GUIDE TO THE VISUAL ASSESSMENT OF

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT SURFACE CONDITION

By:
Norhidayu Hartaty Abdullah
Unit Forensik Keselamatan Jalan
Bahagian Keselamatan Jalan
Cawangan Kejuruteraan Jalan & Geoteknik

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Visual Assessment of Flexible Pavement

Surface Condition
Assessment of Pavement Surface condition is required:
As a measure of the ability of the pavement to continue to provide the
required service to the public
determining the deficiencies and inadequacies of the pavement
The remedial measures to be taken as well the maintenance planning
for the pavement
Distresses in Flexible Pavement can be categorized into one of
the following types:
a.Cracks
b.Surface Deformations
c.Surfaces Defects
d.Patches
e.Potholes
f.Edge Defects
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FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
SURFACE CONDITION

CRACKS

SURFACE
DEFORMATIONS

SURFACE

Crocodile

Rutting

Bleeding

Edge Break

Block

Depression

Polishing

Edge
drop-off

Longitudinal

Corrugation

Ravelling

Transverse

Shoving

Delamination

DEFECTS

PATCH
& POTHOLES

EDGE
DEFECTS

Edge

Crescent
Shaped

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1. PAVEMENT CRACKS

The possible causes of Cracks include:

I.Poor construction joints
II.Shrinkage
III.Reflection of cracks in underlying layers
IV.Depression
V.Fatigue life of the surface being exceeded
VI.Age embrittlement of the surfacing
Effects of the Cracks:
I.Loss of water-proofing of the pavement layers
II.Loss of load spreading ability
III.Pumping and loss of fines from the base course
IV.Loss of riding quality
V.Loss of appearance

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PAVEMENT CRACKS

Types of Pavement Cracks:

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CROCODILE CRACKS

Crocodile cracks is the consequences of the :

Inability of the structure to support the repeated loads due to a softening
of the material, which will increase the moisture content
No

Possible Causes

Probable Treatment

Inadequate pavement
thickness

Strengthen the pavement or

reconstruction

Low modulus base

Strengthen the base/reconstruction

Brittle base

Base recycling/reconstruction

Poor base drainage

Improve the drainage and reconstruct

Brittle wearing course

Replace or treat wearing course

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Severity Level of Crocodile Crack

Low Severity
Hairline cracks running parallel
to each other
cracks not spalled

Moderate Severity
pattern of articulated pieces formed
by cracks may be lightly spalled
cracks maybe sealed

Severity Level of Crocodile Crack

High Severity
pieces more severely spalled at edges
and loosened
pieces rocks under traffic; pumping
may exist

Measrument to be taken in assest the crack:

area affected
predominant crack width
predominant cell width

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BLOCK CRACKS
also known as Ladder Cracks

Blocks cracks are :

interconnected cracks forming a series of blocks, approximately rectangular
in shapes. Blocks sizes are usually greater than 300mm and can exceed
3000mm
No

Possible Causes

Probable Treatments

Joints in underlying layer

Crushed aggregate overlay

Shrinkage and fatigue of

underlying cemented materials

Replace underlying cemented

materials

Shrinkage cracks (due to

bitumen hardening) in
bituminous surfacing

Seal cracks or replace bituminous

surface

Fatigue cracks in embrittled

bituminous wearing course

Cut and patch or crushed

aggregate overlay

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Severity Level of Block Cracks

Low Severity
blocks defined by unspalled cracks with
- mean width of 3mm or less
- cracks with sealant in good condition

Moderate Severity
Cracks with a mean width greater
than 3 mm

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Severity Level of Block Cracks

High Severity
Severely spalled cracks

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LONGITUDINAL CRACKS
also known as Line Cracks

Longitudinal cracks are:

- cracks which are usually straight and parallel to the centre line
- situated at or near the middle of the lane
- can happen singly or as series
No

Possible Causes

Probable Treatments

Reflection of shrinkage cracks

Cut and patch

Poorly constructed paving lane in

bituminous surfacing

Replace bituminous
surfacing

Displacement of joints at pavement

widening

Reconstruction of joints

Differential settlement between cut

and fill

reconstruction

Reflection of joints in the underlying Crushed aggregate overlay

base
or reconstruction of joints
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Severity Level of Longitudinal Cracks

Low Severity
- Single cracks without any spalling
- Mean unsealed carcks width of 3mm
or less

Moderate Severity
Cracks width of greater than 3 mm

Severity Level of Longitudinal Cracks

High Severity
- Multiple spalled cracks

Measrument to be taken in assest the crack:

area affected
length of dominant cracks
width of dominant cracks
spacing

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TRANSVERSE CRACKS

Transverse cracks are unconnected cracks running transversely

(perpendicularly to pavement centre line) across the pavement.
No

Possible Causes

Probable Treatments

Reflection of shrinkage cracks

Cut and patch

Construction joint in bituminous

surfacing

Crack sealant

Structural failure of cement

concrete base

Reconstruction of base

Shrinkage crack in bituminous

surfacing

Seal cracks or replace

bituminous surfacing

Reflection of joints in the

underlying base

Crushed aggregate overlay or

reconstrution of joints

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Severity Level of Transverse Cracks

