Introduction to Geology

INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY

Introduction to Geology

What rocks do you already know?

CHALK: to write everywhere.
CLAY: sticky , used to make earthware.
SLATE: the black tiles found on an old roof, school children write on it with chalk.
SAND: on the beach.
SANDSTONE: used to sharpen your knife.
COAL: burned for heating.
OIL: what mud loggers are looking for
GYPSUM: cooked, it becomes plaster. Desert roses.
SALT: on your french fries.
FLINT (CHERT): the fire stone.
PUMICE: floats, use it to scratch the skin of your feet.
OBSIDIAN: the black glass that prehistoric artifacts are often made from.
What is left ?
LIMESTONE
DOLOMITE
BASALT and other lavas
GRANITE and other plutonic rocks
ANHYDRITE
SILT
What minerals do you already know?
QUARTZ: from the transparent "Rock crystal" to the purple amethyst. Crystallized form of
Silica. (SiO2)
MICA: windows of the old coal furnaces.
PYRITE: the "Fool's gold"
CALCIUM CARBONATE: egg and sea food shells. (CaCO3)
What is left ?
FELDSPAR: One of the 3 basic component of Granite (with quartz and mica), looks like a white
or pink porcelain .
CALCITE: crystallised Calcium carbonate.
GLAUCONITE: dark green opach mineral, you will find it in small lumps in sands and
sandstones.
Are these rocks linked ?
Let's start from a volcano. It is raining and the water will form a stream that will wash out the ashes
and wear the lava, this water now contains weathered material and will be able to destroy more and
more, the stream will join a river and then finishes in the sea where all the material will deposit. So
we started with a eruptive rock to end with a sedimentary rock. So the erosion will destroy a rock
and create an other one .
Sedimentary rocks are the most common rocks you will encounter as a mud logger.

Introduction to Geology

THE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

There are 3 types of sedimentary rocks: Clastics, organics and chemicals.

The CLASTICS
What we have just seen: deposit of weathered material in the sea.
You already know some of them:
CLAY: soft and sticky.
SAND: loose grains.
SANDSTONE: a sand where the grains have been cemented together.
Clastic rocks are classified according to the size of their grains: the finest is the CLAY
(<20microns), the coarsest is the BOULDER (> 25cm), SAND is in the middle. You will hardly
find boulders in your samples...
Let us place the clastics in a table:
Name
BOULDER
COBBLE
PEBBLE
GRANULE

SAND

SILT
CLAY

Size limit

Very coarse
Coarse
Medium
Fine
Very fine

256mm
64mm
4mm
2mm
1mm
500
250
125
63

20

Comment
If the elements are cemented, call it
CONGLOMERATE.

Call it SANDSTONE if the grains are

cemented
Just another name, could have been
"Very, very fine sand".. Call it
SILSTONE if the grains are cemented.
When deeply buried clay looses its water
and get hard, it becomes SHALE.

The ORGANICS
"Do it yourself":
Take oyster shells, crush them and drop them in a water pond, cover with a lot of sand
and clay and wait 1 or 2 million years. You will get a LIMESTONE. Do the same with
wood, you will get COAL, use algaes and OIL will come!

Introduction to Geology

In nature, LIMESTONES are originated with dead animals falling on sea bottom, most of the sea
fauna have a shell made of CALCIUM CARBONATE which becomes the main constituant of the
LIMESTONES.
We call DOLOMITE a LIMESTONE in which some of the Calcium atoms have been replaced by
Magnesium. This process of substitution is subject to various interpretations.
Some unicellular animals prefer a siliceous shell, they are called Radiolaria. When they die they can
form a very hard rock called RADIOLARITE or CHERT.
Let us resume with a table :
Rock name
LIMESTONE
DOLOMITE
CHERTS
COAL,
LIGNITE
OIL

Origin
Skeletons , shells and tests of marine animals or
algaes.
a/a with Magnesium pollution
Radiolarian tests
Terrestrial plants

Comment

Lignite is a "young"
coal, where the plant
fibrous texture is still
visible.

Algae
The CHEMICALS

This is what remains when sea water evaporates.

You already know some rocks of chemical origin:
GYPSUM: a harder version is called ANHYDRITE, because it lost the water.
SALT:
CHERTS: in some cases, the evaporation of sea water rich in dissolved silica can produce
CHERTS.
LIMESTONE: a/a if the water is very calcareous.
The MIXED !
We have been talking of pure rocks until now, but you may find all sorts of mixings:
MARL: A mix of LIMESTONE and CLAY (35 to 65% of Calcium carbonate}. You may play with
the names and get things like: ARGILACEOUS LIMESTONE, CALCAREOUS SHALE, SILTY
SHALE, ARGILACEOUS SANDSTONE, SANDY LIMESTONE.....

