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Theses and Dissertations

2008

Sound reduction by a Helmholtz resonator


Myonghyon Han
Lehigh University

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Han, Myonghyon, "Sound reduction by a Helmholtz resonator" (2008). Theses and Dissertations. Paper 1015.

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Han, Myonghyon .
.Sound R,eduction
by a Helmholtz
Resonator
.September 2008

SOUND REDUCTION

BY A HELMHOLTZ RESONATOR

by

Myonghyon Han

A Thesis
Presented to the Graduate and Research Committee
of Lehigh University
in Candidacy for the Degree of
Master of Science

In

The Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics

Lehigh U?n'versity
September, 2008

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my SIncere gratitude to my advisor, Prof. Donald
Rockwell, for his knowledge, guidance and encouragement throughout present study. His.
efforts toward my academic progress have been invaluable. Also, I am very grateful to
the Korean Army for its financial support.
I appreciate the assistance ofthe machine shop, particularly Mr. Richard Towne
and Mr. James Bunderla for their craftsmanship. I am also very thankful to Mrs. JoAnn
Casciano, Mrs. Geri Kneller for their kindness and administrative assistance. I extend

.,

many thanks to Yasushi Watanabe for his contribution on the initial development ofthe
experimental set-up and wonderful discussions. I am also thankful to all my colleagues,
Mr. Philip Breneman, Mr. Tunc Goruney, Mr. Turgut, Yilmaz, Egemen Tinar, Cern
Alper Ozen,
lowe my heartfelt gratitude and thanks to my parents and my family, for their
support and to my Korean best friends Wanggyu Im, Hwabok Wee, Kyunghwan Kim and
Jinwoo Lee, who have been like brothers to me.
Finally, I am gratefullo my beautiful lady, HyunJung Oh, for her encouragement,
support, patience, and love.

111

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE

.i

.ii

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

.iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

.iv

LIST OF FIGURES

vi

NOMENCLATURE

xii

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Helmholtz Resonator

1.2 Previous Related Investigation ofHelmholtz Resonators

2. EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEMS AND TECHNIQUES

2.1 Overview ofExperimental System

8
;'

2.2 Main Test Section

2.3 Acquisition and Processing ofPressure Data


3. Pressure Response Characteristics

8
9
13

3.1 Summary ofRange of Geometric Parameters

13

3.2 Method ofPresentation ofData

14

3.3 Resonance of Cavity Duct..

14

3.4 Effect of Geometrical Parameters ofResonator on Resonant Response...... 15


4. Background Level of Resonance

18

4.1 Development ofResonant Freiftfellcy

IV

18

4.2 Effect ofthe Mouth Area ofHelmholtz Resonator


4.3 Effect ofthe Volume ofHelmholtz Resonator
5. Discussion of Sound Reduction

19
:

20
22

5.1 Experimental Results ofSound Reduction

22

6. Conclusion

26

FIGURES

27

LIST OF REFERENCES

86

APPENDIX

87

VITA

94

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Schematic of the Helmholtz resonator and cavity ducL

27

Figure 2.2a: Detailed schematic of the, body of the Helmholtz resonator. The unit of
length is mm
~
28
Figure 2.2b: Detailed schematic of the Helmholtz resonator involving a ring and a rod.
29
The unit of length is mm
Figure 2.3: Detailed schematic of cavity duct. The unit oflength is mm

30

Figure 2.4a: Detailed schematic of plate with width of 3.18 mm. The unit of length is
mm
31
Figure 2.4b: Detailed schematic of plate with width of 6.35 mm. The unit of length is
mm
31
Figure 2.4c: Detailed schematic of plate with width of 9.53 mm. The unit of length is
31
mm
Figure 3.1: Overview of present experiments in terms of the parameters of the
experimental set-up
32
Figure 3.2: Natural frequency of open-closed cavity excited by pure tone at successive
values of frequency. Frequency range is 1 to 1000 Hz. Length Lc of cavity is 482.6
33
mm
Figure 3.3: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside the Helmholtz resonator due to pure
tone excitation at successive values of frequency, as a function of length X p and width W
34
for fixed value of mouth length L = 38.1 mm
Figure 3.4: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside the Helmholtz resonator due to pure
tone excitation at successive values of frequency, as a function of length Xp and width W
for fixed value of mouth length L = 38.1 mm
35
Figure 3.5: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside the Helmholtz resonator due to pure
tone excitation at successive values of frequency, as a function of length X p and width W
for fixed value of mouth length L = 38.1 mm
36
Figure 3.6: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside the Helmholtz resonator due to pure
tone excitation at successive values of frequency, as a function of length X p and width W
for fixed value'ofmouth length L = 38.1 mm
37
Figure 3.7: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside the Helmholtz resonator due to pure
tone excitation at successive values of frequency. Area of mouth of resonator is A = 1452

VI

mm Diameter of resonator is D = 152.4 mm. Detailed schematic is given in Figure 2.2


and'2.4
38
Figure 3.8a: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for
fixed value of mouth width W = 38.1 mm and length L = 38.1 mm
39
Figure 3.8b: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length X p for
fixed value of mouth width W = 38.1 mm and length L = 38.1 mm
.40
Figure 3.8e: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for
fixed value of mouth width W = 38.1 mm and length L = 38.1 mm
.41
Figure 3.8d: Response spectrum Of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for
fixed value of mouth width W = 38.1 mm and length L = 38.1 mm
.42
Figure 3.9: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside the Helmholtz resonator due to pure
tone excitation at successive values of frequency. Area of mouth of resonator is A =
120.97 mm2 Diameter of resonator is D = 152.4 mm. Detailed schematic is given in
,
43
Figure 2.2 and 2.4
Figure 3.10a: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for
fixed value of mouth width W = 3.18 mm and length L = 38.1 mm
.44
Figure 3.l0b: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function oflength Xp for
fixed value of mouth width W = 3.18 mm and length L = 38.1 mm
..45
Figure 3:10e: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length X p for
fixed value of mouth width W = 3.18 mm and length L = 38.1 mm
.46
Figure 3.10d: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length X p for
fixed value of mouth width W = 3.18 mm and length L = 38.1 mm
.47
Figure 3.11: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside the Helmholtz resonator due to pure
tone excitation at successive values of frequency. Area of mouth of resonator is A =
241.94 mm2 . Diameter of resonator is D = 152.4 mm. Detailed schematic is given in
Figure 2.2 and 2.4
48
Figure 3.12a: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length X p for
fixed value of mouth width W = 6,35 mm and length L = 38.1 mm
.49
Figure 3.12b: Response,spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function oflength X p for
fixed value of mouth width W = 6.35 mm 'and length L = 38.1 mm
.50
Figure 3.12e: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function oflength X p for
fixed value of mouth width W = 6.35 mm and length L = 38.1 mm
51

va

Figure 3.12d: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for

fixed value of mouth width W = 6.35 mm and length L = 38.1 mm

52

Figure 3.13: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside the Helmholtz resonator due to pure

tone excitation at successive values of frequency. Area of mouth of resonator is A =


362.90 mm2 Diameter of resonator is D = 152.4 mm. Detailed schematic is given in
Figure 2.2 and 2.4
53
Figure 3.14a: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length X p for

fixed value of mouth width W = 9.53 mm and length L = 38.1 mm

54

Figure 3.14b: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function oflength X p for

fixed value of mouth width W = 9.53 mm and length L = 38.1 mm

55

Figure 3.14c: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length X p for

fixed value of mouth width W = 9.53 mm and length L = 38.1 mm

56

Figure 3.14d: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length X p for

fixed value of mouth width W = 9.53 mm and length L = 38.1 mm

57

Figure 3.15: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of
Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 mm 2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.28
mm
58
Figure 3.16: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp The mouth area of

Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.28
lruTI................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 3.17: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area 'of
Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 mm 2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.28
mm
60
Figure 3.18:. Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz

resonator due to pure tone excitation-as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of
Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 mm2 and the thiCkness T of cavity wall is 3.28
lTIm
61
Figure 3.19: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz

resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of
Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.28
lTIlTI
62

Vlll

Figure 3.20: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length X p . The mouth area of
2
Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 mm and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.28
mm
~
63
Figure 3.21: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp The mouth area of
Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.28
lum
:
64
Figure 3.22: The results from experiments of combination of the Helmholtz resonator
and cavity duct.
65
Figure 4.1: Frequency of Helmholtz resonator. Area of mouth of resonator is A = 1452
2
~
66
mm Diameter of resonator is D = 152.4 mm
Figure 4.2: Natural frequency of Helmholtz resonator with plate. Area of mouth of plate
is A = 120.97 mm2. Diameter of resonator is D = 152.4 mm
67
Figure 4.3: Natural frequency of Helmholtz resonator with plate. Area of mouth of plate
is A = 241.94 mm2 Diameter of resonator is D = 152.4 mm
68
Figure 4.4: Natural frequency of Helmholtz resonator with plate. Area of mouth of plate
2
is A = 362.90 mm . Diameter of resonator is D = 152.4 mm
69
Figure 4.5: the comparison of values between theory and experiment.
Figure 5.1: Spectra of transmission loss calculated by Equation (5.1).

-1)

AH [1++(_1).e-2ikLN]2
Av (e- 2ikLN
TL-10.lo g \ol+-.-..
2'kL
' =-.
2'kL
. Ac l+-(-l).e- I N
AH e- I N+1
_

70

71

Figure 5.2a: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of
Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 mm 2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18
mm. The length of volume is Xp = 78.15 mm and the volume of the resonator is
1,444,076 mm3
72
Figure 5.2b: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp The mouth area of
Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 mm 2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18
mm. The length of volume is Xp = 80.11 mm and the volume of the resonator is
1,479,717 mm3
73
Figure 5.2e: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of

IX

Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18
mm. The length
of volume is X p = 82.06 mm and the
volume of the resonator is
3
.
1,515,358 mm
74

Figure 5.2d: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of
2
Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 mm and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18
mm. The length of volume is X p = 84.02 mm and the volume of the resonator is
1,551,000 mm3
75
Figure 5.2e: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp The mouth area of
2
Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 mm and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18
mm. The length of volume is X p = 85.97 mm and the volume of the resonator is
1,586,641mm3
.:
76
Figure 5.2f: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of
Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18
mm. The length of volume is X p = 87.92 mm and the volume of the resonator is
1,622,282 mm3
77
Figure 5.2g: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length X p The mouth area of
Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18
mm. The length of volume is X p = 89.88 mm and the volume of the resonator is
3
1,657,923 mm
78
Figure 5.2h: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area' of
Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity,."yall is 3.18
mm. The length of volume is X p = 91.83 mm and the volum~ of the resonator is
1,693,564 mm3
79
Figure 5.2i: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp The mouth area of,
Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242' mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18
mm. The length of volume is X p = 93.78 mm and the volume of the resonator is
1,729,205 mm3
80
Figure 5.2j: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of
Helmholtz reson;tor on duct is A = 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18
mm. The length of volume is Xp = 95.74 mm and the volume of the resonator is
1,764,846 mm3
81
:

Figure 5.2k: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp The mouth area of
2
Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 rnm and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18
mm. The length of volume is Xp = 97.69 mm and the volume of the resonator is
3
1,800,487 mm
82
Figure 5.21: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp The mouth area of
Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 rnm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18
mm. The length of volume is Xp = 99.65 mm and the volume of the resonator is
1,836,127 mm3
83
Figure 5.3: The calculated volume of Helmholtz resonator expressed as a function of the
actual length of neck under the condition of constant cross-sectional area. VM is the
maximum volume of Helmholtz resonator, and Vc is the calculated Volume of Helmholtz
resonator.
84
Figure 5.4: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp The mouth area of
2
Helmholtz resonator on duct is A = 242 rnm and the actual length of neck of Helmholtz
resonator is 12.7 rnm. The length of volume is Xp = 121.14 mm and the volume of the
resonator is 2,224,072 mm3
85

Xl

NOMENCLATURE

Ac

Cross-sectional area of cavity duct

AH

Cross-sectional area of mouth of Helmholtz resonator

A Ho

Cross-sectional area of volume of Helmholtz resonator

Sound speed

fa

Frequency of spectral peak

fi, h

Frequencies at the half-power points of spectral peak

Is

Sampling rate

IR

Resonant frequency

,6.f

Frequency resolution

L'

