathy for
26. Sure of
27. Surrender to
28. Suspect of
29. Stick to
30. Ready for
'In', 'at', and 'on' have similar meanings, but there are conventions about their usages.
IN is used before large places such as a country, state or city.
Examples:
1. In India
2. In Texas
3. In New York
ON is used before middle sized places such as a road, train, plane, ship etc
Examples:
1. On Mount road
2. On Parliament road
3. On the East coast
AT is used to denote an exact spot.
Examples:
1. At the door
2. At 7 Oclock
IN is also used to denote a very small place
I was staying in a room at Door No.43 on Anderson Street in Boston on East coast in
Massachusetts State in USA.
There are three conventional uses of these three ones in regard to time also.
5. Despite the road block, the police allowed us to enter the restricted area to search for
our friends.
Articles
II. An is used before a word beginning with a vowel (or a vowel sound).
Examples:
He gave me an onion.
An ass is leaping into your field.
An enemy need not be far away from you. He may be beside you.
An orange is what you have to take to overcome thirsty.
Before you go out in the winter season, please remember to take an umbrella with
you.
III. A is used before a word beginning with a consonant.
Examples:
A cat is running behind the rat.
We need a man to safeguard our car.
A hole in the boat will endanger its safety.
IV. An is used before the word beginning with h in case the h is silent in
pronunciation.
Examples:
An hour is a long time for the students who take this examination.
An honor of this type is what everybody dreams to get. (A vowel sound)
It is difficult to find an honest policeman.
The train was late by an hour.
V. A is used before the words beginning with a vowel which is pronounced like the y in
young.
Examples:
The employees of this company formed a union.
A European is better placed to reach the Oxford University than an Asian.
NOTE:
Countable noun is the noun which can be counted as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
Five animals, seven students, eight stars, ten countries etc
So, animals, stars, students, colleges, computers, countries, books and boats are
countable nouns.
Uncountable nouns are the nouns which can not be counted.
Time, rice, sky, sugar, soil, water, honesty, virtue and wisdom are the nouns which can
not be counted.
So, they are called uncountable nouns.
2. Definite articles:
Examples:
The lion is a majestic animal.
Examples:
There is a chair but the chair is broken.
The book that you want is not available in this library.
The President arrived by a special plane.
iii. To refer to a singular noun that represents a whole class.
Examples:
The two words Man and Woman in the general sense do not take any article.
Man (not The Man) is the only animal that has intelligence.
ix. To refer to rivers, seas, oceans, groups of islands, mountains, ranges trains etc
Examples:
The Frontier mail will arrive in time.
The Bay of Bengal is tsunami affected ocean.
The Andaman is a part of India.
x. To refer to Holy books.
Examples:
The Bhaghavat Gita is the sacred book of Indian.
The Koran is a book of wisdom.
The Bible is an age-old book.
NOTE:
The is not used when the author name of the book is used as follows.
Examples:
Valmikis Ramayana is one of the Epics of Hindus. (Not Valmikis the Ramayana)
Gerund
4. Complement of a verb.
Examples:
What I detest the most is drinking alcohol.
Seeing is not believing.
5. A gerund is used in the following construction.
Examples:
Nehru did a lot of reading.
We used to do a lot of writing when we were at school.
6. Only a gerund is used after the following verbs.
Confess, imagine, finish, practice, hinder, excuse, forgive, drop, stop, prevent, mind
etc
Examples:
Stop talking nonsense.
I could not help admiring the picture.
He did not mind waiting.
I can not imagine his doing like this.
They could not prevent her coming to the function.
7. Few verbs of sensation take the gerund-forms if the action of the verb is in
progress.
Examples:
I saw him doing that work.
She felt an insect going up her leg.
Have you ever heard a bird talking?
NOTE-1:
Compare the following two sentences.
1. We expected his being admitted into the university.
2. We expected him being admitted into the university.
In the first sentence, the word preceding the gerund being is his. This is in the
possessive case.
While, in the second sentence, the word preceding the gerund being is him. This is in
the objective case.
Both the sentences are correct to convey the same meaning.
So, we can use either possessive case or objective case before gerunds.
Examples:
All depends on John/Johns coming in time.
Your future depends on your uncle/your uncles meeting your educational expenses.
I do not mind his/him sitting on this table.
They insisted on my/me being present in the function.
NOTE-2:
As both the gerund and infinitive have the force of noun and a verb, they have the same
uses.
Thus, in many sentences either of them may be used without any special difference in
meaning.
Examples:
Teach me to swim. (Infinitive)
Teach me swimming. (Gerund)
Both these sentences convey the same meaning.
To forgive is better than to punish. (Infinitive)
Forgiving is better than punishing. (Gerund)
Both these sentences convey the same meaning.
