HNC AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES & MATERIALS

WORKBOOK 1

1.

Solid metals have crystalline structures. How does this affect their physical
properties?

2.

Under tension a steel component stretches by 0.01 mm. An aluminium

component with exactly the same dimensions is placed under the same load.
By how much will it stretch?

3a.

How are plain carbon steel and alloy steel different?

3b.

Copy and complete the following table which summarises how the properties
of steel are changed by the various alloying elements. Put a plus sign (+) in
the box if the property is improved. Leave the box blank if the property is not
improved:

Element
Nickel

Hardness

Toughness

Strength
(UTS)

Corrosion
resistance

Manganese
Chromium

Vanadium

Tungsten

Molybdenum

+
+

4.

Write down the AISI classification for nickel steel with 8% chromium and
0.30% carbon.

5a.

What is the purpose of annealing steel? How is this process carried out?

5b.

Distinguish between annealing, normalizing and tempering heat treatment

processes of steel.

6.

What is the purpose of carburizing? How is it carried out?

7a.

Summarise the properties of aluminium that make it useful in aircraft

construction.

7b.

Distinguish between:
(i)

cast and wrought aluminium alloys

(ii)

heat treatable and non-heat treatable aluminium alloys.

8.

Aluminium alloy 7075-T6 is widely used in aircraft. What information about

this alloy does the designation 7075-T6 provide?

9.

Name the metals that are being discussed:

10a.

(i)

This metal has a very high strength to weight ratio. It has excellent
resistance to corrosion and retains its properties at high temperatures.
Although it is expensive, in modern aircraft it is often used in
preference to steel.

(ii)

These metals are alloys of mainly nickel and chromium, with other
metals included to improve stiffness and strength. Many components
in gas turbine engines are made from these alloys.

(iii)

This is the lightest metal that is used in engineering. It is relatively

weak, but its strength and corrosion resistance can be greatly
improved by alloying it with other metals. It is often used for piston
engine crankcases and wheels.

What is meant by the term proof stress? Sketch a graph of a tensile test of
a sample of 7075-T6 aluminium alloy and indicate the 0.2% proof stress.
(Hint: Look at the aluMATTER website pages 11 and 15.)

10b.

Describe how the hardness of a sample of metal may be measured.

10c.

Describe how the impact resistance a sample of metal may be measured.

11.

What is the difference between a thermoplastic and a thermosetting plastic?

Give examples of each.

12.

Summarise briefly how composite materials are inspected for damage and
repaired.

13.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of wood as a material used in

aircraft structures?

14.

Explain how wooden structures in aircraft are preserved and maintained.

15.

Explain how fabric material on aircraft is inspected for damage and

deterioration.

Answers
1.

The strong bonds between atoms in a crystal give a material high strength.
Impurities in a crystal lattice affect the metal properties. Metals generally
consist of lots of tiny crystals randomly arranged and separated by grain
boundaries. The size of these crystal grains can be changed by heat
treatment to modify the properties of a metal.

2.

extension of aluminium component = 0.01 x (210/70) = 0.03 mm.

(For same dimensions and load, i.e. stress), strain depends on modulus of
elasticity of material. For aluminium E = 70 GPa and steel E = 210 GPa.
With a lower value for E, the aluminium component will stretch more than the
steel version.)

3a.

Plain carbon steels have carbon as the main alloying element. Alloy steels
have had other metals (for example, nickel or chromium) introduced to
improve the properties of the steel in specific ways.

3b.
Element
Nickel

Hardness

Toughness

Strength
(UTS)

Corrosion
resistance

Manganese
Chromium

Vanadium

Tungsten

Molybdenum

+
+

Bear in mind that properties of steel depend on the amounts (as well as the
kinds) of alloying elements.
4.

5830

(5 = chromium, 8 = 8% Cr, 30 = 0.30% carbon)

5a.

Steel is annealed to soften it and make it more machineable. (In other

words, make it easier to shape components in lathes, drills or milling
machines.) Annealing modifies the grain structure in steel and is carried out
in three stages:
1. heating the steel to make it hot enough for its crystal structure to change
2. "soaking" at this temperature for long enough for the desired changes to
take place
3. cooling at a predetermined rate (slowly) in a furnace so that new crystals
form with a size that gives the desired properties.

5b.
Heat treatment
annealing
normalizing
tempering

6.

Process
high temperature then
slow cooling
high temperature then
cooling in air (fast)
heated to relatively low
temperature and then
cooled rapidly in oil

Effect
steel is softened
strength restored
ductile
reduces brittleness
and improves
toughness

Carburizing is used to make a component (such as a shaft or a gear) hard

and wear resistant on the surface while remaining strong and tough inside.
The component is placed in a steel box packed with charcoal. The box is put
in a furnace and heated so that carbon diffuses into the surface of the
component. The box is left in the furnace long enough for carbon to penetrate
to a depth and concentration sufficient to make the surface of the component
hard but not long enough to weaken it.

7a.

In comparison with steel, aluminium alloys are weak and flexible. However,
their relatively low density gives them a similar specific strength and modulus
of elasticity to steel. Thin-walled tubes and other constructions made from
aluminium alloys result in stiff, strong and light aircraft.
Aluminium alloys are resistant to corrosion and have a good surface finish,
making them suitable for aircraft skin panels.

7b.