Effective length

Lc

Length of cavity duct

LH

Total length of Helmholtz resonator

LHo

Actual length of Helmholtz resonator

L HM

Length of mouth of Helmholtz resonator

L HN

Length of neck of Helmholtz resonator

Lp

Length of cavity of plate

Lpo

Length of plate

na

Acoustic mode number

ns

Number of samples per data set

RH

Radius of Helmholtz resonator

TH

Thickness of Helmholtz resonator

Tp

Thickness of plate

XlI

We

Width of cavity duct

WHM

Width of mouth of Helmholtz resonator

Wp

Width of cavity of plate

Wpo

Width of plate

Xp

Volume length of Helmholtz resonator

Wave length

Damping ratio

X111

ABSTRACT

When subjected to external excitation, a Helmholtz resonator can show a strongly


resonant response at a well-defined frequency. This resonant characteristic can be usedto
effectively attenuate the generation of sound, by attaching the resonator to a variety of
geometrical configurations.
The first phase of the present investigation focuses on the effects of geometry on
the resonant frequency of a Helmholtz resonator. The volume of the resonator is varied
by adjustment of a piston, which forms the bottom, or end, surface of the resonator.
Furthermore, the effect of cross-sectional area of the mouth (opening) of the resonator is
investigated, via employment of different attachment plates at the resonator opening. For
all of the foregoing modifications of the Helmholtz resonator, spectral analysis of
pressure fluctuations within the resonator provides an "indication of the frequency of
Helmholtz resonance, and the corresponding amplitude of the speptral peak at the
resonant state.
In the second part of the investigation, the Helmholtz resonator is employed to

attenuate the oscillation characteristics of a deep cavtty duct, i.e., a side branch. The
Helmholtz resonator is attached to the side of the duct. As for the first part of this
investigation, the consequence of variations of geometry and volume of the Helmholtz
resonator are addressed. Substantial damping of the overall oscillation can be attained, as
characterized by spectral analysis of the pressure fluctuations at critical locations in the
system.

1. INTRODUCTION
Since ancient Greece, the Helmholtz resonator has been used to intensify and
dampen sound fields. Knowledge of Helmholtz resonance and its theoretical description
have been used over the years to design and analyze various systems. An advantage of
the Helmholtz resonator is that it has the characteristic of strong sound attenuation, even
though its geometry is relatively simple. When it, is appropriately tuned, it can
substantially reduce noise over the low frequency domain. Many researchers and
engineers have been interested in, and employed, the Helmholtz resonator for a variety of
applications, including a range of geometries, some of them as part of complex
configurations.

1.1 Helmholtz Resonance

f.

It.

Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz (August 31, 1821 - September 8,


1894) was born in Germany and had brilliant achievements as both a physician and a
physicist. He created the device known as the Helmholtz resonator in the 1860s.
Helmholtz resonance is widely known as the phenomenon of air resonance in the cavity
or chamber that contains a gas. The highest amplitude sound is generated near and at the
resonant frequency, which is determined by the volume and the neck dimensions of the
Helmholtz resonator. A well-known configuration of such a resonator is the musical tone
generated when air is blown across the top of an empty soda bottle.

In a Helmholtz resonator, the air in its neck behaves as a discrete mass, while the
air in the cavity has the role of a spring. During oscillation, the gas within the volume of

the resonator is alternately compressed and expanded at very low magnitudes. The inertia
of the air in the neck of the resonator plays an important role.

1.2 Previous Related Investigation of Helmholtz Resonators

Adaptive-Passive Noise Control. The phenomenon of Helmholtz resonance has been


utilized in adaptive-passive noise control. The resonant frequency is controlled by
altering the dimension of the Helmholtz resonator, such as the length of the neck or the
volume of the cavity of the resonator, or both of these. By using a means to adjust the
parameters of the neck and chamber volume, it is possible to dampen noise over a
frequency domain of interest. Various experiments have been carried out to determine the
most effective methods of using adaptive Helmholtz resonators to control sound and,
thereby, attenuation.

Koopman and Neise (1980, 1982) studied the use of adjustable resonators to dampen the
tone produced by blade passage of centrifugal fans. The volume of the Helmholtz
resonator was changed by use of a moveable Teflon piston. Their experimental results
showed that the amplitude of the tone of the blade passage frequency could be decreased
up to 29 dB without generating a negative side effect on the fan frequency. However, no
definitive methods were suggested for achieving the optimal condition of sound reduction
by variation of the cavity depth.

Little et al. (1994) investigated a fluidic Helmholtz resonator for use as an adaptive
engine mount. Dimensions of the cross-sectional area of the neck of the Helmholtz

resonator were modified to attenuate the noise. The

VarIOUS

magnitudes of surface

opening areas lead to a change in the inertance of the neck of the resonator. A creative
electro-rheological fluid component was developed to continuously alter the crosssectional area of the neck; this approach is different from the configuration of a widely
utilized valve, which has a discontinuous characteristic. However, the algorithm for the
controlling parameter that relates the opening of the surface area was not ~xplained.

Lamancousa (1987) designed a changeable cavity of the Helmholtz resonator to


substitute for expansion chamber mufflers in automobiles. Two types of modifiable
arrangements of the cavity volume were considered. In the first device, the volume was
continuously changed by increasing or decreasing the length of the cavity through a
moveable piston inside the cavity. In the second type of device, separate volumes were
employed; that is, the volume of the chamber was divided into several sub-volumes,
which could be closed off. Using the approaches described in the foregoing, it was
possible to attain either a continuous or discrete variation of volume of the resonator
according to the revolution signal of the engine. In these devices, it was determined that
insertion losses of more than 30 dB were achieved by manipulating the

contin~ously

changeable volume of the resonator. It should be noted that Krause et al. (1992, 1993)
also experimentally investigated the effect of alterations of the volume and the neck of a
Helmholtz resonator on attenuation of the source of noise in automotive tailpipes.

Matsuhisa et al. (1990, 1992) investigated the consequences of the variable volume of a
resonator by using a removable piston inside the chamber. The resonator was attached to

II

a duct in the manner of a side branch and the adjustment of the volume of the resonator
was guided by comparison with the phase of the sound pressure in the duct, relative to
that in the resonant cavity. The chamber of the resonator was controlled to maintain a
constant phase difference of ninety degrees. Using this procedure, anti-resonance of the
duct-resonator system was accomplished. In this experiment, three sensors were utilized
to measure and compare the sound pressure in different positions. One microphone was
used to measure the excitation frequency, one was employed to measure the pressure in
the duct, and the remaining one measured the pressure in the cavity. It was found in this
investigation that the use of an adjustable resonator produces reductions in sound
pressure up to 30 dB for a speaker driven system and 20 dB for a fan-driven system.

McDonald et al (1992) performed tonal noise control by using a variable Helmholtz


resonator, similar to that used in the experiments of Matsuhisa et al. (1990, 1992). The
phase difference between the pressure and the resonator cavity in the duct system was
employed to guide adjustment of the volume of the cavity and the length of resonator
neck, in order to achieve sound reduction.

Selamet, Dickey and Novak (1995) showed that the individual dimensions of a
Helmholtz resonator can playa great role in determination of the n;:sonant frequency and
the transmission loss characteristics. An increase of the ratio of the length scale of the
volume to the diameter, fJd, decreases the predominant resonant frequency. This
phenomenon is similar to the result of using an effective length, which includes a

correction length. Experiments show agreement with the analytical expressIOn and
numerical simulation.

DeBedout (1997) investigated an adaptive Helmholtz resonator, which optimized its


performance according to changes in environmental conditions and excitation frequency.
It was found that reduction in sound pressure up to 30 dB- could be attained through a

combination of a variable resonator and an appropriately controlled algorithm. The main


advantages of this system are as follows. For the case of this adaptive-passive noise
control device, the control algorithm is simple and the efficiency of the process is
optimized. Furthermore, with the tunable Helmholtz resonator, it is possible to achieve
optimal reductions of sound in response to changing environmental conditions and
excitation frequency.

Tang (2003) investigated the effects of the taper and length of the resonator neck on the
characteristics of a Helmholtz resonator. It was reported that an increase of the tapered
length leads to improvement of sound reduction, and an increase of the cavity volume
results in increased capacity for sound absorption of the Helmholtz resonator. These
experiments showed that sound attenuation via the Helmholtz resonator of more than
50% could be achieved by changing the length of the tapered neck, compared to the
I

untapered neck. The increase of the resonant frequency is proportional to the tapered
length and is decreased by expanding the cavity volume at a fixed slope of the tapered
section. In addition, this investigation showed that the resonant frequency is proportional

to the slope of the tapered section at constant volume of the Helmholtz resonance
chamber.

The previous studies of the Helmholtz resonator have provided fundamental


knowledge for the present experiments. Taking into account these investigations, sound
reduction via the selected Helmholtz resonator can be pursued. The resonant frequencies
<-

of the Helmholtz resonator are evaluated by experiments and an analytical method, while
changing the geometrical dimensions of the Helmholtz resonator, including the neck
cross-sectional area, the length of the neck, and the magnitude of the volume.

2. EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEM AND TECHNIQUES


2.1 OVERVIEW OF EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEM
All components of the experimental system were designed and manufactured in
the Fluid Mechanics Laboratories at Lehigh University. The general experimental system
can be separated into two main subsystems. The first subsystem is the actual Helmholtz
resonator system with an open-closed cavity and the second one is the data acquisition
and analysis program. The generated data from the first subsystem are delivered and
analyzed by the second subsystem.

2.2 MAIN TEST SECTION


Helmholtz resonator. A simple schematic of the experimental set-up,
combination of the Helmholtz resonator and cavity duct for sound reduction, is presented
in Figure 2.1. The details of the Helmholtz resonator are shown in Figure 2.2a to 2.2b. It .
is made of Polyvinyl chloride, PVC and its cross-section is circular. The total length of
Helmholtz resonator is denoted as LH. This total length is equal to the sum of the actual
length LHO and the thickness of the neck and the end side. The total length LH of
Helmholtz resonator is 314.33 mm and the actual length, LHO , which corresponds to the
distance between neck and end side, is 288.92 mm. The radius R H and the thickness THof
Helmholtz resonator are 76.2 mm and 7.94 mm, respectively. The neck length LHN is 12.7
2

mm and the cross-sectional area AH of the neck is 1451.6 mm The cross-sectional area
has a width WHM of 38.1 mm and length LHM of 38.1 mm. The end of Helmholtz
resonator is fabricated from PVC having a thickness of 9.53 mm. In order to measure
sound pressure, a PCB pressure transducer is placed on the wall of Helmholtz resonator

at a location 9.53 mm,from the side of neck. Further details of the PCB transducer are
described in the next section. A piston, ring, and a rod, the total length of which is 392.3
mm, are located inside the Helmholtz resonator and allow adjustment of the volume of
the cavity.

Cavity duct. The dimensions of the cavity duct are given 4.n Figure 2.3. It is

made of an aluminum tube and the shape of its cross section is rectangular, as shown in
figure 2.3. The total depth of the cavity duct is denoted as Le . It has a value of 482.6 mm.
The area of the opening of the duct is Ae

1290 mm This opening has a width We of

25.4 mm and length Le of 50.8 mm. An aluminum endplate is used to cover and seal off
the end of the cavity duct. Its thickness 12.7 mm, and it contains a PCB transducer to
measure the sound pressure at the end of duct. Details of this transducer are given in the
following section.

Plate. In the present experiments, three plates are utilized to investigate the
resonant frequency of the Helmholtz resonator. The geometry of the plate is defined in
Figure 2.4a to 2.4c. Each plate has a rectangular shape with a width Wpo of 63.5 mm,
length Lpo of 63.5 mm and thickness Tp of 3.18 mm. These plates are made of aluminum
with a rectangular hole at the center. The width Wp of the cavity has values of 3.18 mm,
6.35 mm and 9.53 mm for a fixed length Lp of38.l mm.

2.3 ACQUISITION AND PROCESSING OF PRESSURE DATA

Pressure transducers. PCB transducers (Model No. UI03A02) were employed


to measure the sound pressure. These transducers have a defined sensitivity in units of
mv/psi or mv/kpa. The acquired data from the transducers were transferred to a PCB
Piezotronics multi-channel sensor signal conditioner, Model 48A. The acquired signal
from each transducer is independently amplified and filtered. The same value of gain is
used for all sound pressure measurements. This gain control plays an important role in
preventing voltage signals of the sound pressure from exceeding the restricted voltage
input level of the AID (analog/digital) board.