Low Severity
- cracks width less than 3 mm without
any spalling

ModerateSeverity
- cracks width is more than 3 mm

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Severity Level of Transverse Cracks

High Severity
- high severity with spalling

Measrument to be taken in assest the crack:

area affected
spacing
length
predominant crack width
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EDGE CRACKS

Edge cracks are Crescent shaped or fairly continuous cracks, parallel to,
and usually within 300mm to 600mm of the pavement edge.
It usually occurs when paved shoulders do not exist.
No

Possible Causes

Probable Treatments

Excessive traffic loading at

pavement edge

Widen the pavement or

strengthen the pavement edge

Poor drainage at pavement

edge and shoulder

Improve drainage and shoulder

Inadequate pavement width

which forces traffic too close
to pavement edge

Widen the pavement

Insufficient bearing support

reconstruction

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Severity Level of Edge Cracks

Low Severity
- no breakup or ravelling

ModerateSeverity
- with some breakup or ravelling

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Severity Level of Edge Cracks

High Severity
- with considerable breakup or
ravelling along edge

Measrument to be taken in assest the crack:

area affected
length
predominant crack width

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CRESCENT SHAPED CRACKS

or Parabolic, Slippage, Shear Crack

Crescent Shaped Cracks are commonly associated with shoving, often occur
in closely spaced parallel group.
It is mainly associated with bituminous layer only
No

Possible Causes

Treatment Treatments

Lack of bond between wearing

course and the underlying layers

Cut and patch

Low modulus base course

Reconstruction of base

Thin wearing course

Bituminous overlay

Drangging of paver during laying

when bituminous mix temperature
were low

Cut and patch

High stresses due to braking and

acceleration movements

Bituminous overlay with stiffer

mix or use high compaction
mix

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Severity Level of Crescent Shaped Cracks

Low Severity
- no breakup or shoving

Moderate Severity
- with some breakup or shoving

22

Severity Level of Crescent Shaped Cracks

High Severity
- with considerable breakup and
shoving

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2. SURFACE DEFORMATIONS

Deformation is :
- happen when a road surface undergoes changes from its original
constructed profile
- occur after construction due to trafficking or environmental influences
- influence the riding quality of the pavement
- may reflect structural inadequancies
- may lead to cracking of surface layer
Major types of Surface Deformation are:
I.Rutting
II.Corrugation
III.Depression
IV.Shoving

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2. SURFACE DEFORMATIONS

The major types of Surface Deformation:

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RUTTING
also known as Logitudinal Rut

Rutting is longitudinal deformation or depression in the wheel paths which

occur after repeated application of axle loading.
May occur in one or both wheel paths of a lane.
The length to width ratio would normally be greater than 4 to 1.
No Possible Causes

Probable Treatments

Inadequate pavement thickness

Strengthening overlay or reconstruction

Inadequate compaction of
structural layers

reconstruction

Unstable bituminous mixes

Replace or recycle bituminous surfacing

or use stiffer mix

Unstable shoulder materials

which do not provide adequate
lateral support

Shoulder improvement and overlay

rutted area with bituminous surfacing

Overstressed subgrade which

deform permenantly

reconstruction

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Severity Level of Rutting

Low Severity
Rut depths of less than 12mm
(measured under a transverse 1.2m
straight edge)

Moderate Severity
Rut depths of between 12 mm to
25 mm
May include slight longitudinal cracks

27

Severity Level of Rutting

High Severity
Rut depths of greater than 25mm
May include multiple longitudinal or
crocodile cracks

Measurements to be taken in the assessment:

maximum depth under a transverse 1.2 m straight edge
length

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CORRUGATIONS
also knows as Rippling

-Are regular transverse undulation, closely spaced alternate valleys and crests
with wavelengths of less than 2 m
- Will result in a rough ride and will become worse with time
No

Possible Causes

Probable Treatments

Inadequate stability of bituminous

surface

Replace bituminous surface

Compaction of base in wave form

Base reconstruction

Faulty paver behavior with some

mixes

Replace the faulty mixes and correct

the faulty paver behavior

Heavy traffic on steep downgrade

or upgrade

Mill of corrugated surface and

replace with stiffer mix

Stopping at intersection stop lights

or roundabout

Mill off corrugated surface and

replace with stiffer mix
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Severity Levels of Corrugation

Low Severity
-Noticeable (based on observation of its
appearance and its effect on riding quality)

Moderate Severity
- Cause rough ride

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Severity Levels of Corrugation

High Severity
- Very rough ride.
Vehicle may loose control because
of its presence)

Measurements to be taken:
Maximum depth under 1.2m straight edge
Crest to crest spacing
Length of pavement affected

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DEPRESSIONS
also known as Distortions

Depressions are localized area within a pavement with elevations lower than
the surrounding area.
It results from : Settlement, Slope Failure, Volume Change due to
moisture changes
No