Exercises:
i. He is interested in becoming a politician.
ii. Imagine crossing the river.
iii. We saw the lady running up the stairs.
iv. A professor has to do a lot of reading.
v. I do not like your risking your life.
Infinitive
Eat, read, write, go, get, speak, walk, smile, cry and laugh are few of the verbs in the
"infinitive" forms.
When the preposition to is placed before such a verb, that verb is called full
infinitive.
To eat, to read, to write, to go, to get, to speak, to walk, to smile, to cry and to laugh
are few of the "full-infinitive" forms.
This type of the noun is called verbal-noun.
This verbal-noun is called Infinitive which has the features of both a verb and a noun.
There is another type of verbal-noun. That type is called Gerund which we have seen in
another section.
An infinitive can be used differently.
1. It can be used as the subject of the verb.
Examples:
To swim is good for health.
To eat too much makes one fat.
To go for walk early in the morning is advised by the doctors.
To read means to grow.
2.It can be used as the object of the verb.
Examples:
I forget to tell you an important matter.
All of you begin to work.
Examples:
Tell him what to do?
She does not know who to approach?
Can you tell me how to stop the bleeding?
So in these ways the infinitives can be used as nouns in the sentences.
Note-1
The word to is frequently used with an infinitive. But to is not the essential part or sign
of an infinitive verb.
After few verbs (let, need, make, see, bid, hear, dare), we use the infinitive without to.
Examples:
You need not come to the function.
The Doctor can make him walk in a month of time.
How dare you open the door!
I did not see him do that.
They will not let you go out.
She bade me go.
I have not heard a bird sing.
Note-2
The word to need not be added after 'had better', 'had rather', 'would rather', 'sooner
than' and 'rather than'.
Examples:
You had better leave now.
I had rather walk than take rest.
They would rather leave the show than see the dull-movie.
They will come late rather than stay at home.
Grammar : Participle
Examples:
1. Hearing the noise, the boy woke up.
Here, the boy woke up is a fact. But why did he wake up?
He woke up because he heard the noise.
In order to add extra meaning to the sentence, the phrase hearing the noise has been
added.
The word hearing is formed from the verb hear and governs an object.
The word hearing qualifies the noun boy as an Adjective does.
The word hearing, therefore, partakes of the nature of both a verb and anAdjective and
is called PARTICIPLE.
It may be called a Verbal Adjective.
The word, which partakes of the nature of both a verb and an Adjective, is called
PARTICIPLE
2. I saw an elephant carrying a pack of Vegetables on its back.
In this sentence, the word carrying qualifies the noun elephant. So carrying is a
participle.
Here as well as in the above sentence, the participles are in the continuous forms
(hearing & carrying) of their verbs (hear & carry).
This type of participle is called PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
3. Being the eldest son, John had to shoulder all the responsibilities of his family after
his father died.
In this sentence, the word being qualifies the pronoun John. That is a Present
Participle.
4. Driven by hunger, He stole a piece of bread.
In this sentence, the word driven qualifies the noun he. You see that the word is not in
the Present Participle form.
This type of participle is called PAST PARTICIPLE.
5. Deceived by his friends, he lost all his properties.
In this sentence also the word deceived is a Past Participle.
6. Having elected him President, the people gave him the royal support.
In this different sentence the phrase having elected qualifies the noun people.
But this phrase is neither Present participle nor Past Participle.
This phrase indicates an action which came to an end in the near past.
B.Past Participle:
Examples:
C.Perfect Participle:
Examples:
Having failed in the first attempt, he made no further attempts.
Having lost my certificates, I applied for the duplicates.
Having gained the truth, He remained calm.
Grammar : Voice
2. Passive voice.
When we express an idea giving importance to the doer, the sentence is written in the
active form.
That means that the doer of the action is active.
He wrote a letter.
When we express an idea giving importance to the action rather than to the doer, the
sentence is written in the passive form.
That means that the doer of the action is not active but passive.
A letter was written by him.
In passive form, the verb will be in past participle form.
Write is Present tense form of the verb.
Wrote is past tense form of the verb
Written is past participle form of the verb
Since a letter was singular form, it is followed by singular-past tense verb was.
Let us see one by one:
1.Active voice.
As we saw already, when we express an idea giving importance to the doer, the
sentence is written in the active voice.
In active voice the verb is controlled by the subject.
The object in the active voice becomes the subject in the passive voice.
The subject in the active voice becomes the object of the preposition by in
the passive voice.
Examples:
He helped them in their studies.
They invite me.
The boys pluck flowers.
I take the responsibility.
BHEL exports boilers.
My mother prepares delicious foods.
We expect you.