Acquisition of pressure signals. The modified sound pressure signals were


transmitted to ports on a National Instruments board (Model PCI-MIO-16E-4) with 12- bit
resolution. When the board receives voltage pressure signals from the sensor signal
conditioner, the board can acquire data at the rate of 250KS/s, where K

103 and S

stands for the number of samples. In these experiments, eight channels are utilized. Six
are connected to the air transducers and two remain unconnected. The actual sampling
rate for each channel, which is decreased by the number of used channels in a board, is
equal to 31.25 KS/s. Two aspects should be considered in order to decide whether this
sampling rate is acceptable. First of all, the sampling rate should be at least two times
greater than the maximum frequency of interest. In the time domain, a minimum of five
samples is theoretically needed, but a minimum of ten samples is actually adequate.
Considering the foregoing, it is desirable for the acquisition system to employ a sampling
rate at least ten times greater than the maximum frequency in this experiment, which is
equal to 2 x 104 Hz. This value is approximately a factor of two smaller than the

10

transmission rate of 31.25 KS/s per channel. Also, it is important to understand that one

AiD (analog digital converter) is utilized, in order to translate an analog voltage signal
into a digital one. Transmission and acquisition of eight voltage signals is achieved by
employing a multiplexing process. The scan interval corresponds to the inverse of the
maximum data acquisition rate per channel, which is approximately equal to 32
microseconds. The physical meaning of this is the procedure is the required time for one
cycle of data acquisition from transducer NOI 1 to the last transducer.

Processing of pressure signals. A Pentium 2-350 MHz computer and Labview


software were employed to acquire data from the transducers. Also a Pentium 4 CPU
2.80 GHz computer and Matlab were employed to analyze the data. The main parameters
for spectra of pressure utilizing the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) must be properly
denoted, in order to achieve optimal resolution in the frequency domain, as well as
minimization of the size of the acquired data. Two parameters should be considered, in
order to decide on the optimal resolution and the sampling rate. The first one is the
number of samples acquired per data set, which is related to the resolution. The second
one is the sampling rate. The sampling rate must be at least two times greater than the
maximum frequency in the present experiments. Therefore, the required sampling rate
has various values, depending on the maximum frequency for each experiment. The
frequency resolution (fj,j) corresponds to the sampling rate ifs) divided by the number of
samples per data set (ns). After the sampling rate is determined, based on the maximum
frequency, the resolution and the number of samples are evaluated by the formula ns = Is

/fj,f In these experiments, fj,f = 1 is considered to be the frequee- resolution and the

11

lowest and highest frequency are equal to 1 and 1000 Hz, respectively. The sampling rate
was selected as 4096 samples per second, which is approximately two times larger than
,

the value of 2000 Hz calculated by the Nyquist criterion, when the maximum frequency
of interest in the present research is equal to 1000 Hz. Therefore, the number of samples
12

per data set (ns) results in 4096 = 2 samples per data set.

Q-factor. The Q factor is defined as Q = fa l(fi -fi), in which fo is the frequency of


the tone, and f I and fz are the frequencies at the half-power points of the spectral peak.
Also, the Q factor has the following relationship with 1;: Q = 1/21;. This relationship can
be used as a convenient way of determining the damping ratio 1;.

12

3. PRESSURE RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS


In this chapter, an outline of experimental parameters, methods of data
presentation and characteristics of sound pressure in a Helmholtz resonator due to pure
tone excitation will be described.

3.1 Summary of range of geometric parameters


Figure 3.1 shows an overview of combinations of width WH of the Helmholtz
resonator, neck length LHN and- depth Xp of the adjustable volume in Helmholtz resonator.
These cases are marked by the character O. For each of these cases, a pure tone is used to
excite the Helmholtz resonator over a wide range of frequency, in order to excite the
predominant sound acoustic modes.
In the next section, the first set of experiments is described; they involve spectra

of the pressure fluctuation at a fixed cross-sectional area of the cavity duct, which has an
area Ac = 1290 mm2, a width W of 25.4 mm, and a length L of 50.8 mm, at a constant
value of cavity length Lc = 482.6 mm. These experiments were performed to find the
resonant frequency of the cavity duct, as well as to compare the resonant frequency
obtained by experiments with theory.
The second set of experiments is separated into two parts. The first part includes
various values of chamber volume of the resonator as function of length Xp, from 25.4
2

mm to 177.8 mm, while maintaining a fixed cross-sectional area, AHO = 1452 mm and
neck length, LHN = 12.7 mm. The second part contains variations of the chamber volume
as function of length Xp , from 25.4 mm to 177.8 mm, while changing the area of the
opening from 121 mm2 to 363 mm2 The purpose of these experiments is not only to

13

provide a resonant frequency of the Helmholtz' resonator, but also to cOJ.'!lpare


experimental and theoretical values of resonant frequency.
Finally, a combined experiment involving both the cavity duct and the Helmholtz
resonator are implemented over the length Xp = 25.4 mm to 177.8 mm at a given value of
cavity length Lc = 486.2mm. The major purpose ofthese experiments is to investigate the
sound reduction in Helmholtz resonator.

3.2 METHOD OF PRESENTATION OF DATA


The results of the experiments are given in the form of spectra of the pressure
fluctuation, which is measured at the end of the deep cavity and the side wall of
Helmholtz resonator. For a given experiment, approximately 70 spectra were acquired.
Acoustic modes and amplitudes of the sound pressure over the frequency domain are
expressed by two-dimensional plots of pressure spectra. These two-dimensional plots are
shown on linear scales. The amplitudes of sound pressure are expressed in units of
Pascals (N/m2).

3.3 RESONANCE OF CAVITY DUCT


In this section, the resonant frequency is obtained through excitation by a pure
tone. The area Ac of cavity opening is 1290 mm2 ~d the depth Lc of the cavity duct is
;

486.2 mm. A detailed schematic of the cavity duct is shown in Figure 2.3. The range of
the pure tone is 1 to 1000 Hz. Figure 3.2 shows representative spectra of the pressure
fluctuation. The first sound acoustic mode occurs at 160 Hz, and corresponds to the
maximum amplitude.

14

3.4 EFFECT OF GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS OF RESONATOR ON


RESONANT RESPONSE
The effect of variations of the cross-sectional area A of the Helmholtz resonator
are given in Figures 3.3 though 3.6, while changing the cavity volume, as a function of
X p from 25.4 mm to 178 mm. Also, a pure tone is employed over the frequency range 1
to 1000 Hz, in order to excite the Helmholtz resonator.
As shown in Figure 3.7, the resonant frequencies of the free Helmholtz resonator
are obtained for the case where no plate is attached to the opening (mouth). The area AH
2

of the opening and the length L HN of neck are 1452 mm and 12.7 mm, respectively. By
adjusting the cavity volume, various resonant frequencies corresponding to volume
variations are acquired in Figures 3.8a though 3.8d. A linear scale is used for pressure
amplitude. The first acoustic mode is shown atf= 450 Hz, with the length X p = 25.4 mm.
However, as the volume expands, decrease of the resonant frequency occurs. The first
acoustic mode for the maximum value of volume is atf= 175 Hz.
In Figures 3.9 to 3.14, the cross-sectional area A H of the Helmholtz resonator is
varied by using three plates. Each has a different open area. These plates have values of
width Wp from 3.18 mm to 9.53 mm, for a fixed length Lp = 38.1 mm and thickness Tp=
3.18 mm. Detailed schematics of each plate are shown in Figure 2.4a to 2.4c.
Figure 3.9 gives spectra of the pressure fluctuation inside the Helmholtz
resonator, due to pure tone excitation at successive values of frequency, at a value of
width WH = 3.18 mm. The effects of different values the length Xp of the volume of the
Helmholtz resonator is shown in Figures 3.10a through 3.10d. The first acoustic mode
appears at f = 247Hz, with the length X p = 25.4 mm. The frequency of this first mode

15

decreases as the length X p increases. The foregoing of the first acoustic mode at
maximum volume is f

100 Hz.

Figure 3.11 indicates the spectra of the pressure fluctuation inside the
Helmholtz resonator, with the plate having a width WH = 6.35 mm; it is attached to the
Helmholtz resonator. The separate plots represent different values of the length Xp in
Figures 3.12a through 3.12d. The first acoustic mode appears atf= 288 Hz, at a value of
length Xp = 25.4 mm. The first acoustic mode decreases as the length Xp increases, and,
the first acoustic mode at the maximum value of volume occurs at f

115 Hz. The

frequency of this first acoustic mode tends to increase with larger values of width W H.

The response associated with the largest plate, having a value of width WH =
9.53 mm, is represented in Figures 3.13. These plots are expressed as a function of the
length X p in Figures 3.14a through 3.14d. The first acoustic mode appears atf= 312 Hz,
at a value oflength X p = 25.4 mm. The first acoustic mode is at f

= 124 Hz, when the

length Xp reaches its maximum value. The data for this plate follows the two
aforementioned trends.

Figures 3.15 to 3.21 show the resonant frequency for the combination of the
Helmholtz resonator and a deep cavity duct. The detailed geometry is given in Figure
2.2 to 2.3. The range of first mode resonant frequency is fromf= 339 Hz to 293 Hz. The
results indicate that the presence of the Helmholtz resonator leads to sound reduction,
when the pressure magnitude ofthe present arrangement is compared with that of cavity

16

duct given in Figure 3.2. That is, the pressure amplitude with the Helmholtz resonator is
approximately minimum 20 percent of the pressure amplitude without the Helmholtz
resonator, for the first acoustic mode.

17

4. BACK GROUND LEVEL OF RESONANCE


In the following section, the process of calculations of resonant frequency for the
cavity duct and Helmholtz resonator will be described. This process is helpful to predict
resonant frequencies and to explain the organized acoustic peaks of sound pressure
fluctuation. Fast Fourier Transfonn, FFT is employed to order to analyze data for the

purpose of evaluating resonant frequencies in present process. Also, the effects of


parameters in the cavity duct and Helmholtz resonator are described, including the
changes of neck length, cross sectional area and cavity volume of Helmholtz resonator.

4.1 DEVELOPMENT OF RESONANT FREQEUNCY


Resonance occurs when an oscillation attains maximum amplitude at gIven
frequency, called the natural, or

r~sonant,

frequency. In the present experiments, two

different analytical methods are used in order to evaluate the resonant frequency of a
combination of cavity duct and Helmholtz resonator. First of all, for the case of the cavity
duct side branch, the resonant frequency fR can be denoted as a function of the acoustic
mode number na , speed of sound c, and cavity depth Le. The expression of the resonant
frequency fR is
(4.1)

where the sound speed is c = 343.5 m/s and the room temperature is 20C. The detailed
processes of evaluation for resonant frequency are described in Appendix A. Figures 4.1
through 4.4 present comparisons of experimental and tp.eoretical values of resonant
frequency. Also, Figure 4.5 indicates the difference between experimental values and

18

analytical values according to the first acoustic mode, while adjusting the volume of
resonator.
A Helmholtz resonator consists of a neck and a cavity volume. The volume of air
in the neck is analogous to a mass on a spring and the body volume of Helmholtz
resonator is analogous to a spring of defined spring constant. The resonant frequency is:

(4.2)

The length L' is the effective length, and is not equal to the actual length L. The effective
length L' should be utilized in order to enhance accuracy, when the resonant frequency in
Helmholtz resonator is evaluated. The additional length is employed at each end of the
neck, because the acoustic length of the neck is longer than the physical length of neck.
This additional length is affected by two factors. First of all, the effective length L'
depends on whether both ends are flanged or unflanged. An added length, which is equal
to O.85R, is added to the actual length L, when the end that terminates within the cavity
volume has a flange. Also, the extra length, which has a value of O.6R, is added to an
original length L, when the end that opens into the atmosphere, has no flange. So the
effective length L' is L'

L +O.85R + O.6R, where the radius R is related to cross-

sectional area of the neck. For the present experiment, an equivalent, circular opening
should be calculated in order to evaluate the radius R, because the shape of crosssectional area of the neck is rectangular.