Introduction to Geology

THE ERUPTIVE ROCKS

The ERUPTIVE rocks, also called IGNEOUS for their "hot" origin (ie: ignite), come from the
magma under the Earth's crust. This magma may find a way up to the surface and solidify rapidly,
creating a volcano. This type of eruptive rock is called EXTRUSIVE.
EXTRUSIVE rocks are lavas like BASALT or volcanic ashes. BASALT is the most common
extrusive rock, its lava is very fluid and can produce a great thickness of rock (Iceland, India
Dekkans). It is hard with small crystals of Olivine (a nice yellow-green gem.) in a black matrix.
If the magma cannot reach the surface, it will remain deep and will cool and solidify slowly, giving
an INTRUSIVE rock. The most common is the GRANITE. As we have seen before, GRANITE is
made of 3 main minerals: QUARTZ, MICA and FELDSPAR. The slower the cooling, the bigger is
the size of the crystal. (This is why lavas have very small crystals immerged in a matrix).
We have seen that eruptive rocks can lead to sedimentary rocks as a result of the erosion, deposition
and diagenesis, but is it possible for sedimentary rocks to give birth to eruptive rocks ???
YES! And this metamorphosis is caused by .... METAMORPHISM.

THE METAMORPHIC ROCKS

"Do it yourself": Take some clay and put it in the oven, cook it for a while and you get a
brick. You have created a metamorphic rock.
In nature, this process occurs when magma comes in contact with sedimentary rocks (Clay or shale
in our example), and will cook it. This is called CONTACT METAMORPHISM. It has of course a
very limited extent.
A more important metamorphism is due to the burrying of the sedimentary rocks: going deep, you
will find increasing temperature and pressure. The combined action of temperature and pressure
will transform the sedimentary rocks in metamorphic rocks.
Let's follow the destiny of some argilaceous material coming from an old weathered GRANITE
and transported in a river down to the sea...
Due to its small grain size, the argillaceous material will be transported far away in the sea and will
deposit on bottom : you get a CLAY. After a while, our layer of sticky CLAY will be burried under
other clay material and will go deeper, the pressure of the sediments overhead will expell the water
from the CLAY to form a SHALE. The SHALE is not sticky anymore but it is still not very hard.
Another million years has gone by and our SHALE is now deeper, it has become hard and a
schistosity has appeared, we have got a SCHIST. Then later and deeper, the pressure and
temperature are so high that you are in the Metamorphic zone and the SCHIST has become a
SLATE. From now, the transformation will affect the mineral composition and crystals that are
created. First born is the MICA and you get a MICASCHIST, then QUARTZ and FELDSPAR and
here is a GNEISS. You noticed that the GNEISS has the same mineral composition as a
GRANITE; the difference stays in the layering of the crystals which reminds the sedimentary origin
of the GNEISS. (They make very nice tombstones...). But, cook it a little bit more and it will loose

Introduction to Geology

its nice structure and you are back to a renewed GRANITE. The loop is closed and the geological
cycle starts again.
If you find metarmophic rocks in your samples, it might be the end of the well...

What is that rock ?

Now you know what are the rocks, you will like to be able to recognize them !
Prepare your geologist survival kit:
Tweezers
Teasing needle
Porcelain spot tray
Binocular microscope
Calcimeter (Bernard or Manocalcimeter
Some chemicals for tests:
Hydrochloric acid (10% solution of HCl in water)
Barium chloride (BaCl2)
Silver nitrate (AgNO3)
Alizarine dye
Phenolphthalein
Start with your fingers and the needle, touch the sample and find out if it is soft , firm, hard:
Soft and sticky

White , dissolve completely in acid CHALK

: HCl
Small reaction with acid CLAY
Good reaction with acid but a lot of very fine residue remains
Hcl + Calcimeter

MARL

Loose

Loose grains

SAND

Firm

Low or no reaction with acid, easily scratched and breakable with the needle
SHALE
Low or no reaction with acid, easily scratched with the nail, transparent to white
or pink GYPSUM or ANHYDRITE
: BaCl2
Low or no reaction with acid, transparent to white or pink, dissolves in water,
salty taste (You also have to use your tongue!)
SALT
: AgNO3
Black, fibrous
LIGNITE

Hard

Strong reaction with acid, LIMESTONE

: Hcl + Calcimeter
Strong but slow reaction with acid,
DOLOMITE
: Hcl + Calcimeter,
Alizarine
Good reaction with acid but a lot of very fine residue remains
MARL
:
Hcl + Calcimeter

Very hard

Cannot be scratched with the needle, but scratches glass (Do NOT make that test
on a window of the Geoservices unit or on your wrist watch, use a thin section
slide...) CHERT

Introduction to Geology

As above with a good acid reaction

SILICEOUS LIMESTONE
Calcimeter
Black, small green crystals BASALT

: Hcl +

Now use your eyes:

A lot of grains cemented together:
Often possible to separate the grains, presence of loose sand in the sample
SANDSTONE
After a casing cementation CEMENT
: Phenolphtaleine
Looks like a SANDSTONE but the grains are interlocking and randomly
arranged, with a lot of mica
GRANITE or other PLUTONIC rock.

