1.

2 Introduction to computational fluid dynamics

Fluid dynamics is a field of science which studies the physical laws governing
the flow of fluids under various conditions. Great effort has gone into
understanding the governing loss and the nature of fluids themselves, resulting
in a complex yet theoretically strong field of research.
Fluid (gas and liquid) motions are governed by partial differential equations
which represent the basic conservation laws for the mass, momentum, and
energy. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is the art of replacing such PDE
systems by a set of algebraic equations which can be solved using digital
computers. Such complex sets of partial differential equation of solved on in
geometrical domain divided into small volumes, commonly known as a mesh
(or grid). CFD deals with predicting fluid flow, heat transfer, mass transfer,
chemical reactions, and related phenomena.
1.2.1 History of Cfd
Computers have been used to solve fluid flow problems for many years.
Numerous programs have been written to solve either specific problems, or
specific classes of problems. From the mid-1970's, the complex mathematics
required to generalize the algorithms began to be understood, and general
purpose CFD solvers were developed. These began to appear in the early 1980's
and required what were then very powerful computers, as well as an in-depth
knowledge of fluid dynamics, and large amounts of time to set up simulations.
Consequently, CFD was a tool used almost exclusively in research.
Recent advances in computing power, together with powerful graphics and
interactive 3D manipulation of models, have made the process of creating a
CFD model and analyzing results much less labor intensive, reducing time an
hence ,cost. As a result of these factors, Computational Fluid Dynamics is now

an Established industrial design tool, helping to reduce design time scales and
improve processes throughout the engineering world.
1.2.2 Governing Equations
Conservation of mass
Rate of increase of mass in fluid element equals the net rate of mass flow into
the element.

Conservation of momentum
Momentum is conserved in x , y , z direction & from the Newtons second
law( F=ma) the momentum equations in all three direction is derived as,

Conserved in X direction

Conserved in Y direction

Conserved in Z direction

1.2.3 Advantages of Cfd

Relatively Low Cost
o Using physical experiments and tests essential engineering data for
design can be expensive.
o CFD simulations are relatively inexpensive, and costs are likely to
decrease as computers become more powerful.
Speed
o CFD simulations can be executed in a short period of time.
o Quick turnaround means engineering data can be introduced early in
the design process.
Ability to Simulate Real Conditions
o Many flow and heat transfer processes cannot be (easily) tested, e.g.
hypersonic flow.
o CFD provides the ability to theoretically simulate any physical
condition.
Ability to simulate ideal conditions

o CFD allows great control over the physical process, and provides the
ability to isolate specific phenomena for study.
o Example: a heat transfer process can be idealized with adiabatic,
constant heat flux, or constant temperature boundaries.
Comprehensive Information
o Experiments only permit data to be extracted at limited number
locations In the system (e.g. pressure and temperature probes, heat
flux gauges, etc).
o CFD allows the analyst to examine a large number of locations in the
region of interest, and yields a comprehensive set of flow parameters
for examination.
Applications of Cfd
.

Applications of CFD are numerous

o Flow and heat transfer in industrial processes (boilers, heat

exchangers, combustion equipment, pumps, blower, piping, etc.).
o Aerodynamics of ground vehicles, aircraft, missiles.
o Film coating, thermoforming in material processing applications.
o Flow and heat transfer in propulsion and power generation systems.
o Verification, heating, and cooling flows in buildings.
o Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) for integrated circuit
manufacturing.
o Heat transfer for electronics packaging applications.
1.3 Cfd Methodology
1.3.1 Initial Design
In order to obtain a better design in CFD, following procedure is applied so that
fluid flow can easily be modeled. Initial design of the model is a planning
decision and the geometry generation depending on the complexity and the
availability using either CFD modeling tools or other design tools.