4.2 EFFECT OF THE MOUTH AREA OF HELMHOLTZ RESONATOR

The resonant frequencies of the Helmholtz mode and the corresponding


amplitudes are presented in Figures 3.3 through 3.6. Each plot is expressed as a function

19

of frequency f Three different plates with various areas are used, in order to change the
cross-sectional area of the neck, but the volume of chamber is fixed. The area of the
opening of each plate is modified by varying the width W from 3.18 mm to 9.53 mm at a
fixed length L and thickness T. In these experiments, for all plates, the resonant
frequencies increase with an increase of the cross-sectional area of the plate, when the
Helmholtz resonator has a constant volume and length of neck. These phenomena
demonstrate fully the influence of the cross-sectional area of the neck, as a shown
formula (4.2) above.

4.3 EFFECT OF THE VOLUME OF HELMHOLTZ RESONATOR


In Figure 3.7, the cross-sectional area of the neck is equal to 1452 mm2, and the
volume of the Helmholtz resonator is adjusted from 481,769 mm3 to 3,261,769 mm3 by
moving the position of a piston inside the resonator, which is indicated as the length Xp
of volume. Also, the resonant frequency is expressed as a function of frequency f for each
volume. The results of these experiments satisfy the formula of the resonant frequency,
given in equation (4.2). This plot shows that the resonant frequency is reduced with an
increase ofthe cavity volume, when the cross-sectional area and the length of neck have a
constant value. The air in the cavity volume of a resonator has the properties of a spring,
which has a defined force constant or spring constant. The adjustment of the dimensions
that determine the volume of the resonator correspond to modification of the spring
constant. In other words, a small cavity volume is analogous to a spring with high spring
constant. In these experiments, therefore, the resonant frequencies are inverse

20

proportional to the volume of the Helmholtz resonator, and the increase of the volume
results in a decrease of the resonant frequency.

21

5. Discussion of Sound Reduction


For theoretical design of a Helmholtz resonator, it is important to determine
specific frequency band of interest, in order to achieve optimal sound reduction. In the
present experiments, the oscillations associated with the resonant frequencies of a deep
cavity duct are selected for attenuation via a Helmholtz resonator.

5.1 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS OF SOUND REDUCTION


In the present experiments, a Helmholtz resonator is attached to an open-closed
cavity duct in order to reduce the sound pressure generated within in cavity d!1ct. The
2

cross-sectional area Ac of the cavity duct is Ac = 1290.32 mm , and its length Lc is Lc =


482.6 mm. The details of this geometry are shown in Figure 2.2. The Helmholtz resonator
used in the present research has a length L H of314.33 mm and radius RH of76.2 mm, and
the detailed geometry is described in Figures 2.2a and 2.2b. Two air transducers are
utilized for measurement of sound pressure. One is attached t<JJhe end plate of cavity
duct, and the other one is connected to Helmholtz resonator. The results of sound
reduction from use of the Helmholtz resonator could be presented by comparing the data
from two air transducers attached to the end plate and the resonator. Figure 3.2 presents
the resonant frequencies of a cavity duct excited by pure tone without a Helmholtz
resonator. The first mode of the resonant frequency appears at f

160 Hz with its

amplitude of 420 N/m2 , which is selected for the purpose of reduction of sound pressure.
Considering equation (4.2), the resonant frequency has a close relationship with the neck
length, the cross-sectional area and the resonator volume. For the first phase, the effects
of variation of the cross-sectional area and the length of the neck are investigated. The

22

cross-sectional area AH is detennined as AH = 241.94 mm2, and the identical area is


fonned on the wall of cavity duct. The neck length LN becomes equal to the thickness of
the cavity wall, and the thickness of 3.18 mm is used as neck length. The theoretical
volume of the resonator is 1,776,510 mm3 for the reduction of sound pressure at the
selected resonant frequencies, while considering its effective neck length and crosssectional area. The volume calculated by equation (4.2) is the same as the value when
volume length Xp of Helmholtz resonator is 96.27 mm.
Figures 3.15 through 3.21 show experimental results from the system for which
the Helmholtz resonator is employed. Each plot clearly demonstrates sound reduction via
the Helmholtz resonator. Figure 3.15 indicates that the cavity duct and the Helmholtz
resonator have the amplitudes of 11.19 N/m2 atf= 342 and 5.00 N/m2 atf= 338 Hz,
respectively. The amplitude of the sound pressure drops by 97 percent, when the
Helmholtz resonator is employed in the system. In Figure 3.16, a 90 percent reduction in
sound pressure is shown, and the amplitudes of the cavity duct and Helmholtz resonator
2
are 41.50 N/m and 9.44 N/m2 at the same frequency f = 315 Hz, respectively. The

amplitude with the Helmholtz resonator falls off to 86 percent of the amplitude without
the Helmholtz resonator in Figure 3.17, and the cavity duct and Helmholtz resonator
have the amplitude of 56.67 N/m2 atf= 303 and 9.47 N/m2 atf= 302 Hz, respectively.
Figure 3.18 shows that the cavity duct and Helmholtz resonator have the amplitudes of
71.75 N/m2 and 8.28 N/m2 at the same frequency f =338 Hz. The amplitude of sound
pressure drops by an 83 percent. An 82 percent reduction in sound pressure is shown in
Figure 3.19, and the amplitudes of the cavity duct and Helmholtz resonator are 76.06
N/m2 atf= 293 Hz and 6.85 N/m2 atf= 293 Hz, respectively. Figure 3.20 presents a 81

23

percent decline in the sound pressure, and the cavity duct and Helmholtz resonator have
2

the amplitude of 80.96 N/m atf= 289 and 5.91 N/m2 atf= 289 Hz, respectively. The
amplitude with the Helmholtz resonator falls off to 80 percent of the amplitude without
the Helmholtz resonator in Figure 3.21, and the cavity duct and Helmholtz resonator have
2

amplitudes of85.18 N/m atf= 288 and 4.90 N/m2 atf= 287 Hz.

It is observed that when the Helmholtz resonator is employed in the system, there
is a shift of the acoustic mode to higher frequency, as the volume of Helmholtz resonator
is continuously increased. Three methods are used in order to describe the phase shift.
The first is classical ,one-dimensional acoustic theory. The Helmholtz resonator
transmission loss is defined as

= AHO

(e
e

lIN

-2ikL
-2ikLHN

-lJ

+1

(5.1)

Where A H is the cross-sectional area of the mouth of the Helmholtz resonator, LHN is the
neck length of Helmholtz resonator, AHO is the cross-sectional area of the volume and

K = 27r is the wave number, A is the wave length, and Ac is the cross-sectional area of
A
the cavity duct. The simulated resonant frequencies of the Helmholtz resonator attached
to the cavity duct are shown in Figure 5.1. However, calculated results are not equal to
the experimental results, when the frequencies calculated by equation (5.1) are compared
with the experimental results for the first acoustic mode.
For the second part of the study, starting from 76.2 mm, the volume length X p is
increased by 2 mm in each experiment in order to satisfy the theoretical volume of

24

1,776,510 mm , which corresponds to the volume length X p of 95.74 mm and effective


length L' of 15.9 mm. In the thirteen experiment, the length of the volume reaches 101.6
mm. However, significant effects are not shown in Firre 5.2a to 5.21.
Finally, the effect of length of the neck of resonator is considered. The range of
neck length is calculated to find the appropriate volume of the Helmholtz resonator.
Figure 5.3 shows the required volume, while considering the actual length of the neck. In
the present experiment, the actual length of neck LN is selected as L N =12.7 mm, and the
theoretical volume is 2,224,072 mm3, which corresponds to the volume length X p of
121.14 mm. The resonant mode is generated atf= 268 Hz, with an amplitude of 91.69
J
2

N/m . This result indicates that there is a shift of the acoustic mode to lower frequency,
and the resonant frequency does not occur at the same resonant frequency of cavity duct.
Therefore, it is concluded that an additional type of resonance, where involves the
combination of a Helmholtz resonator and a cavity duct, can occur, and this resonance is
associated with a phase shift.

25

CONCLUSIONS

The goals of the present investigation were, first of all, to investigate the
resonance characteristics of an isolated Helmholtz resonator, then to attenuate the
oscillations in a deep cavity duct, i.e., a side branch, via attachment of the resonator to the
wall of the duct.
The volume of the Helmholtz resonator, as well as the geometrical details of its
neck and its opening (mouth), influence its resonance characteristics, as determined by
spectral analysis of pressure fluctuations within the resonator. These variations can lead
to a substantial increase or decrease of the resonant frequency. Furthermore, the
theoretically predicted resonant frequencies are compared with those measured
experimentally. In doing so, the role of end corrections at the opening (mouth) of the
resonator is addressed.
When the resonator is attached to the wall of the deep cavity duct, i.e., side branch,
the oscillation of the entire deep duct~ Helmholtz resonator system can be substantially
attenuated. The manner in which variations of volume of the resonator influence the
degree of attenuation of the various spectral components is characterized. An unexpected
observation is a shift of the resonant acoustic mode of the attenuated system to a higher
value of frequency, relative to that in the unattenuated system. This aspect deserves
further investigation.

26

P(t) \

-I

I
Xp

L
I

....
r--r--

' - - '--

Figure 2.1: Schematic of the Helmholtz resonator and cavity duct.

27

- pet)

LHN

304.80

:12.70

38.10
38.10

L -t=
r- -- - ---- --- --- -LHOI =

38.10

r-

1--

152.40

t
0168.28

t--------------------ll
-' ~ .

LHOI

= 304.80

7.94

12.70
12.70

Figure 2.2a: Detailed schematic of the Helmholtz resonator corresponding to the body. The unit
of length is mm.

28

,-

.---

~-

12.70~

I'"

~r-

----- ----------

215.90

~'--

L-

28.58

8.13- ~ 12.70- l- f--

--- 12.70
'--L.....

LH02 = 9.53

!-to

'"" '''''

3.18
7.94
7.94

3.18
44.45

1----.-25.40

392.30
50.80

()25.40\
\

152.40

~,!)

152.40

Figure 2.2b: Detailed schematic of the Helmholtz resonator involving a ring and a rod. The unit of
length is mm.

29

63.50

r:@~1
1..1:.::.::.:!J

i-io--------!--L 482.60

Figure 2.3: Detailed schematic of cavity duct. The unit of length is mm.

30

L
30

f=

30.33
1

l-~

Lpo =63.5

Figure 2.4a: Detailed schematic of plate with width of 3.18 mm. The unit of length is mm.

10--1

1----1-

15.40

28.58

W,o'.35

WPOL635 ~~~
28.58

1-----:.-

Lpo = 63.5

-~

-f II--

3.18

Figure 2.4b: Detailed schematic of plate with width of 6.35 mm. The unit of length is mm.

10-~

1-----1-

15.40

L
26.99

Wpo =63.5

26.99

. - - - - - - - - \ - - - Lpo=63.5

---1 D ~3.18

Figure 2.4c: Detailed schematic. of plate with width of 9.53 mm. The unit of length is mm.

31

Thickness
Of Neck (1)
12.7 mm

3.18 mm

lJ

Area(A)
1452
2
mm
121 mm2

242 mm2

0
.(486.2mm)

362 mm 2

;1
A

Length Of
Duct (I.e)

I
\

"

, ....

Lc

00

I
I

I!-

Xp

-1 ~
T

Figure 3.1: Overview of present experiments in tenn of the parameters of the experimental set-up.

32

450r---r-----,--.,-----,---,-----r---,------r-;:::==:::c==::::::;l
-

400 ...............t......... ..... ............... .

................ ............... .

"

.... ..

~.........

:
m'

; -............ .

200

II

lc

I:

.mm . . r m i ' m : : r m
...

1 [11

100

lP'Mltl

(])..'

100

....
...

300

Pend

200

300

.
...

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

f(Hz)

Figure 3.2: Natural frequency of open-closed cavity excited by pure tone at successive values of
frequency. Frequency range is 1 to 1000 Hz. Length I..c of cavity is 482.6mm.

33

7r------r-----r--7--.---!-~_r___=--_r_--r-~=::j:===t1

W;(mm)

"'e

~
12.

en 30 1-

: .. .. .. '

...........................-+.. 3.1-8..

..;1

_ 501- .. , .... .. , .... ..1

. . . . . . . . 1.J..
W

....