(i)

(ii)

cast:

formed by casting (melted and poured into moulds)

relatively weak
properties improved by alloying with various metals

wrought:

cast and then formed into shape by working (e.g. rolling)

contain much less silicon than cast alloys
stronger than cast alloys
properties also improved by alloying

heat treatable:

can be softened and hardened by heat treatment

non-heat treatable: can only be softened by heat treatment, not

hardened.
8.

From the Aircraft Spruce website:

7075-T6
7 = zinc is the main alloying element
0 = original alloy (no modifications)
75 = no special significance (just indicates particular alloy in group)
-T6 = solution heat treated, then artificially aged

9.

(i)

titanium

(ii)

Nimonic alloy

(iii)

magnesium.

10a.

Most alloys do not have a clear yield point where the material stops behaving
elastically. Instead, there is a gradual change from elastic to plastic
behaviour. Even when quite small loads are removed the sample remains
elongated, giving a permanent set. The proof stress of a material indicates
the stress that causes a particular permanent set (usually 0.1%, 0.2% or
0.5%). Since a particular component will be designed to deflect by a certain
amount under load, the proof stress can be used as a measure of the strength
of an alloy.

10b.

There are three common methods used to measure the hardness of

engineering materials: Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell. In all of these methods
a measured force is applied to a hard object which indents the surface. (A
steel or tungsten ball is used in a Brinell test; a diamond with square pyramid
base in Vickers test.) The size of the indentation is measured using a
microscope and used to find a value for the hardness of the surface.

10c.

The impact resistance of a material is measured by notching a sample of the

material and measuring the energy absorbed by the sample when it is
fractured by a hammer. In an Izod test the sample is clamped at one end,
while in a Charpy test the sample is clamped at both ends. The more energy
absorbed by the sample during fracture the greater its impact resistance.

11.

Thermoplastics become soft when heated and can be moulded again and
again. Examples include PVC and Perspex.
Thermosetting resins are cured by heat or a curing agent (catalyst). After
being cured thermosets cannot be reshaped again. Examples include
aramids and polyimides.

12.

Damage to a composite material may not be very apparent (barely visible

damage). There may be small cracks, scratches, pits or dents on the
surface. There may also be small blisters or holes. More extensive damage
such as delamination may also occur. Once damage has been identified its
extent must be assessed, perhaps by performing a tap test or using ultrasonic
equipment. The nature of the damage and its location on the aircraft will
determine whether or not a repair is possible, and whether or not the
damaged part should be removed from the aircraft for repair.
Repairs are always carried out in accordance with the aircraft manufacturers
structural repair manual. The type of repair depends on the nature and extent
of the damage. Some general rules are:

All damaged material is removed and the damaged area is thoroughly

cleaned. An area surrounding the damage is scarfed to allow fibre layers
to be laid in the hole and to give good adhesion for the resin.

Resin and hardener are mixed in the appropriate proportions.

Layers of fibre are laid in the hole and resin/hardener is applied.

Polythene sheets and laid on top and a roller is used to remove air. The
polythene sheet is removed before the next layer of fibre is laid. The
repair is built up until the hole is filled.

The resin is cured. This process is often by vacuum bagging the repaired
region and
using a hot bonding machine to apply heat.

Unevenness on the surface is sanded off and the original paint surface is
restored.

13.

For use in aircraft, wood has the following advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages

strong especially in tension

light relative density less than 1
easy to cut and shape
easily bonded by glue
doesnt corrode

Disadvantages

14.

strength depends on direction weak in compression

affected badly by moisture
prone to attacks by fungi and insects

The best protection for a wooden aircraft structure is to make sure it is well
ventilated and has an adequate number of drainage holes located in the
lowest areas. A clear polyurethane or epoxy varnish is used to keep out
moisture from the structure and reduce the possibility of insect attack. While
coloured varnishes are available, these make it difficult to spot rot and cracks
in the wooden structural members.
A correctly applied and well maintained varnish coating protects wooden
structures throughout the life of an aircraft. However, inspection of timber and
glued joints is often very difficult, and they may deteriorate for a number of
reasons, including: weakening of glued joints; variations moisture content
(caused by changes in humidity and temperature) leading to shrinkage in
timber and stress in joints; fungus and insects; leakages in oil, fuel and other
fluids; and blockage of water drainage holes.
Long exposure to bad weather or strong sunlight will tend to destroy the
weatherproofing qualities of fabric coverings and of surface finishes generally.
If fabric-covered ply structures are neglected under these conditions the
surface finish will crack. This will allow moisture to penetrate to the wooden
structure, resulting in considerable deterioration through water soakage.

15.

Damage or deterioration in a fabric covered structure may be evident as:

tears or splits in the fabric

frayed or worn fabric
incorrectly tension fabric
discoloured, stained or cracked dope
mildew

Cotton and linen fabrics are much more prone to deterioration than polyester
fabrics. Glass fabrics dont deteriorate. Areas of an aircraft that receive most
sunlight (for example, the tops of wings and fuselage) and dark painted areas
absorb most UV light and are prone to deterioration.
Visual inspection of the structure is helped through inspection holes of various
types. Inspection rings are installed on the fabric of the fuselage or wings
where it is necessary to examine fittings, internal bracing, cables and similar
items inside the covered structure. The ingress of water may cause metal
fasteners to corrode.
The tensile strength of fabric may be tested using a punch tester. The point of
the tester is pressed into the fabric and the amount of give in the fabric is
measured, either on a coloured scale ((Seyboth-type tester) or by a numbered
scale (Maule-type tester).