1.3.2 CFD modeling

The first task to accomplish in a numerical flow simulation is to extract the fluid
domain or the region where the fluid flow is occurring. Using the Cfd tools the
geometrical components which are all not needed for the simulation is removed
thus only the fluid domain is prepared for the next process.
1.3.3 Mesh Generation
One of the most cumbersome and time consuming part of the CFD is the mesh
generation. Although for very simple flows, mesh generation is easy, I t
becomes very complex when the problem has many cavities and passages, Mesh
generation is basically the discretization of the computational domain. The mesh
in finite difference methods consists of a set of points, which are called nodes.
The finite volume methods consider points that form a set of volumes which are
called cells. The finite element methods used sub-volumes called elements
which have nodes where the variables are defined. Values of the dependent
variables, such as velocity, pressure, temperature, etc. are described for each
element.
Various forms of elements can be used. However, the most common type in
CFD programs is a hexahedron with eight nodes, one at each corner, and this is
known as a brick element or volume. For two-dimensional applications the
equivalent element is a four-node quadrilateral. Some finite volume programs
have now been released which have the ability to use tetrahedral in three
dimensions or triangles in two dimensions. Most finite element CFD codes will
allow these elements to use together with a small range of other element types.
1.3.4 Surface Meshing
This package provides a function template to compute a triangular mesh
approximating a surface. The meshing algorithm requires to know the surface to

be meshed only through an oracle able to tell whether a given segment, line or
ray intersects the surface or not and to compute an intersection point if any. This
feature makes the package generic enough to be applied in a wide variety of
situations. For instance, it can be used to mesh implicit surfaces described as the
zero level set of some function. It may also be used in the field of medical
imaging to mesh surfaces described as a gray level set in a three dimensional
image.
The meshing algorithm is based on the notion of the restricted Delaunay
triangulation. Basically the algorithm computes a set of sample points on the
surface, and extract an interpolating surface mesh from the three dimensional
triangulation of these sample points. Points are iteratively added to the sample,
as in a Delaunay refinement process, until some size and shape criteria on mesh
elements are satisfied. The size and shape criteria guide the behavior of the
refinement process and control its termination. They also condition the size and
shape of the elements in the final mesh. Naturally, those criteria can be
customized to satisfy the user needs
The Surface mesh generation package offers a set of standard criteria that can be
scaled through three numerical values. Also the user can also plug in its own set
of refinement criteria. There is no restriction on the topology and number of
components of the surface provided that the oracle (or the user) is able to
provide one initial sample point on each connected component. If the surface is
smooth enough, and if the size criteria are small enough, the algorithm
guarantees that the output mesh is homomorphism to the surface, and is within a
small bounded distance \(Hausdorff or even Frechet distance) from the surface .
The algorithm can also be used for no smooth surfaces but then there is no
guarantee.

1.3.5 Volumetric Meshes

Volumetric meshes are a polygonal representation of the interior volume of an
object. Unlike polygon meshes, which represent only the surface as polygons,
volumetric meshes also discretize the interior structure of the object.
One application of volumetric meshes is in finite element analysis, which may
use regular or irregular volumetric meshes to compute internal stresses and
forces in an object throughout the entire volume of the object.
In this research, a procedure called the Reference Jacobean based Mesh
optimization has been developed for the optimization of 3D mesh quality by
node repositioning. The procedure is designed to improve the quality or
geometric shape of mesh regions and boundary mesh faces while keeping the
improved mesh as close as possible to the original mesh.
The quality measure optimized in the procedure is the Condition Number shape
measure which quantifies the distortion of a trivalent element corner from an
"ideal" corner of a canonical element. This "ideal" corner is usually considered
to be formed by 3 unit vectors coincident at the origin and lying along the
coordinate axes but any other definition may be used in its place.
The procedure also includes a method for improving the quality of mesh faces
on internal and external boundaries while preserving surface characteristics as
described in the articles on polygonal surface mesh quality improvement. The
overall procedure consists of iterations involving node repositioning on the
boundary followed by node repositioning in the interior (with boundary nodes
fixed).
The procedure has proved to be very effective in improving mesh quality of
multi-material tetrahedral and hexahedral meshes while minimizing changes to
the mesh characteristics and to the discrete boundary surfaces