Xp
~--I!I-

6.35

....... 9~53

1IIi!I

Xp =25.4mm
101- .. ...... .. , .. ~~~

OL_~~---=t:-----::~==::::~:~5?O~O!!!!!!!!!!!!~600~!!!!!!!!!"""":1~OO...--~8~00~!!!!!!!!!!:~9~0~D~!=!1~000.
((Hz)

70r----,.----,.----,----,----.-=---,------,----,-----,------,

: PH

...............;

!
i

; 1-

+ wij

.... -. -

Xp
~-~

Xp

..:.

--.

=50.8 mm

10

OL--"~ __L-=::::~~~~~"""""'_.L.._-i._-..l--~~-.J
100

200

400

500

600

700

800

900

IIHzl

Figure 3.3: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside the Helmholtz resonator due to pure tone
excitation at successive values of frequency. as a function of length )(po and width W for fixed
value of mouth length L 38.1 mm.
.

34

1000

....,., . . ,....,.. "(1


...;. .

, ;.

..............."
20

+.
100

.J .

D
Xp
._..........
: .

, ,

W(mm)

_ ;,. 3.18..

~;

"""t;

~.~~,~ .
9.53

j _::.

Xp= 76.2 mm
200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

f{HzJ

80.-------.--------,;-----,----,;----...,;-----,;-------,----,----,----,

oL-4--=::t::~~~!:mIIlI...i...- ~-.....L--..L.-.......,j~"""""'~~-J
300

400

500

600

700

800

900

11Hz)

Figure 3.4: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside the Helmholtz resonator due to pure tone
excitation at successive values of frequency as a function of length Xp and width W for fixed
value of mouth length L 38.1 mm.

35

1000

_50

S
Z

.. . .. . . . .. . . . . ).. .1.
.

c:

en 30

0
0

f~ ..

.. :

D
o 1 ...... .. ~oJ
Xp
........................:..........
........._
- ~......................

3;18..

-!' 6.35

... . .;"
(

Wi (mm)

100

300

400

9.53

. Xp= 127 mm

"

500

600

700

800

900

1000

f(Hz)

60

:PH

. . . . . . . [ '['
.

40

1i

20

...........L.
.

1
J-

(
.

np

L wl

v-

..

: :

Xp = 152.4 mm

L .
1

oL_Ll.,-_::::;~!!!!!!!!!!!!30~0---400i....-~50~0---600h--~70~O--~800~-~900~"""""~1000
f(Hz)

Figure 3.5: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside the Helmholtz resonator due to pure tone
excitation at successive values of frequency as a function of length Xp and width W for fIXed
value of mouth length L 38.1 mm.

36

50r----r---.,----,---,---r---r---.,------r---;:::::::c:====;_]
~(mm)

30

.J

10

100

..................!

200

300

-+ 3.18

:1

~6:35

W:

..._ -..........

; . Xp= 117.8 mm

400

500

600

~ 9.53

700

f(HzJ

Figure 3.6: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside the Helmholtz resonator due to pure tone
excitation at successive values of frequency, as a function of length Xp and width W for fIXed
value of mouth length L 38.1 mm.

37

1401--,---~---r--'---!--'-----r---'-;:===:::C:====;l

Xp(mm)
120

.,

- :. 2.54

5.08
- - : 7.62

10.2
- ; 12.7
801- ,1-11. .

-'15.2
_ : 17.8

1
40

J.....x_p_-i!I_....~

0!--~10~O-----:2JO-=-O-=~3~OO~~~4~OO~iiii~5~OO_iiii~60~O~;;;~701;;0----~80~Oiii111i1-9~O~O==:;~1000
I{HZ)

Figure 3.7: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside the Helmholtz resonator due to pure tone
excitation at successive values of frequency. Area of mouth of resonator is A 1452 mm2
Diameter of resonator is D 152.4 mm. Detailed schematic is given in Figure 2.2 and 2.4.

38

7r---r---!--r----r---~--T--!r========:;_]

...................................,

500

100

600

P'

700

800

x,,= 2.54 mm
~

900

1000

f{Hzl
100

1-

80

Xp =5.08mml

...

40

J
:

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

IIHzI

Figure 3.8a: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for fixed value
of mouth width W = 38.1 mm and length L = 38.1 mm.

39

120r----r----r----r---,----r----r---,----r========jJ
Xp =7.62mm

80

en 40 ............. .

110
J

: : : :
~

400

100

500

--.:

'

. .~

p
X_
_

llI!-

600

700

800

900

1000

IlHzl

'40i--y---'---'---r----r--r---r-r==::C::====C::===i1
..............,
;
,
f
Xp =10.16 mm~

~it

en 80

-r-.''1-

_120

..............1 f

iI~

~Dl, !
00

100

800

900

200

300

1""""""","[,,

5QO

400

600

700

1000

IlHz)

Figure 3.8b: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for fixed value
of mouth width W =38.1 mm and length L =38.1 mm.

40

Xp =12.7

>(IIO

80f-;j

i ' l J..

~
III

~..~

--

~X.p_-iI!I

401-+:\

mm
.

OL._~~---:-!:-::--~!=?==::::=:=400~===:5~00:----:60~O---:7::!:O':"O-~~--~--::1~OOO
flHz)

120

1- X = 15.24 mml
p

80

40 .....

. ...

)
100

"--

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

IIHzl

Figure 3.8c: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for fIXed value
of mouth width W 38.1 mm and length L 38..1 mm.

41

1001-'---r---r--r--!~-r-----r-;::==r:===::I::==::::::;]

80

T,~(

a-

'"

Xpp =17.78
;

WJ~Xp-...........

-,

-. . ~

40

lii

(p~

..... :i....

O~-~1:::100~--2-LOO-..:::::;=300~="""="~--:5~00---....60~0-- ...
700L.....-...8",j,00"""""'~!:9~OO==--1-l000
((Hz)

Figure 3.8d: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for fixed value
of mouth width W 38.1 mm and length L 38.1 mm.

42

.i

. 5O.------,---,---,-----,-----r-----r-----,----,-----.-----,

Xp(mm)

2.54
401-

"

5.08

!................

7.62
10.2
30

.......... -.

12.7

15.2
.....;

20

.....

10

. JL

. . . . . . . :; . . l-\ . ...i1imrii~1
W~

})

17.8

--'!I-

OL~~100L--2JOO~~~!iiiiii~~~ii50~O-. .6~OiiiiiO--iiIIiiIlI7~OO_. ...1II8~OOl!!!@~~900~~~1~OOO


flHz)

Figure 3.9: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside the Helmholtz resonator due to pure tone
excitation at successive values of frequency. Area of mouth of resonator is A 120.97 mm2 .
Diameter of resonator is D 152.4 mm. Detailed schematic is given in Figure 2.2 and 2.4.

43

Xp=2.54mm

20

100

500

600

700

8DO

900

1000

f(HzI

50

1-.

~i
z

I ....

30

is:
(j)

10 f-.

Xp=s.08mm\

..

'

/.
100

l\c~

200

300

400

c'

500

600

11Hz)

100

SOD

-- ---

900

Figure 3.10a: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for fixed
value of mouth width W 3.18 mm and length L 38.1 mm.

44

1000

Xp 7.62 mm

Go
CII

20 ... ...... ,.... 1

o
OL-"'~i.,----!-:.---==!;:===40~0====500~.......~60~O~-~7~OO:::---~80~0 ===9~OO:;:::~::::1~OOO
f{Hz)

30r----..-----..-----.---.----r------,---....,...~-___r--_,--__,

20

1.

].

..)

X p 10.16 mm

a.

II)

10

OL.-.::~L,..--.L---=::::3:10::::0~=4:d0""'0====50b.0---6.i..00---7.iDO--=Bd:0=0====9:::l0::0:::::~1::dOOO
f(Hz)

Figure 3.10b: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for fixed
value of mouth width W = 3.18 mm and length L 38.1 mm.

45

201-

:1

:.

D.

In

...

10 .

IO

:1

'J

- -. .- . -

W~ 3.18 mm

..: ..

-j

'f'._... ..

~--""""II!'

OL-=<::~h------:l-=::::::=:30=!70==4~OO~=--~SO~O---:60~O:----:7~0"='O-==8:':!O=O=::::::::900~=.::::::::~1000
f(Hz)

20,----r---,--,---!--r-----r-----r---;:==::c::====::c:::::=::::::;l

Xp 15.24 mm

.......

10

:
:

:
.:

..

100

j"

200

300

400

SOD

600

700

800

f(Hz)

Figure 3.10c: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for fixed
value of mouth width W = 3.18 mm and length L = 38.1 mm.

46

201--r-----r--,---r----r-~--~;::=:::=c====:c:::==:::;l

.......................

10

Xp =17.78mm

800

900

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

11Hz)

Figure 3.10d: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for fixed
value of mouth width W =3.18 mm and length L =38.1 mm.

47

1000

70,----,---.----,-----,----:--.,---.,---.,---.,---.,------,

)(p(mm)

..................,

60 ............ ..

1"

;
:

50

.. ~

: .. ..

:..

:
40

,.........

....t

c.f-

. . . . . . . . .!

Go

30

20

10

"". ,,,.1...

100

:PH...

; 2.54
5.08

- : 7.62
10.2

-t

12.7

:~ - :j 15.2
:

(II

17.8

f .j-..... ..
o

.\

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

qHz)

Figure 3.11: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside the Helmholtz resonator due to pure tone
excitation at successive values of frequency. Area of mouth of resonator is A 241.94 mm2.
Diameter of resonator is D = 152.4 mm. Detailed schematic is given in Figure 2.2 and 2.4.

48

1000

70,--r-----r-----=-r-----,----.---r-----,r--;=:=r:====::c==::::;-,
Xp =2.S4mm
_50

~:: 1

~::

t~=6.3~::J ~.p
I!11;
...

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

.
900

1000

f(Hz)

70,-----.,----..,..----.-----.---......,------r------,-----,r----.,-------,
_ 50

. . . . . . . .+

I~

;1:~i

:
:
:

'it
II)
30

10

:
:
:

.....
.

Xp=s.osmm\

+-

................

0!--=;:10~0:----:2:-!-00=----:300:-!-::-==:::::::4::l0~O==::::5:l::00===:6:h00:=---1~00~-~800~==900~==:J1000
(1HZ)

Figure 3.12a: Response spectrum of- Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for fixed
value of mouth width W =6.35 mm and length L =38.1 mm.

49

701-~--:----r--T--~--r--T-;::::==c::===r::::===:::;l

_50

ll; 30

: :[ .: .! .: . . 1:

j.. ..: W~6:35m~ .... r

10

Xp=7.62mm\
;PRjy
;
.

................. ~

'J

:'

400

300

SOO

600

0
::
:.

Xp

: : ;

]"
.700

: :

800

900

.
1000

f(Hz)

- X p = 10.16 mm
40

.. ~ ..

i..

;.

1
a.

en

O!--~~---=-!-=---=:::::3::;O:::=0==40~O==-~=:'50~0--~60~0~-~7~O~0--8~00"""""=~9O~0==1~OOO
f(Hz)

Figure 3.12b: Response spectrum of He!mholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for fixed
value of mouth width W 6.35 mm and length L 38.1 mm.

50

50j-!-;;---r-----r--T--r---r----r--;:::=r====::r::=::==;l
Xp =12.7mm

1-

!1

30

~
z
a:
en
10 f-
00

,f

~XP-

wb6;35mll,I. .
300

100

500

400

600

, ..
700

900

800

1000

'1Hz)

401---"lr-:----"lr----"l--~--~--~!--~-;:::::::J====::::J=====;]

1- X =1s.24mml

a.
en

20

100

200

300

400

500

t..

600

j .... ..!.. ..

700

800

900

IIHzI

Figure 3.12c: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for fixed

value of mouth width W 6.35 mm and length L

=38.1 mm.

51

1000

351-~-~--r--",!--r--r--'--;:::::::r:====r===::;]

.......... .............'1'

-30

"['

<

PH

!.
Do
til

Xp=17.78mm

20

10

100

200

300

j.J.._.x.

.l..

wi

p_

6.35 mm

400

500

600

700

800

900

f(Hz)

Figure 3.12d: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for fixed
value of mouth width W = 6.35 mm and length L = 38.1 mm.

52

1000

80,.......---,r-----,.----r--~--~--...,....--_r--_,_--.,....-........,

)(p(mm)

---- 2.54
~
601-,fd

..

~..................

i............,

~
.

~....

