CHAPTER 5

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Introduction

A compressible flow is a flow in which the fluid

density varies significantly within the flow field
(/T 0). Therefore, (x, y, z) must now be treated
as a field variable rather than simply a constant.
Typically, significant density variations start to
appear when the flow Mach number exceeds 0.3 or
so. The effects become especially large when the
Mach number approaches and exceeds unity.

The figure shows the behavior of a moving

Lagrangian Control Volume (CV) which by
definition surrounds a fixed mass of fluid, m. In
incompressible flow the density does not change,
so the CVs volume, = m/ must remain constant.
In the compressible flow case, the CV is squeezed
or expanded significantly in response to pressure
changes, with changing in inverse proportion to
. Since the CV follows the streamlines, changes in
the CVs volume must be accompanied by changes
in the streamlines as well. Above Mach 1, these
volumetric changes dominate the streamline
pattern.

Many of the relations developed for incompressible

(i.e. low speed) flows must be revisited and
modified. For example, the Bernoulli equation is no
longer valid,

since constant density was assumed in its

derivation. However, concepts such as stagnation
pressure, po are still usable, but their definitions
and relevant equations will be different from the
low speed versions.

Some
flow
solution
techniques
used
in
incompressible flow problems will no longer be
applicable to compressible flows. In particular, the
technique of superposition will no longer be
generally applicable, although it will still apply in
some restricted situations.

Ideal Gas

Before we proceed to develop compressible flow

equation, we need to become familiar with the fluid
we will work with, the ideal gas. Specifically, we

must learn how to evaluate ideal gas properties

changes.

Equation of state for an ideal gas

p = RT
where
p =
=
R=
T =

pressure
fluid density
gas constant
temperature

Gas Constant
R = /Mgas
where
= universal gas constant
Mgas =
molecular weight of ideal gas

Specific heat at constant volume (amount of energy

that has been transfer from one unit of mass to
change the system temperature by on degree)
cv = d u /dT

where
internal energy
u =
T =
temperature

Actually cv for a particular gas varies with

temperature. However for moderate changes in
temperature, the constant cv assumption is
reasonable

Specific volume
v = 1/

Specific heat at constant pressure

cp = d h /dT

where
h = entalphy = u + (p/)
T = temperature

Actually cp for a particular gas varies with

temperature. However for moderate changes in
temperature, the constant cp assumption is
reasonable.

Relationship between cv and cp

p = RT
h = u + (p/)
h = u + RT
d h = d u + R(dT)
(d h /dT) = (d u /dT) + R
cp = c v + R

Specific heat ratio

k = cp/cv
combine this equation with cp = cv + R
cp = Rk/(k - 1)
cv = R/(k 1)

Constant entropy flow is call isentropic flow (no

heat is added, and no energy transformations

occur). Equation for isentropic flow with constant

cv and cp
cv ln(T2/T1) + R ln(1/2) = cp ln(T2/T1) - R
ln(p1/p2) = 0
combine this equation with cp = Rk/(k - 1) and cv =
R/(k 1), we obtain
(T2/T1)k/(k-1) = (1/2)k = (p1/p2)
we also can conclude
p/k = constant
Mach Number and Speed of Sound

Mach number , Ma is a dimensionless measure of

compressibility in a fluid flow.

Mach number is defined as a ratio of the value of

the local velocity, V to the local speed of sound.
Ma = V/c

To better understanding about speed of sound,

consider one dimensional fluid mechanics of an
infinitesimally thin, weak pressure pulse moving at
the speed of sound through a fluid at rest a shown
in figure below. For an observer moving with this
control volume, it is appear as if the fluid is
entering the control volume through surface area A
with speed c at pressure p and density and
leaving control volume through surface area A with
speed c - V, pressure p + p and density + .

apply continuity equation to the control volume

Ac = ( + )A(c - V)
V = c
apply linear momentum equation
-ccA + (c - V)( + )(c - V)A = pA (p + p)A
V = P/c
combine continuity and momentum equation
c = (p/)1/2
for isentropic flow
p = (constant)k
thus
(p/) = (constant)kk 1 = (p/k) kk 1 = (p/)k
= RTk
thus for ideal gas
c = (RTk)1/2
in bulk modulus of elasticity , Ev
c = (Ev/)1/2

Categories of Compressible Flow

Effects of compressibility become more significant

as Mach number increases.

Experience
has
also
demonstrated
that
compressibility can have a large influence on other
important flow variable as shown in figure below.

To further illustrate some curious features of

compressible flow, a simplified example is
considered. Imagine the emission of weak pressure
pulses from a point source. This pressure waves
are spherical and expand radially outward from the
point source at the speed of sound, c. If a pressure
wave is emitted at different times, twave we can
determine where several wave will be at a common
instant of time, t by using the relationship
r = (t twave)c
For stationary point source as shown in figure
below, the symmetrical wave pattern is involved.

An observer anywhere in the pressure field would

hear the same sound frequency from the point
source. If the point source move with very small
velocity in comparison with the speed of sound, the
pressure waves pattern will still be nearly
symmetrical.

Figure below show the wave pattern at t = 3s when

the point source move with a constant velocity, V.
This flow is considered subsonic and compressible.
The stationary observer will hear a different sound
frequency coming from point source depending on
where the observer is relative to the point source
because the wave pattern is asymmetrical.