Physical/Chemical Testing Procedures

The various physical/chemical tests are carried out in order to better define the composition and
hydrocarbon potential of the samples. Most of the tests are simple to conduct, allowing rapid
processing of the sample. But these only give qualitative results. Figure 5-14 summarizes rock
identification using qualitative testing. Figure 5-15 summarises the preparation of analytical
solutions. Other tests, such as calcimetry and shale density, provide quantitative results, but
require more time to complete.

Introduction to Geology

See also this rock trick dictionary for more information:

-AANHYDRITE: If your supposed limestone does not react with acid, do a BaCl2 test, you will most
probably find gypsum or anhydrite.
ASHES (VOLCANIC) : Also called PYROCLASTICS, will come out like a sticky clay. Look for
minute green volcanic glass spheres. Presence of pyroclastics makes the mud engineer
unhappy as the mud gets very bad.

-CCEMENT: Do not spill phenolphthalein all over your sample to find cement, you will turn
everything red! Take a big cutting, break it and put the phenolphthalein on the fresh break, if
it turns red, you have got cement.
CHALK: This particular limestone is very friable and will come out as a sticky white clay. But
calcimetry will indicate a very high content of CaCO3. If the calcimetry is very low see
CLAY.
CLAY: Most of the clay will go away when you wash it. If you always take the same fixed volume
of sample , you will be able to define the percentage of residue (generally sand). This fixed
volume depends on the number of dry samples you need.
KAOLINITE is a very nice white clay, it looks like CHALK with a low calcimetry.

-DDOLOMITE: Look for the nice rhombic crystals. Even better in thin sections if you apply some
alizarin: dolomite crystals will come out white on a reddened calcite background. Take your
time when you do a calcimetry, some metamorphic dolomites (they are made of dolomitic
rhombic crystals and are easily recognizable) may react after several minutes.

-GGRANITE: It may be difficult to decide between a granite and a sandstone. Do not hesitate: make a
thin section and you will see that, in a granite, the minerals are set like in a jigsaw puzzle.
GYPSUM: If your supposed limestone does not react with acid, do a BaCl2 test, you will most
probably find gypsum or anhydrite.

-LLIMESTONE: Examine the residue of the calcimetry, it is useful if the calcimetry is under 65% and
you have to decide if the rock is a MARL or a SANDY LIMESTONE (But remember of the
acid ampoule debris...).

-MMICA: Micas come in a wide range of color. The most common are the black BIOTITE, white
MUSCOVITE, and green CHLORITE.... Micas are always in flexible flakes.

Introduction to Geology

-OOIL: Always keep mud product samples in the unit. A bituminous material called GILSONITE may
be put in the mud and be mistaken with crude oil.

-SSALT: Wash the cutting you are going to lick, mud has a bad taste.
SAND: Always keep mud product samples in the unit for comparison (Barite, mica, loss circulation
material., glass beads..) to avoid mistaking baryte or beads with fine sand or finding a
micaceous sand when you have mud losses...
SHALE: If all test are negatives, you've probably got a SHALE.

Is this a fossil ?
Even if you have seen fossils before, you may have problems to recognize one in a cutting. Most of
the fossils you will find will be in limestone, a thin section is the best way to determine fossils.
You will find a lot of foraminifera (a unicellular animal with a test or skeleton) : imagine an ameba
with an armor and you get it. What you see is the armor. They come in a great variety of shapes
and size (up to 5cm for Nummulites). Determination of foraminifera species requires a specialist.
Other common fossils are algae, broken shells, echinoids fragments, corals...
If you see this:
, you've found an oolith, which is not a fossil but a spherical particle which has
grown concentrically around a nucleus (Exactly like pearls) .

Introduction to Geology

10

Making Thin Sections

Thin sections are made in order to:

Diagnose the rock type (especially useful for carbonates).

Provide qualitative information concerning pore size and interconnection.
Help identify microfossils.

Make thin sections from selected cuttings whenever the Client requests, or when necessary for
better interpretation of the sample. Geoservices uses two methods for the creation of thin
sections.

1. Arkanson (conventional) Method

The samples are glued directly to a glass slide; this is best used when the rocks are coherent and
not very fragile.