7.62

10.2

12.7

15.2
17.8

.................' - - - - - - L j

40

201-;11"111

5.08

I..tJ ~_x_p_~

WF 9.53 mm
OL-~100L_-2jOO~~~300~~iiiiii40iliO-_ii50iIlO--;;600~--~700~--

...
800~I!!!l!!~900~ri!l!i1~OOO

f{Hz)

Figure 3.13: Spectra o~essure fluctuations inside the Helmholtz resonator due to pure tone
excitation at successive values of frequency. Area of mouth of resonator is A 362.90 mm2.
Diameter of resonator is D = 152.4 mm. Detailed schematic is given in Figure 2.2 and 2.4.

53

60i--r--,----r:-----,r--!-----r--r--;==::r=====c==:::::;l

Xp=2.54mm
401--

~i
a:
CIl

20\--:-

rJ- .. , ..\

..+ tJ ..~XP_~

..

W*9.53m~

OL-=::::1:t:OO:-.--2jOO.,.----3.JOO~---:-400i:---=~500=!=;:====6~00::====7::dOOl:===800J..--==::::::::9:i:OO:::::====d
1000
qHzl

70

1-

Xp =5.08 mml

..

i-'"

-l

--\-.

10

y
100

........................

200

~
300

400

500

600

700

800

900

f{HZ)

Figure 3.14a: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for fixed
value of mouth width W 9.53 mm and length L 38.1 mm.

54

1000

.
"'2t 60

Xp =7.62mm

\jPii+r""!"
:

~:IJI-J9.~3~Jl . . ~_D
_x_p_....

400

500

600

. ...' :
800

700

900

1000

f(Hz)

80j--,------r---,---,----"!-----;----r--;::==::c:====c===:::;-J
60 ............................

~if

40

r.::;-:==......;.=

1a:
CD

Xp= 10.16 mm

T--r

20

0L-_~h-----,,-h--=:::::::3:!=00::==='==4,40...
0==~5~00~--600~----7.i..OO--~80-!-0===900~--1--l000
11Hz)

Figure 3.14b: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for fixed
value of mouth width W =9.53 mm and length L =38.1 mm.

55

701-!""--......,---r--!--~---r--~-;:::::::I====::r:::==::::;l

-50f-;r ........ :

lz

.PH

Xp =12.7mm
~

D:

ca 30f- ..............:... !

101-./

0L--O=::::::L--2-l00-=:::::::=3:=10:::0==-400l----50.l.O---6O..J.-O----70L..0---ao!,.o===gJ.OO~---J1000
f(Hz)

60

1- X =
p

~i

40

........................

D:
II)

15.24 mml

20 1-.

)
100

:
:

200

300

500

400

600

700

aoo

gOO

f(Hz)

Figure 3.14c: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for fixed
value of mouth width W 9.53 mm and length L 38.1 mm.

56

1000

501--r---,r----,---r--T--,---T-;::::=c====I::==~

1-

Xp= 17.78 mm

-E

30

~
CI.

CIl

10
0
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

11Hz)

Figure 3.14d: Response spectrum of Helmholtz resonator as a function of length Xp for fixed
value of mouth width W 9.53 mm and length L 38.1 mm.

57

1000

4501--r---r----"li""i)~r--~r--Dl~=_----r---:!r=====+====il
Pend
PendHR
: P
- : end

400

!!T

iTI==t=,,:::::j~~~ . . ~~:~
/

1-:\1
200

:~:~

1".
I

Xp =25.4mm

~~

'D'
100

:\

..

I[}J:--- .

:.
r.
. : . .. ]'.. .. .-r:

.,

J[rl
Wi -H-"]"T..

..: .. .. .. ..

..

O!--~10~O~~~20~O;;;;;;;;;;~30Oai=c:~40~O~~=50~O~~~60~O:=;:::iiilI;;7~O~O...::;;:~~~~9~O~O=~1~OOO
f(Hz)

Figure 3.15: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of Helmholtz
resonator on duct is A = 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.28 mm.

58

. . . .T;

r==t=::1......................

::

P~R

::
~

Pend

....~ .P.endHR.
PHR

,.
/

300f- .. .. ....,... .... u

;1 ; 1";m"' :; ~=50.8mm.
....;-

200t- .. .. :-!t .:

:
100

~J

tjJlJ: .

iv'
.

..l.~

PI1.
~I~~!T

700

Figure 3.16: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of Helmholtz
resonator on duct is A =242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.28 mm.

59

,
1000

--;"1
!--'---r-,::==::::::JC::==:::;l

450~----'---'---!D----:----rI---rI.
I
Pend
.

1T

400f-.. .,1

P~dHR
":j

T~
P~R

Pend

....~ P.~ndHR..
-

PHR

.L~

/"

. . ::" . . . .

3001-:*

Lc

I,

. . ~,.. .1"
iiif

)(p -

........

2001-::H

;[1:

V
1001-'" .. ::1

100

w:
:
............ ~=1Ni-

'l

200

.-/Yl.
1

.
1. .

.:

~.

..

300

500

600

700

800

900

11Hz)

Figure 3.17: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct With and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp The mouth area of Helmholtz
resonator on duct is A 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.28 mm.

60

1000

450r--y--!"""----,---r--,---r---y---,-;::::===r:::==:::=:;J

-~

P~ndHR

Pend

~LP."!1c1!iR

400

lc

Pend

-:PHR
~

\
\

11

'-

:
200f-::1+

,
,00f-

Xp

!
:

=101.6 mm
:

~[

~ :.1

:'C]:

,..i.. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ,

v'
"'"

JIf1:

1 Y',

~~ T .

. :

OL.......:~'0"0~=-2..iO..:O:;;;;~3~O;;;:O::::=4~OO==:==:::5010,;;:::==6:t:OO=:::50!::70,i.Or=:::;:;:~::::80i:::O::::::::::9::jO~O=~,~ooo
f(Hz}

Figure 3.18: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of Helmholtz
resonator on duct is A =242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.28 mm.

61

4501----r-----r---rD~T---r-_;;!-~r-----r__;:::===!=====:;l
Pend

400

iT

200f-.. ............;........1t

..:......,

.P
- : end

:.~~_R_........=l::R
.

dHR

1==:1=,.

;1 :

300

1001-....

p~. dHR

.-

lc

\
\

...
}(p=
:

,0:

'D'

,..................................................

1
~

127 mm
~

J~l

~!. 4~~

OL~~~_......i~~~=~::=f======::;L~=:::=60::f:O:::::~"!:7~00....::.:~==80:i::0::::::::::::9OOi:;==~1~OOO
rtHz)

Figure 3.19: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp The mouth area'of Helmholtz
resonator on duct is A 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.28 mm.

62

450r-----,----,----,---=--T---r-~r-----r--!_;:::==:::c:===:::;]

Pend

400

-j

PendHR

........... :...

Pend

~ ~L~m4H,:t

T
\1 . .1A ' .; ~=152.4mmiILlT .
-jPHR

300

2001--; /t

Lc

t..

'~l"""""

i ..

:V;

; V;

100f-.. ........ ....: .. .... 1 ........................................ :..............

,!1

r..