The Prime Minister inaugurated the conference.
The grandmother was telling her grandchildren an interesting story. (Active voice)
An interesting story was being told by the grandmother to her grand children. (Passive
Voice).
Her grand children were being told an interesting story by their grandmother. (Passive
Voice).
rees of Comparison
Degrees of Comparison are used when we compare one person or one thing with
another.
There are three Degrees of Comparison in English.
They are:
1. Positive degree.
2. Comparative degree.
3. Superlative degree.
Let us see all of them one by one.
1.Positive degree.
When we speak about only one person or thing,We use the Positive degree.
Examples:
This house is big.
In this sentence only one noun The house is talked about.
He is a tall student.
This flower is beautiful.
He is an intelligent boy.
Each sentence mentioned above talks about only one noun.
When we compare more than two persons or things with one another,
We use all the three Positive, Comparative and Superlative degrees.
Examples:
Interjection
Grammar : Mood
MOOD is the mode or manner in which the action denoted by the verb is represented.
Get up.
Go out.
Come here.
Wait for your boss.
Close the doors.
Kneel down.
Follow him.
Read quickly.
ii. An exhortation.
Examples:
Grammar :
Sentence
2.Interrogative Sentences:
These sentences are used to ask questions.
Examples:
Get up.
Go out.
Come here.
Wait for your boss.
Close the doors.
Kneel down.
Follow him.
Read quickly.
Be aware of pick-pockets.
Try your level best to score the maximum marks.
Take this test once again.
Bless us.
Have mercy upon us.
Forgive them.
Take care of your health.
4.Exclamatory Sentences:
These Sentences are used to express strong feelings.
Examples:
These are the only four types of sentences that we come across in our daily lives.
Grammar :
Tense
As we have seen already, the Present Tense is used when the verb refers to the
present time.
There are four forms in the Present Tense.
They are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
They have been building this bridge for the last seven months.
He has been working in this company for a long time.
They have been playing cricket since 5pm.
I have been writing a novel for the last one year.
As we have seen already, the Past Tense is used when the verb refers to the past
time.
There are four forms in the Past Tense.
They are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
ii. To indicate an action completed in the past. (Without the adverb of past time)
Examples:
This Past Perfect Continuous Tense is used to indicate an action that began before a
certain point in the past and continued up to that time.
Examples:
I met him on 7th June 1998. At that time he had been writing a novel.
We prepared this project in 2005. At that time we had been working on another
project.
Future Tense
As we have seen already, the Future Tense is used when the verb refers to the Future
time.
There are four forms in this Tense.
They are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
ii. This Simple Future Tense can be used to talk about what we believe will happen in the
future.
Examples
iii. This Tense can be used to indicate what we have planned to do in the future.
Examples
I will go to USA for my higher education.
Types of Sentences
Grammar Index : 2
There are four types of sentences which can be reported in these two types of speeches.
Examples :
He bought a car.
2 and 5 add to 7.
Interrogative Sentences : Sentences that are used to ask questions are called interrogative
sentences.
Examples :
Imperative Sentences : Sentences which express order, command, request, advice or suggestion are
called imperative sentences.
Examples :
Do what I say.
Do not move.
Arrest him.
Punish her.
Sit down.
Exclamatory Sentences : Sentences which express some strong feelings or emotions such as sorrow
or joy or surprise or wonder or contempt are called exclamatory sentences.
Examples :
Am
Is
Are
Was
WereHow to use USED TO?
USED TO refers to past habits. It shows that something often happened in the past but
does not happen now.
I used to live there when I was a boy.
I used to go home on Saturday (but now I no longer do so.)
Ganesh used to come here every day (but he doesnt now.)
Question and negatives are formed either with DID or without DID. The did-forms are
more informal.
Did you use to play football at school? (Less usual : used you to play?)
She used not to be so foregetful.
She didnt use to be so foregetful.
USED TO refers to past habits. It shows that something often happened in the past but
does not happen now.
I used to live there when I was a boy.
I used to go home on Saturday (but now I no longer do so.)
Ganesh used to come here every day (but he doesnt now.)
Question and negatives are formed either with DID or without DID. The did-forms are
more informal.
Did you use to play football at school? (Less usual : used you to play?)
She used not to be so foregetful.
She didnt use to be so foregetful.
USED TO refers to past habits. It shows that something often happened in the past but
does not happen now.
I used to live there when I was a boy.
I used to go home on Saturday (but now I no longer do so.)
Ganesh used to come here every day (but he doesnt now.)
Question and negatives are formed either with DID or without DID. The did-forms are
more informal.
Did you use to play football at school? (Less usual : used you to play?)
She used not to be so foregetful.
She didnt use to be so foregetful.