.3.7 Mesh Quality Criteria

Cell Quality
o Equiangle skew
o Equivolume skew
o Aspect ratio
Skew
Skewness is defined as the difference between the shape of a cell and the shape
of an equilateral cell of equivalent volume. Highly skewed cells can decrease
accuracy and destabilize the solution. For example, optimal quadrilateral
meshes will have vertex angles close to 90 degrees, while triangular meshes
should preferably have angles of close to 60 degrees and have all angles less
than 90 degrees. A general rule is that the maximum skewness for a
triangular/tetrahedral mesh in most flows should be kept below 0.95, with an
average value that is significantly lower. A maximum value above 0.95 may
lead to convergence difficulties and may require changing the solver controls.
Equiangle skew
It is a non dimensional parameter calculated using the normalized angle
deviation method, and is defined as.,

Where,

largest angle in the face or cell

smallest angle in the face or cell

= angle for an equiangular face or cell (e.g., 60 for a triangle and 90 for a
square)

Equivolume skew
It is a non dimensional parameter calculated using the volume deviation
method, and is defined as,

Where optimal-cell-size is the size of an equilateral cell with the same circum
radius. A value of 0 indicates a best case equilateral cell and a value of 1
indicates a completely degenerate cell. Degenerate cells (slivers) are
characterized by nodes that are nearly coplanar (collinear in 2D). Cell
Equivolume Skew applies only to triangular and tetrahedral elements.
Aspect ratio
Aspect ratio is a measure of the stretching of a cell. It is computed as the ratio of
the maximum value to the minimum value of any of the following distances: the
distances between the cell centroid and face centroids, or the distances between
the cell centroid and nodes.

1.4 CFD STEPS

1.4.1 Pre processing:

In this process the cad model is imported to the Cfd modeling tool and the
geometry is simplified by removing the extra parts from the base model .Fluid
domain extraction and the grid generation are the major part of a preprocessing
work with good mesh quality.

1.4.2 Solving the Cfd Problem

o Reading the file.
o The reading the file should clear as case file or data file or case and
data file.
o In this we have to read case and data file.
o Scaling the grid.
o Checking the grid.
o Defining the models.
Model should define whether it is steady or unsteady and whether it is viscous.
The model is defined here is steady and viscous.
o Defining the materials.
o Defining the boundary condition
o Controls
o Initialize
o Monitor
o Iterate
o The component that solves the CFD problem is called the Solver. It
produces the required results in a non-interactive/batch process. A CFD
problem is solved as follows
o The partial differential equations are integrated over all the control
volumes in the region of interest. This is equivalent to applying a basic
conservation law (for example, for mass or momentum) to each control
volume

o These integral equations are converted to a system of algebraic equations

by generating a set of approximations for the terms in the integral
equations.
o The algebraic equations are solved iteratively. An iterative approach is
required because of the non-linear nature of the equations, and as the
solution approaches the exact solution, it is said to converge. For each
iteration an error, or residual, is reported as a measure of the overall
conservation of the flow properties.
o How close the final solution is to the exact solution depends on a number
of factors, including the size and shape of the control volumes and the
size of the final residuals. Complex physical processes, such as
combustion and turbulence, are often modeled using empirical
relationships. The approximations inherent in these models also
contribute to differences between the CFD solution and the real flow.
o The solution process requires no user interaction and is, therefore, usually
carried out as a batch process. The solver produces a results file which is
then passed to the post-processor.
1.4.3 Post Processing
The post-processor is the component used to analyze, visualize and present the
results interactively. Post-processing includes anything from obtaining point
values to complex animated sequences.
Examples of some important features of post-processors are:
o Visualization of the geometry and control volumes
o Vector plots showing the direction and magnitude of the flow
o Visualization of the variation of scalar variables (variables which have
only magnitude, not direction, such as temperature, pressure and
speed) through the domain
o Quantitative numerical calculations
o Animation

o Charts showing graphical plots of variables

o Hardcopy and online output.
1.4.4 Software tools used
o Cad modeling tool: Solid works 2012
o Pre-processing tool: ANSA, ANSYS-T GRID
o Solving & post processing: ANSYS-FLUENT
1.5 Limitations of Cfd
Physical models
o CFD solutions rely upon physical models of real world processes (e.g.
turbulence, compressibility, chemistry, multiphase flow, etc).
o The CFD solutions can only be as accurate as the physical models on
which they are based.
Numerical Errors
o Solving equations on a computer invariably introduces numerical
errors.
o Round-off error; due to finite word size available on the computer,
Round-off errors will always exist (though they can be small in most
cases).
o Truncation error: due to approximate in the numerical models.
Truncation errors will go to zero as the grid is refined. Mesh
refinement is one way to deal with truncation error.
Boundary Conditions
o As with physical models, the accuracy of the CFD solution is only as
good as the initial/boundary conditions provided to the numerical
model.