;n

~~~T . .

Figure 3.20: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of Helmholtz
resonator on duct is A 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.28 mm.

63

-:P

.~.LP..~.

400

- ' PHR

3001-

end

L.c

i1,"H 1 " .
..

11

...

I
\

~.;

- .

X.=1n8mm

200\-

,..

fl

,
1001-.......... .. ..'.... .... f ... .. ;

~.,_

T I[U .

,D,
~

!.~

-.....

.. .

,'.;:.

:.i

J[Il
~.i ~. b

':.:...T

Figure 3.21: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of Helmholtz
resonator on duct is A 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.28 mm.

64

Cavity Duct

f(Hz}

Acoustic Mode
1
2
3
160
482
800

N/m2

430

'; '. .
'f(l-Iz) i, ' '342i
XI1#~5,~4rnm ".'.N'm~. 11,19

'.

'. '.. . . . , SR(%)


Xp= 50.8 mm

52

',527873

.. '41122 .' ..41.~? '.


'.' '2.6 . .;. "3916<'80:6;

f(Hz)

315

522

872

N/m 2

41.5

51.58

42.84

49.6
c!51~ > ." ".

82.4

SR(%}

f<Bzf

'.

104

9.7
13Q3/

.'.

87t

;<Xp=1'6.~Ill~~; ,Nlrn2i59(67<$5:7142155
,

With
Helmholtz
Resonator

,.... . ,SR(CYct),: . ',".'.13.9

Xp 101.6 mm
'.

F' . '

53.6,"'.81:8< .

f(Hz}

297

518

869

N/m2
SR(%}

71.75

59.51

42.08

16.7

. 57.2

80.9

.";f(I-I~}1<2es

I.

i51~;

ii'~5< '.

Xp=127.Q ml11' ';N/r.ri2 i ""76,iQ7'" ..,6CJ:56 "42.02


',SR(%r,.... '17;.7 ';'58.2' .'. . 'SO.8 .
Xp=152.4 mm

f(Hz}

289

516

864

N/m 2

80.96

63.75

43.63

SR(%)

18.8

61.3

83.9

SR(= Sound Reduction): (Helmholtz resonator I Cavity duct)x100

Figure 3.22: The results from expelimentsof combination of the Helmholtz resonator and cavity
duct.

65

500.------,--------,-------,-----,-----,-------,

w~

38.1 mm

;Theory
j Experiment

P~

1
100

..........

.....

. ..........

wI

Xp

o 1'------'-------'~------'-------'------I.------l
2

Length(Xp)

Figure 4.1: Natural frequency of Helmholtz resonator. Area of mouth of resonator is A


mm2 Diameter of resonator is D 152.4 mm.

66

=1452

3OO~----.r----------,----......,.------r------r------,

Wi;:. 3.18 mm

-,Theory
: Experiment

200

100

.)

p.~

,:

o 1:---------:'2'-------=3------':4-----=5-----=-6-----=1
LengthlXpI

Figure 4.2: Natural frequency of Helmholtz resonator with plate. Area of mouth of plate is A
120.97 mm2 Diameter of resonator is D 152.4 mm.
.

\'

67

400.-------,--------r--------r------,-------,-------,

W= 6.35 mm
~heory

............................. ~

.. ...

~xperiment

..

Il:"

200

P~
100

1_
=

IJ

Xp

W 6.35[rnm
0

LengthlXp)

Figure 4.3: Natural frequency of Helmholtz resonator with plate. Area of mouth of plate is A
241.94 mm2 Diameter of resonator is D 152.4 mm.

68

400.-------,-------,-----,--------r-----,-----,

W= 9.53 mm

!Theory
: Experiment

.............................................................................................. ;

................................;

x:

C'

200

100

P~

... !

W= 9.53~mm

D
p

...-.IIII!_. . . . . . . . . . .

1'------2~------:'3'--------:'4:---------:5:---------:6------:7

Length(XPI

Figure 4.4: Natural frequency of Helmholtz resonator with plate. Area of mouth of plate is A

362.90 mm2 Diameter of resonator is 0

=152.4 mm.

69

Volume
Length (X p)
25.4mm
50.8 mm
76.2mm
101.6 mm
127.0 mm
152.4mm
177.8 mm

Volume
Length (X p)

Helmholtz Resonator

Helmholtz Resonator
with Plate 1

Theory

Experiment

Error (%)

Theory

Experiment

Error (%)

462
327
267
231
207
189
175

458
332
270
234
208
189
175

0.9
-1.5
-1.1
-1.3
-0.5
0.0
0.0

248
177
145
126
113
103
95

247
178
143
130
117
107
100

0.4
-0.6
1.4
-3.2
-3.5
-3.9
-5.3

Helmholtz Resonator
with Plate 2
Theory

Experiment

Error(%)

Helmholtz Resonator"
with Plate 3
Theory

Experiment

25.4mm
307
288
6.2
346
312
50.8mm
219
209
4.6
247
226
76.2mm
180
172
4.4
203
190
101.6 mm
156
152
2.6
176
163
127.0 mm
140
136
2.9
157
144
y
152.4mm
127
144
124
2.4
134
177.8mm
118
115
133
124
2.5
Plate 1: width = 3.18 mm, Plate 2: wIdth = 6.35 mm, Plate 3: width = 9.53mm
Figure 4.5: The comparison of values between theory and experiment

70

Error(%)

9.8
8.5
6.4
7.4
8.3
6.9
6.8

70..------,------r--------,-----r------,

601-:

.
~

1(;

5.08

: -

7.62

10.2

~.

12.7
15.2

.- .. -

40

2.54

501-,.. t

17.8

~z

it
CD

30

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ./f

20

. . :

10

~<t

.
.. .

0l........lfi~~::;;;;;",==1001=:::::::=---2-0L..O-----30LO-_---'400i-----==:J500
f(HzJ

Figure 5.1: Spectra of transmission loss calculated by Equation (5.1),

1L=1010

glO

A [1+~+(~_I).e-2ikLN]2
l+-!L

Ac

1+~_(~_I).e-2ikLN

71

'

= -v.

AH

-IJ

2ikLN
(ee-2ilrLN +1

450.....-------,.-------,---,---,----,----r---,---,-----,-----,
Pend

P:endHR

....L.

400f-;1

Pend

L. . ~.

PllndHR ..

PHR

,
/

L.c

300f-:fl

\
\

1
......

200f-,n

.....

Xp =78.15 mm

....

/~""
/':

" :
v~
:

100f-,f

, [lJ:
:.1 :
.J[1.
V -ih~
rIr,.
:

.;
...

...

.......:
:
:

:
:

100

Figure 5.2a: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of Helmholtz
resonator on duct is A 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18 mm. The length of
volume is x" = 78.15 mm and the volume of the resonator is 1,444,076 mm3

72

1000

45r--~,--~,--~,-----~---r---r---Y----rr=:=::::f'====1l

- : Pend

Pend

3001--, .. *..,

...,..

.:............ lc

2ool-- ......,.. .. H

1....

~
:

..
1

.... -_ .....

~~

.
.

,X.= 80.11 mm

...... ..i...... ~ .... . i---....

0:

_.~

...

11 i : 1 "

1001-..

- : ....PendHR
..... -.....
-\PHR

........._.~t:==I

400

~ .. ..

~itlJ'

)~
~

. . .. .

[f1:
.

.
.
. .
.
.
.

t.... T
..

w~ -H-"l

....1.. ]T

..

01--~10~O~=~20~O:;;;~~30~O~=40~O===::::5~O~O:;;;:::::6~O~O=:::7~O~Oo:::l!i::~~:::::::;;;9~O:;O=~1;1000
f(HzI

Figure 5.2b: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp The mouth area of Helmholtz
resonator on duct is A =242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18 mm. The length of
volume is Xp =80.11 mm and the volume of the resonator is 1,479,717 mm3

73

45r----r----,---r:::--,--!-I~:=_-~--r__;:::===+===:::::;l
: 'Pend

300

endHR

;T'-T-----,~

_IT

~ Pend

;: . ==;:~

;'

1-:-tl

1 ".. . . . . . 1

I
\

........

....

)(p

~,.

: [1J:

Q
.

200

300

400

500

600

...
...
.

~T

vLn.
W[-1N

100

100

......."( . . +.. .

:.~..

....

ioo

f{Hz)

Figure 5.2c: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due 10 pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp The mouth area of Helmholtz
resonator on duct is A 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18 mm. The length of
volume is Xp 82.06 mm and the volume ofthe resonator is 1,515,358 mm3 .

74

=82.06 mm

2001--, It

1000

iT

45o,----y----y----r---r---r---r-----,r----y----y----,

4001- .. .. ; .. .. 1

: Pend

. =~:-

TJ=::t:,=l ~=

:Pend

3001- ..............; ......

200

lc

i1

...........

I
I
\

~.

"

Xp= 84.02 mm

......

:11[lJ. .. :;

..
.

V[f1!

w:~~:

cT

100\- .. .. .... ..: ........ /

O!--b10~O~=":'2D~O~~~30J!D~===4oot:;::==:::;50~D~::::=6D==O====::70i.O-=O;;~~80;:O::::::::;;::90~D==1:::lDOD
f{Hz)

Figure S.2d: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of Helmholtz
resonator on duct is A 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18 mm. The length of
volume is Xp =84.02 mm and the volume of the' resonator is 1,551,000 mm3 .

75

450,--'---'--T-:---r---Y---r--!"--T-;:::===:::r:::==::::::;l

p:~ndHR

Pend

Lc

300 I- ..: .. Jf .....,..

1~fJ
1

200

Xp =85.97 mm

100

OL-~10~O~e!::::":'20~O,:::~~30~O~==:;:40~O~::::;50~O~:=:=60==O===;::10~O-=:i~;;;;;;a;f:OO:=::::::;;;;;;:9:i: OO==::;l1000
11Hz)

Figure S.2e: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp The mouth area of Helmholtz
resonator on duct is A 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18 mm. The length of
volume is Xp = 85.97 mm and the volume ofthe resonator is 1,586,641 mm3

76

Pend
)

400-

3001-;u

.J \.:.j\i.A

M,

OL-~10~O~=~20...0:;;~3~O~0:s:2=4;;O:;:O===:::50~O;;;;::::::6~O:;:O=~7~O'!"O~~8~~:;O:::::=:9;;~;:O=~1000
f{Hz)

Figure 5.2f: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz resonator
due to pure tone excitation as a function of length )(po The mouth area of Helmholtz resonator on
duct is A 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18 mm. The length of volume is Xp
87.92 mmand the volume ofthe resonator is 1,622,282 mm3.

77

4501--.-----r-----,~:_-,----.--~--!--r;::==:::::I:==:=;1

iT I IT ,_
Pend

P eOdHR

I==I==I

4001- .. .. .... , ..1

1-

2001-

1001-

,.., ..

11

~ ..p.!l.J:l.~~ .. ,

P~.

-PH'

Ii ; 1" ,
\

~=89.~mm

A . ... . . j.....~ .......~. ......I[lJ.. . '. . .. . . .


!v . 0 ' J[f1
~,;;
:..;.....~,~~t .
If.. : .... .... ..

100

p
. end

lc

300

200

300

500

400

601}

'---___;.:-----;..---l

100

f(Hz)

Figure 5.2g: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of Helmholtz
resonator on duct is A '242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18 mm. The length of
volume is Xp 89.88 mm and the volume ofthe resonator is 1,657,923 mm3 .

-.
78

1000

4 5 0 r - - - - - " , - - ! - - - . - - = - - - - r ' - - - r - - - - " ! ' .--'--T--T;:::===+=====;l


Pend

T~=I:~=1

4001-;1

3001-,*

:1

..<...........

TI==I!f:=l;~~
L.c

/-'

: Pend

=='::~

Xp -

Xp=91.83 mm

~.~.~'~D
:~!Jli[UIT1'

2001-H

:::

. . ., . . .

1001-,,

100

",1'\

\..

1:! \.. "'~\;

..
1:::

.)

Pe~dHR

..

..
..
:
.
..:

.....\'/,'::1bi'..
.

~
:

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

.
...
900

f(Hz)

Figure 5.2h: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of Helmholtz
resonator on duct is A = 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18 mm. The length of
volume is Xp 91.83 mm and the volume ofthe resonator is 1,693,564 mm3.

79

1000

4501-----"l-------r----,-::--,----r-I:;r:=---.---r;====~==::::;l
Pend
P~ndHR
Pend

- ......

4001-; 1

P endHR -.

- PHR

Lc
300r:

...

\
\

ir:

}{p=93.78mm

2001-

1001-

100

:
:

200

j-~1

:CJ :
::: :::
~

..

300

: CJ:
;:~ ::: :::

;...

..~

..

400

.
..
.

..

500

600

.700

;..~

+ .

][[1
Wi:-1'-'
:
: I"'J
:

,"

1000

flHZ}

Figure 5.2i: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz resonator
due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp. The mouth area of Helmholtz resonator on
duct is A = 242 mnf and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.1'8 mm. The length of volume is Xp =
93.78 mm and the volume ofthe resonator is 1,729,205 mm3 .

80

.. ..

400

Pend

P HR

PendHR

.-

lc
.:

300

2001-,,1t

.
1001-,1

:
:

\7:
u:

.. J[f1~:

i: \'LJ:
I:
:

:::

;.

--..J~~
:
:
: : :
.
:
:
;
;
; T

: :

;
.
~

:
.

..

;
:

+.. _, ;

;
.
..

..
....

---.

OL-~10~O~"""" ...20b"D~~~30~O~=4=?OO~==::5;.Ol.::O;;;;;==6?DOt;===7~O~O~~O~D::;D:::::~9;:jO~D=~1:;lDDO
11Hz)

Figure 5.2j: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz resonator
due to pure tone excitation as a functio'n of length )(p. The mouth area of Helmholtz resonator on
duct is A = 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18 mm. The length of volume is )(p = .
95.74 mm and the volume ofthe resonator is 1,764,846 mm3.

81

4501--rr---r---r---r--___,r---r-~___,r_-___,r_;===::::J=====::::;]