Equipment required:
Thin section grinder
Hot plate
Wooden tongs
Twisers
Glass plate
Grinded glass slides (one side to be
grinded)
Abrasive powders (300 to 800 grit)

Arkanson (Canadian balsam) in

small sticks

Procedure:
1. Select cuttings: flat ones are easier to work with! If you have to make a thin section from a core,
use the grinder cut-off wheel to make a tabular block.
Turn the hot plate on, and allow it to warm up for ten minutes prior to use, the temperature should
be at least 80 C.
Do not overheat otherwise the Arkanson develops a yellowish-brownish color, making
observation of the sample more difficult.
2. Using wooden tongs, place a slide (frosted side up) on the surface of the hot plate and wait two
minutes for it to warm up.

Introduction to Geology

11

3. Dissolve some Arkanson onto the surface of the slide by touching the end of the stick to the
slide. This first slide will be used as a transfer slide for all the thin sections , do the same with a
second slide which will be used for the next thin section. Remove second slide from the hot plate.

80

80

4. Before the Arkanson starts to boil, place the selected cuttings (lay them as flat as possible) onto
the dissolved material on the first slide.
If the cuttings have very different thickness, make an external ring with the thickest.
Then use some Arkanson powder (you can make it using the pestle and mortar) to cover the
cuttings.

80

80

5. Use the wooden tongs to remove the slide from the hot plate. Leave the hot plate power on.
6. Allow the slide to cool for 2 minutes before grinding down the thin section.
7. Grind the sample down, starting with the coarse (300) grit abrasive powder and changing to finer
grit (800 is the finest) as the cuttings are ground thinner. If you are working with core material, use
the grinder to thinner the sample before using the glass plate .

8. Lay the slide face-down on the grit and gently rub the sample down, using a figure '8' motion,
and rotating the slide 1/4 turn each time. Make sure the sample grains are rubbed down uniformly.
Stop frequently to inspect the cuttings surfaces, change to a finer grit each time the sample has
been ground to about one-half its former thickness. Wash and dry the glass plate before applying
the finer-grit abrasive powder.
Be sure that the rubbed surface is parallel to the surface! If not, position your fingers on the
thickest zone and grind by pressing on that part. In the worst case, use the edge of the
glass plate to grind the thickest zone of your slide.

Introduction to Geology

12

Try to make use of all the glass plate surface to avoid wear in its center.
9. After obtaining a flat, smooth, translucent cuttings surface, set the sample aside and wash and
dry the glass plate.

10. Put the first slide back on the hot plate and place the second slide onto the first so that the
Arkanson surfaces meet. Using twisers, remove the second slide (Due to different viscosity, the
cuttings will stick on the cooler Arkanson of the second slide)

80

80

12.. With a needle, press the cuttings until they touch the glass surface. Scratching noises can be
heard with a good contact.

13. Grind the exposed sample surface with successive abrasive grits, as before. Inspect the
sample frequently under the microscope and stop when cutting "transparency" has been obtained.

14. Note the well name and depth on the slide.

well#1
1500m

Introduction to Geology

13

2. Stratyl Method
Samples are placed in molded matrix made from transparent resin; use this method when the
rocks are very fragile.
The Stratyl method requires a minimum of three hours preparation, to allow the resin to
set properly.

Equipment required:
Equipment required is same as for Arkanson method plus
Thin section grinder
Stratyl Al16
Catalyst X8
Accelerator Y3
Plastic or metal moulds (Moulds may be 1 cc cubic type, made for the
purpose,
or may be fabricated from pieces of pipe, 5 cm long and 10-20 mm diameter.)
1 pipette (10 mI)
1 glass stirring rod

Procedure:
The resin, accelerator and catalyst are higly toxic. Mix the materials only in a well
ventilated area, use gloves and eye protection.
1. Mix Stratyl and accelerator according to instructions supplied with the material (3cc accelerator
for 5 kg of Stratyl). Stir slowly for 10mn to homogenise the mixture, keep in a cool place until use.
2. Place 1 cc of clean, dry, unheated cuttings in the mould. Do not use hot cuttings, as this may
cause formation of bubbles in the Stratyl matrix.
3. Prepare the required quantity of Stratyl, add catalyst as required for the resin volume, and mix
well.
4. Pour the resin/catalyst mixture onto the cuttings in the mould. Cover the cuttings with at least 5
mm of resin. Place the mould in a cool, well-ventilated area for 3-4 hours to harden.

5. When the resin has hardened, take the block out of the mould, and cut into thin slabs using the
cut-off wheel on the thin section grinder.

Introduction to Geology

14

well#1
1500m

6. Mount the slab on a slide and grind to a thin section, using the procedure
describded for the Arkanson method. Note the well name and depth on the slide.