o Example: Flow in a duct with sudden expansion. If flow is supplied

domain by a pipe, you should use a fully-developed profile for
velocity rather than assume uniform conditions.
o CFD software is used in this work to calculate the pressure drop and
overall heat transfer coefficient for five models. The methodology and
the results are discussed in the next chapters.
Boundary Conditions
The governing equation of fluid motion may result in a solution when the
boundary conditions and the initial conditions of specified. The form of
boundary conditions that is required by any partial differential equation depends
on the equation itself and the way that it has been discredited. Common
boundary conditions are classified either in terms of the numerical value that
have to be set or in terms of the physical type of boundary condition.
The physical boundary conditions that are the commonly observed in the fluid
problems are as follows:
Solid Walls
Many boundaries within the fluid flow domain will be solid walls, and these can
be either stationary or moving walls. If the flow is laminar then the velocity
components can be set to be the velocity of walls. When the flow is turbulent,
however, the situation is more complex.
Inlets
At an inlet, fluid enters the domain and therefore, its fluid velocity or pressure
or the mass flow rate may be known. Also, the fluid may have certain
characteristics, such as turbulence characterizes which need to specified.
Symmetry Boundaries

When the flow is symmetrical about some plane there is no flow through the
boundary and the derivatives of the variables normal to the boundary are zero.
Cyclic or Periodic Boundaries
These boundaries come in pairs and are used to specify the flow has the same
values of the variables at equivalent position and both of the boundaries.
Pressure Boundary Conditions
The ability to specify a pressure condition at one or more boundaries of a
computational region is an important and useful computational tool. Pressure
boundaries represent such things as confined reservoirs of fluid, ambient
laboratory conditions and applied pressures arising from mechanical devices.
Generally, pressure condition cannot be used at boundary where velocities are
also specified, because velocities are influenced by pressure gradients. The only
exception is when pressures are necessary to specify the fluid properties. E.g.,
density crossing a boundary conditions, referred to as static or stagnation
pressure conditions. In a static condition the pressure is more or less continuous
across the boundary and the velocity at the boundary is assigned a value based
on a zero normal-derivative condition across the boundary.
In contrast, a stagnation pressure condition assumes stagnation conditions
outside the boundary so that the velocity at the boundary is zero. Since the static
pressure condition says nothing about fluid outside the boundary (i.e., other than
it is supposed to be the same as the velocity inside the boundary) it is less
specific than the stagnation pressure condition. In this sense the stagnation
pressure condition is generally more physical and is recommended for most
applications.

Outflow Boundary Conditions

In many simulations there is need to have fluid flow out of one or more
boundaries of the computational region. In compressible flow, when the flow
speed at the outflow boundary is supersonic, it makes little difference how the
boundary conditions are specified since flow disturbances cannot propagate
upstream. In low speed and incompressible flows, however, disturbances
introduced at an outflow boundary can have an effect on the entire
computational region. The simplest and most commonly used outflow condition
is that of continuative boundary.
Continuative boundary conditions consist of zero normal derivates at the
boundary for all quantities. The zero-derivative condition is intended to
represent a smooth continuation of the flow through the boundary. As a general
rule, a physically meaningful boundary condition. Such as a specified pressure
condition, should be used at out flow boundaries, whenever possible. When a
continuative condition is used it should be placed as far from the main flow
region as is practical so that any influence on the main flow will be minimal.
Opening Boundary Condition
If the fluid flow crosses the boundary surface in either direction an opening
boundary conditions needs to be utilized. All of the fluid might flow out of the
domain, or into the domain, or a combination of the two might happen.
1.6 Turbulence model:
Turbulence modeling is a key function for most of the CFD simulations.
Virtually all engineering applications are turbulent and hence require a
turbulence model because we cannot afford big enough computers to directly
capture every scale of motion. Also, users of CFD typically want a steady-state
solution (with all the unsteady fluctuations averaged out) rather than a detailed
time-accurate one that captures every little vortex. As a result, there are