P~ndHR

Pend

4001--;1

Til=::I====I ;:,=:=f:::

ITl.-r--&--r-'1

HR

,.

Lc
.....:

3001--:it

11 :

1z

a:

..
.

::

:
.
.
.
.

en

- ) Pend

I
\

1:

,.
:
.
.
.
.
.
....

..

....
..
.

. ,

2001--""""""""'1+""'"F"""""""

J1*

~..... ;

Xp= 97.69 mm

'. r[U'
.

.J[f1
1001--,.,

100

..

200

300

.:

;
:

600

700

.:

. .
.
.

..

400

500

WI-1N

~,T

800

900

rtHz)

Figure 5.2k: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz
resonator due to pure tone excitation as a function of length Xp The mouth area of Helmholtz
resonator on duct is A = 242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wall is 3.18 mm. The length of
volume is Xp 97.69 mm and the volume ofthe resonator is 1,800,487 mm3 .

82

1000

4001--;1

Pend
}

lc

3001-- ;11

2001-,1;

.~!.

:0
1001--;t

0
0

;...

)
100

200

300

~
400

500

600

100

~"
.

BOD

900

1000

f{HZ)

Figure 5.21: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz resonator
due to pure tone excitation as a function of length )(p. The mouth area of Helmholtz resonator on
duct is A =242 mm2 and the thickness T of cavity wallis 3.18 mm. The length ofvolume is )(p
99.65 mm and the volume ofthe resonator is 1,836,127 mm3

83

0.01..---------.----..,--------,--------,---------,

\
0.008

~006 ~~~~~~~~~

0.004f--

0.002

'\'

:--

..

.-

I~c-

0.005

0.02

0.01

0.03

0.04

Length of neck(m)

Figure 5.3: The calculated volume of Helmholtz resonator expressed as a function of the actual
length of neck under the condition of constant cross-sectional area. VMis the maximum volume of
Helmholtz resonator, and Vc is the calculated volume of Helmholtz resonator.

84

450r--,----r---,---,---,--,---r---r-;===I=:==:::;,

P;. endHR

Pend

4001-,

-[Pend

;T~t=:::::::j"""""""""T"'EE".;3 ::~;==!:~
/

Lc

3001- ........ ..,.........,.

...,

lc

:
\

11"""""~!";"", "",l~,
II',~.
"""""jJtl "

2001- .......... ; ......1t',"

1001- .. .... .. ; ...... I

100

200

' V;

0'

300

... W;

40D

JrI

50D

600

700

=lei.:. "1'

1000

f(Hz)

Figure 5.4: Spectra of pressure fluctuations inside duct with and without the Helmholtz resonator
due to pure tone excitation as a function of length ){p. The mouth area of Helmholtz resonator on
duct is A 242 mm2 and the actual length of neck of Helmholtz resonator is 12.7 mm. The length
of volume is Xp 121.14 mm and the volume ofthe resonator is 2,224,072 mm3

85

LIST OF REFERENCES
De Bedout, lM., Francheck, M.A., Bernhard R. J. and Mongeau, L. "Adaptive-Passive
Noise Control with Self-Tuning Helmholtz Resonators", Journal ofSound and Vibration,
(1997) 202(1), 109-123.
Tang, S.K. "On Helmholtz Resonators with Tapered Necks", Journal of Sound and
Vibration, 279 (2005) 1 0 8 5 - 1 0 9 6 . '
Dickey, N.S. and Selamet, A. "Helmholtz Resonators: One Dimensional Limit for Small
Cavity Length-to-Diameter Ratios", Journal ofSound and Vibration, (1996) 195(3), 512517.
Selamet, A., Dickey, N.S. and Novak, lM. "Theoretical, Computational and
Experimental Investigation of Helmholtz Resonators with Fixed Volume: Lumped
Versus Distributed Analysis", Journal ofSound and Vibration, (1995) 187(2), 358-367.
Ji, Z.L, "Acoustic Length Correction of Closed Cylindrical Side-branched Tube",
Journal ofSound and Vibration, 283 (2005) 1180-1186.
Selamet, A. and Ji, Z.L. "Circul~ asymmetric Helmholtz Resonators", J. Acoust. Soc.
Am. 107(5), Pt. 1, May 2000.
Yang, Yingchen. Ph.D. Dissertation, Lehigh University, 2005.
Naudascher, Eduard and Rockwell, Donald. "Flow-Induced Vibration", pp.72-73.
McLennan, lE. (2003) "AO and Al studies on the violin using CO2, He, and air/helium
mixtures." Acustica, 89, 176-180.
Website:''http://www.diracdelta.co.uk/science/sourcelh/e/helmholtz%20resonator/source.
html", Science & Engineering Encyclopedia.

86

Appendix A: Resonant Frequency of Helmholtz Resonator


Consider a basic force balance F

= rna , where

m is mass and a is acceleration,

d2
x ' 0 ne can therelore
~ wnte
.
a=2

dt

(1)

Consider
(2)

/lV=-Sx,

(3)

where Po is atmospheric pressure, S is cross-sectional area, and x is displacement. We


have:
_ SxPo
P -yV
where x(t) = e iOJ1 , and

0)

is angular frequency,

OJ

(4)

= 27if .

Force F can also be expressed in term of pressure:

F=PS=ySxPo S= y S 2X Po

rn

= pv = pSL , where

L is length of neck

(5)
(6)

Equation (1) becomes, by substitution of equations (4), (5) and (6)


S2 xE

d=
x
( )2 iOJI
lo) e
2
dt

-;-0)

y - -o
V = -rSPo
=
- - eiOJ1
pSL
pVL

(7)

rSPo
=---

(8)

pVL

87

J
~ Jr; .
2nf ~

The sound of speed c is c

rSF, "" f
pVL

~ _1 .
2"

rSF,

pVL

(9)

Then,

(10)

Therefore, the resonant frequency is defined as

crs
f = 2" VVi

88

(11)

Appendix B: Code for Spectral Analysis


close all;
clear all;
clc;
% 1. Setting experiment condition
% Frequency
1'=4096;
pt=l;

%Hz
% Period time

% Range of puretone frequency

pfs=l;
pfe=500;
pfi=pfe-pfs+1;

% Starting frequency
% Ending frequency
% Time diflerence

% The number of pure tone

ne=pfr;

% The Number ofFFT ( Fast Fourier Transform)


n1 = 2/\9;
n2= 2/\10;
n3=2/\l1;
n4= 2/\12;
n5=2/\13;
o;;)nO= fix(log 1O(r)/log10(2));
nf=n4;

2/\9 = 512
2/\10 = 1024
2/\11 =2048
2/\12 = 4096
% 2/\13=8192
Equation for deciding the number of FFT
% The number ofFFT for present analysis
%
%
%
%

% palpsi=6.89627379* I000
pa--psi=6.89627379* 1000
% Sensitivity and Gain ofPiezotronics multi-channel sensor signal condition

% Sensitivity
s_vaI70594=1;
s_cavityend=1593.3;
s_cavitydn1=188.5;
s_cavitymid2=1396.2;
s_cavityup3=194.6;
s_helmholtz=1313.3;
sJef=518.3;
s hotwire=l

% unit
% unit=mV/psi
% unit=mV /kpa
% tmit=mV/psi
% unit=m V Ikpa
% unit=mV/psi
% unit=mV/psi
% unit

Gain
ch_g=20;
chO_g=1;

% ChO= Validyne1

ChO= Validyne
Ch1=.Cavity End
Ch2= Cavity Duct Down
Ch3= Cavity Duct Middle
Ch4= Cavity Duct Up
Ch5=Helmholtz Resonator
Ch6=Reference
Ch7=Hot Wire

(~;()

89

chI_g=20;
ch2_g=20;
ch3_g=20;
ch4_g=20;
ch5_g=20;
ch6_g=20;
ch7_g=I;

% ChI = Cavity End


% Ch2= Cavity Duct DO\vn
% Ch3= Cavity Duct Middle
% Ch4= Cavity Duct Up
% Ch5= Helmholtz Resonator
(Yo Ch6= Input Reference
% Ch7= Hot Wire

% Making matrix name and filenanle


for i=I:ne
Filename(i,:) = {sprintf('HE%d.txt',pfe+I-i)};
end
for(i=I: 1:ne/2)
Temp=Filename(i,:);
Filename(i,: )=Fil~name(ne+I-i);
Filename(ne+I-i)=Temp;
end
(Yl) Loading Date and making ~'ltrix
for i = 1:ne
'\
[data,ErrorMessage]=fopen(char(Filename(i)),'11');
[Matrix(:,:,i), count]=fscanf(data,'%f,[9,inf]); %fi1e name, format, size(M*N)
end
fclose('all');

% Size ofMatrix= [m,n] & Length


Size=size(Matrix);
c=Size(I,I); % Column
r=Size(I,2); % Row
d=Size(I,3); % Dimension

A, Distribution of All Data and Making each matrix


% Row: Time
% Column: Experiment Number
%where ne is the number of experiment
for(i= I: 1:ne)
M_Time(:,i)=transpose(Matrix(I,:,i));
%A/D conv.= #0
M_Va70954(:,i)=transpose(Matrix(2,:,i));
%A/D conv.= #1
M_CavityEnd(:,i)=transpose(Matrix(3,:,i));
%A/D conv.= #2
M_DuctDnI(:,i)=transpose(Matrix(4,:,i));
%A/D conv.=#3
M_DuctMid2(:,i)=transpose(Matrix(5,:,i));
%A/D conv.= #4
M_DuctUp3(:,i)=transpose(Matrix(6,:,i));

90

M_Helmholtz(:,i)=transpose(Matrix(7,:,i;
M Reference(:,i)=transpose(Matrix(8,:,i;
M_HotWire(:,i)=transpose(Matrix(9,:,i;
end

%A/D eonv.=#5
%ND eonv.= #6
%ND eOl1v.= #7

% Calculation of sound pressure


M_Pressure_CavityEnd=M_CavityEnd*(pa-'psi)*(1 0"3)/(ehl_g*s_cavityend);
M_Pressure_DuetDnl =M_DuetDnl *(1 0"3)*(10"3)/(eh2_g*s_eavitydnlM_Pressure_Du
etMid2=M_DuetMid2*(pa-'psi)*(1 0"3)/(eh3_g*s_eavitymid2);
M_Pressure_DuctUp3=M_DuctUp3*(10"3)*(10"3)/(ch4_g*s_cavityup3);
M_Pressure_Helmholtz=M_Helmholtz*(pa-'psi)*(1 0"3)/(chS_g*s_helmholtz);
M_Pressure_Reference=:=M_Referepce*(pa-'psi)*(1 0"3)/(eh6_g*sJef);
M_Pressure_HotWire=M_HotWire*(pa-'psi)*(1 0"3)/(ch7_g*s_hotwire
Window Function, Hann
Winfunc_Hann=hann(r);

(y!)

forG=I: 1:ne) %ne: the number of experiment


for(i=1: 1:r)
W_Pressure_CavityEnd(i,j)=M_Pressure_CavityEnd(i,j)*Winfunc_Hann(i);
W_Pressure~DuctDn1(i,j)= M_Pressure_DuctDn1(i,j)*Winfunc_Hann(i);
Wyressure_DuctMid2(i,j)= M_Pressure_DuctMid2(i,j)*Winfunc_Hann(i);
W_Pressure_DuctUp3(i,j)= M_Pressure_DuctUp3(i,j)*Winfunc_Hann(i);
W_Pressure_Helmholtz(i,j)=M_Pressure_Helmholtz(iJ)*Winfunc_Hann(i);
W_Pressure_Reference(i,j)=M_Pressure_Reference(i,j)*Winfunc_Hann(i);
W_Pressure_HotWire(i,j)= M_Pressure_HotWire(i,j)*Winfunc_Hann(i);
end
end
% Fast Fourier Transform
FFT_CavityEnd=abs(2*fft(W_Pressure_CavityEnd,nf)/(nf/2);
FFT_DuctDnl= abs(2*fft(W_Pressure_DuctDnl,nf)/(nf/2);
FFT_DuctMid2= abs(2*fft(W_Pressure_DuctMid2,nf)/(nf/2);
FFT_DuctUp3= abs(2*fft(W_Pressure_DuctUp3,nf)/(nf/2);
FFT_Helmholtz=abs(2*fft(W_Pressure_He1mholtz,nf)/(nf/2);
FFT_Reference=abs(2*fft(W_Pressure_Reference,nf)/(nf/2);
FFT_HotWire= abs(2*fft(W_Pressure_HotWire,nf))/(nf/2);

%1 Frequency Domain for pure tone


% Frequency Domain for Puretone
for(i=1: 1:pfr)
FreCLPuretone(i)=pfs+i-1 ;
end

% pfr= Range of puretone frequency

91

% Result of FFT
for(i=l: 1:ne)
%ne: the number of experiment
RyFT_CavityEnd(i)=FFT_CavityEnd(FreCLPuretone(i)+ 1,i);
R_FFT_DuctDnl (i)= FFT_DuctDnl (FreCLPuretone(i)+ 1,i);
R_FFT_DuctMid2(i)= FFT_DuctMid2(FreCLPuretone(i)+ 1,i);
R_FFT_DuctUp3(i)= FFT_DuctUp3(FreCLPuretone(i)+1,i);
R_FFT_Helmholtz(i)=FFT_Helmholtz(FreCLPuretone(i)+ 1,i);
R_FFT_Reference(i)=FFT_Reference(Fre'LPuretone(i)+ 1,i);
R_FFT_HotWire(i)= FFT_HotWire(Fre<LPuretone(i)+l,i);
end
% Data Table ofFFT
Datatable(:,1)=Fre'LPuretone;
Datatable(:,2)=R_FFT_CavityEnd;
Datatable(:,3)=R_FFT_DuctDnl;
Datatable(:,4)=R_FFT_DuctMid2;
Datatable(:,5)=R_FFT_DuctUp3;
Datatable(:,6)=R_FFT_Helmholtz;
Datatable(:,7)=R_FFT_Reference;
Datatable(:,8)=R_FFT_HotWire
Save result into text File
save PS I.txt Datatable -ascii;

(Yo

% Figures
figure(l)
plot(Datatable(:,1),Datatable(:,2),'c-');
xlabel('Hz');
ylabel('P_Amplitude');
title (,Puretone Spectrum');
grid on
hold on
plot(Datatable(:,1),Datatable(:,3),'g-');
hold on
plot(Datatable(:, 1),Datatable(:,4),'r-');
hold on
plot(Datatable(:, 1),Datatable(:,5),'b-');
hold on
plot(Datatable(:, 1),Datatable(:,6),'m-');
legend('PEnd','PDn l','PMid2','PUp3','PHelm');
hold off
figure(2)
subplot(5, 1,1);
plot(Datatable(:,1),Datatable(:,2),'c-');
legend('PEnd');

92

subplot(5,1,2);
plot(Datatable(:,1),Datatable(:,3),lg-I);
legendCPDn 11);
.
subplot(5,1,3);
plot(Datatable(:,1),Datatable(:,4),lr-');
legendCPMid2');
subplot(5,1,4);
plot(Datatable(:,1),Datatable(:,5),'b- I);
legendCPUp31);
subplot(5,1,5);
plot(Datatable(:,1),Datatable(:,5),1m-I);
legend(IPHclm');

93

VITA

The author was born in South Korea on July 21, 1979. He received his Bac~elor
~

degree in Electronical Engineering from Korea Military Academy in March 2002. During
his graduate study at Lehigh University, he worked under the supervision of Professor
Donald Rockwell. He is currently enrolled in the Master of Science in Mechanical
Engineering program in the P. C. Rossin College of Engineering at Lehigh University
and will work for Korean army.

94

END OF
TITLE

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