Figure below show the wave pattern at t = 3s when

the point source velocity is equal to speed of sound,
c. The flow is sonic and pressure waves are not
present ahead of the moving source. If you were
positioned to the left of the moving point source, you
would not hear the sound frequency until the point
source was coincident with your location. The
pressure waves are all tangent to the plane that is
perpendicular to the flow and that passes through
the point source. The concentration of pressure
waves in this tangent plane suggests the formation
of significant pressure variation across the plane.
The region of flow upstream to this tangent plane is
call zone of silence and the region of flow
downstream of the tangent plane is called the zone
of action.

When the point source velocity is larger than speed

of sound, c, the flow is supersonic and pressure
waves pattern resembles the one depicted in figure
below. A cone (Mach cone) that is tangent to the
pressure waves can be constructed to represent the
Mach wave that separate the zone of silence from
zone of action. The communication of pressure
information is restricted to the zone of action and
the cone angle, is given by
sin = c/V = 1/Ma

The discussion about pressure wave pattern

suggests the following categories of fluid flow
- incompressible flow : Ma 0.3. Unrestricted,
near symmetrical and instantaneous pressure
communication.
- compressible subsonic flow : 0.3 Ma 1.0.
unrestricted but noticeable asymmetrical
pressure communication
- compressible supersonic flow : Ma 1.0.
Formation of Mach wave (tangent plane),
pressure communication restricted to zone of
action.

Example : An aircraft cruising at 1000 m

elevation above you moves past in a flyby.
How many seconds after the plane passes
overhead do you expect to wait before
you hear the aircraft sound if it is moving
with a Mach number equal 1.5 and
ambient temperature is 200C.

Solution :
Based on figure above,
=
tan-1 z/x
=
tan-1 1000/(Vt)
and
Ma

= 1/sin
=
1/ sin [tan-1 1000/(Vt)]

Speed of aircraft
V =
Ma(c)

from table, at temperature 200C, c = 343.3 m/s

therefore
Ma = 1/sin
=
1/ sin [tan-1 1000/(Vt)]
1.5 = 1/ sin [tan-1 1000/(1.5)(343.3)t]
=
2.17 s
Effect of Variations in Flow Cross Sectional Area on
Isentropic Flow

Isentropic flow involves constant entropy and

adiabatic and frictionless flow is one form of
isentropic flow.

When fluid flows steadily through a conduit that

has a flow cross section area that varies with axial
distance, the conservation of mass (continuity)
.
equation ( m = AV) can be used to relate the flow
rates at different section. When the flow is
compressible, density, cross section and flow
velocity can all vary from section to section.

Applied Newtons second law to compressible flow

dp + d(V2)/2 + dz = 0
for ideal gas flow, dz can be dropped because of its
small size in comparison to the other terms. Thus
dp/V2 = - (dV)/V

Form the logarithm of both sides of continuity

.
equation ( m = AV)
ln + ln A + ln V = constant

differentiating this equation

(d)/ + (dA)/A + (dV)/V = 0
- (dV)/V = (d)/ + (dA)/A
combine this equation with dp/V2 = - (dV)/V to
obtain
dp/V2 = (d)/ + (dA)/A
dp/V2 [1 V2/(dp/d)]= (dA)/A
since the flow being considered is isentropic
c = (p/)1/2
and
Ma = V/c
therefore
dp/V2 (1 Ma2)= (dA)/A
combine with dp/V2 = - (dV)/V, thus
dV/V = -(dA/A)[1/ (1 Ma2)]

From equation above

- when the flow is subsonic flow (Ma 1),
velocity and cross section are in opposite
directions. In other word, the area increase
associated with subsonic flow through a
diverging duct is accompanied by a velocity
decrease. Subsonic flow through a converging
duct involves an increase of velocity.
- when the flow is supersonic flow (Ma 1),
velocity and cross section are in the same
direction. A diverging duct will accelerate a
supersonic flow. A converging duct will
decelerate a supersonic flow.

Property Relations in Converging Diverging Duct

for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases

It is convenient to use the stagnation state of the

fluid as reference state for compressible flow
calculations.

Stagnation state is associated with zero flow

velocity and an entropy value that corresponds to
the entropy of the flow. The subscript 0 is used to
designate the stagnation state.

If the fluid flowing through the converging

diverging duct were drawn isentropically from
atmosphere,
the
atmosphere
pressure
and
temperature would represent the stagnation state
of the flow.

The stagnation state can also be achieved by

isentropically decelerating a flow to zero velocity.
This can be accomplished with a diverging duct for
subsonic flows or converging diverging duct for
supersonic flows.
Relations between the statics properties and
stagnation properties of an ideal gas (T, P and ).

From energy equation

h0= h + V2/2
and
cp = d h /dT
d h = cp dT

therefore
cp T0 = cp T + V2/2
divide with T and cp
cp T0/ cp T = cp T/ cp T + V2/2 cp T
T0/T = 1 + V2/2 cp T
knowing that
cp =kR/(k 1)
c2 = kRT
Ma = V/c
thus
V2/2cpT = V2/2[kR/(k 1)]T = [(k 1)/2]V2/c2 = [(k
1)/2] Ma2
therefore
T0/T = 1 + V2/2 cp T
T0/T = 1 + [(k 1)/2] Ma2
for ideal gases with constant specific heat p0 is
related to static pressure of fluid by
p0/p = (T0/T)k/(k - 1)
for isentropic flow
p =k = constant
p0/p = (0/)k
thus
(0/) = (T0/T)1/(k - 1)
therefore
p0/p = (1 + [(k 1)/2] Ma2)k/(k - 1)

(0/) = (1 + [(k 1)/2] Ma2)1/(k - 1)