unsteady (turbulent) motions affecting the flow that cannot be resolved directly;
they must therefore be modeled.
In some cases, the turbulence model you use can have a huge effect on the
results you obtain from CFD. This kind of disparity is largely due to the fact
that no model is right all the time; they all have their limitations. Because of
this, there are dozens (if not hundreds) of variations available, and more are
being developed all the time.
1.6.1 Classes of turbulence models
Turbulence models are generally classified according to which governing
equations they apply to (e.g. Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes or Large Eddy
Simulation equations). Within these broader categories, they are further broken
down by the number of additional transport equations which one must solve in
order to compute the model contributions.
1.6.2 RANS-based turbulence models
The objective of the turbulence models for the RANS equations is to compute
the stresses, and also these are the models that will be used for most production
applications. Reynolds Averaging
The rationale for Reynolds averaging is that we are not interested in the part of
ow solution that can be described as turbulent uctuations: instead, it is the
mean velocity, pressure, lift, drag) that is of interest. Looking at turbulent ow,
it may be steady in the mean in spite of turbulent uctuations. If this is so, and
we manage to derive the equations for the mean properties directly, we may
reduce the cost by orders of magnitude:
o It is no longer necessary to perform transient simulation and assemble
the averages: we are solving for average properties directly

o Spatial resolution requirement is no longer governed by the

Kolmogorovs micro-scale! We can tackle high Reynolds numbers and
determine the resolution based on required engineering accuracy

cad model
1.base model

height=3.8 m
width= 5 m
length=5 m

space shuttle capsule

wind tunnel construction

front= 4L
back= 5L
side=2L
where,
L= height of capsule

space shuttle capsule with wind tunnel

pre-processing
1.base model

surface mesh count=66102

skewness=0.6

volume mesh count=792432 cells

skewness=0.84

FLUENT CONDITIONS
Solver Settings
Table 5.1 Solver Settings
Processing
Solver

Serial

coupled, Pressure Based

Dimension

3D

Problem Setup
Table 5.2 Problem Setup
Type

Fluid

Air

Materials

Solid

titanium

Properties

Unit

Density-1.225

Kg/M3

Cp -1006.43

J/Kg k

k-0.0242

W/Mk

Viscosity1.78e-5

Kg/Ms

Density-2719

Kg/M3

Cp-871

J/Kg k

k-202.4

W/Mk

Turbulence Modelling

Spallart-allamars

Energy Equation

On

Cell Zone Condition

Fluid-Air

Boundary Conditions
Table 5.3 Boundary Conditions
Fluid Flow
Inlet
Outlet

Pressure
far field

Mach no=0.75

Wall

No slip
condition

Wind tunnel
wall
capsule

Equation Solved
Table 5.4 Equation Solved

Thermal
Temperature245.5 K

Conservation of mass

Flow
Equation
solved

Conservation of momentum

Energy

Conservation of energy

Turbulence

Turbulence modelling- spallart

allmaras

Software Used
Table 5.5 Software Used

Pre-Processing

Ansa

Ansys-Tgrid

Volume Meshing

Ansys-Fluent

Fluid Flow And

Thermal
Behaviour

Ansys-Fluent

End results

Solver

Post-Processing

Domain Extraction
Geometry Cleanup
Surface Meshing
Surface Mesh
Cleanup

post -processing
1.base model for Ma=25

contours of static pressure around the capsule along the surface

contours of static temperature around the capsule along the surface

contours of density around the capsule along the surface

contours of velocity magnitude around the capsule along the surface

conclusion.
Thus, the space re -entry shuttle capsule is analysed for the mach
number(Ma=25). Thus, the post-processing results of the flow field
around the capsule when capsule attains Ma=25 is predicted. when
flow is above Ma=0.3, the flow nature changes to compressible flow,
so, the fluid experiences pressure change around the capsule results in
shock waves and also due to compressibility , the fluid density
changes. Due to high pressure and viscous force, it experiences the
high temperature distribution to the fluid and also to the capsule, due
to tangential shear forces of fluid .