Possible Causes

Probable Treatments

Differential settlement of
subgrade or base materials

Subgrade or base reconstruct

Settlement of service and/or

widening trenches

Reconstruction of services and/or

widening trenches

Volume change of subgrade

due to environmental influences

Improve sub-soil drainage and

reconstruct

Settlement due to instability of

embankment

Embankment stabilization
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Severity Levels of Depressions

Low Severity
- Noticeable swaying motion
- vehicle is still in good control condition

Moderate Severity
- fair control of vehicle when driving over
pavement

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Severity Levels of Depressions

High Severity
- poor control of vehicles when driving
over pavement
- driver always having to anticipate
depression ahead

Measurements to be taken:
maximum depth under 1.2m straight edge
area of depression

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SHOVINGS
Shoving is :
the bulging of the road surface (generally parallel to the direction of traffic,
and/or horizontal displacement of surfacing material)
mainly in the direction of traffic where braking or acceleration movements occur
caused by traffic pushing against the pavement
No

Possible Causes

Probable Treatments

Low stability mix

Mill off and replace the bituminous

surfacing

Lack of bond between asphalt

surface and underlying layer
which may be caused by
excessive tack coating

Replace bituminous surfacing with

lower binder content mix

Unstable granular base reflecting Base reconstruction

through the surface

Stop and start of vehicles at

intersections or roundabout

Mill off and replace with stiffer mix35

Severity Levels of Shoving

Low Severity
- Noticeable swaying motion
- effect on riding quality

Moderate Severity
- resulting in rough ride

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Severity Levels of Shoving

High Severity
- resulting in very rough ride
- vehicle may loose control
because of its presence

Measurements to be taken:
maximum depth of bulge under 1.2m straight edge
from high point
area affected

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3. SURFACE DEFECTS
Surface defects cover loss of surfacing materials, micro and macro textures
Influenced on: the serviceability and safety of pavement (skid resistance,
Maneuverability and riding quality)
The main types of Surface Defects are:
I. Bleeding
II. Ravelling
III. Polishing
IV. Delamination

38

SURFACE DEFECTS

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BLEEDING
also known as Flushing, Fating, Slick, Black Spot

Bleeding is the presence of free bitumen binder on the surface, most likely
to occur in the wheel paths during hot weather.
Result from : Upward migration of the binder
Effect: cause low texture depth, inadequate tire to stone contact
No

Possible Causes

Probable Treatments

Excessive application of binder

with respect to the stone size.

Apply hot sand to blot up the

excess ninder

Paving over flushed surfaces.

Apply hot sand or aggregate seal

coat

Paving over excessively primed

surfaces

Apply hot sand

40

Severity Levels of Bleeding

Low Severity
-visible colouring of pavement surface

Moderate Severity
- distinctive appearance with excess bitumen
already free

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Severity Levels of Bleeding

High Severity
-Gives the pavement a wet look
-Tire marks are evident

Measurements to be taken:
Area affected
Percentage by area of stone immersed

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RAVELLING
also known as Fretting

Ravelling is the progressive disintegration of the pavement surface by loss

of binder or aggregates or both
No

Possible Causes

Probable Treatments

Insufficient bitumen content

Thin bituminous overlay

Poor adhesion of bitumen binder to

aggregate particles due to wet
aggregate

Thin bituminous overlay

Inadequate compaction or
construction during wet weather

Thin bituminous overlay

Deterioration of binder and/or

aggregates

Thin bituminous overlay

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Severity Levels of Raveling

Low Severity
- Wearing away of the aggregates has not
progressed significantly

Moderate Severity
- Aggregate/binder has worn away
- The surface texture is becoming rough
and pitted
- Loose particles generally exist

44

Severity Levels of Raveling

High Severity
- The surface texture is very rough
and pitted

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POLISHING
Polishing is the smoothing and rounding of the upper surface of the roadstones,
exposing coarse aggregates which are glossy in appearance and smooth to touch.
Usually occurs in the wheel paths.
No

Possible Causes

Probable Treatments

Inadequate resistance to polishing

of aggregates surface

Thin bituminous overlay or use

stiffer mix

Use of naturally smooth uncrushed Thin bituminous overlay

aggregates

46

Severity Levels of Polishing

Low Severity
- smoothening and rounding of upper surface
of the roadstone has started

Moderate Severity
- coarse aggregates exposed

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Severity Levels of Polishing

High Severity
- smoothening and rounding of the
roadstone has progressed significantly

48

DELAMINATION
Also known as Peeling, Surface Lifting, Seal Break, Flaking

Delamination is the loss of a discrete and large area of wearing course.

Clear delineation of the wearing course and the layer below
No

Possible Causes

Probable Treatments

Inadequate cleaning or inadequate

tack coat before placement of upper
layers

Mill off and re-lay upper layers

Seepage of water

Replace wearing course or thin

bituminous overlay

Weak, loose layer immediately

underlying seal

Reconstruction of weak layers

Adhesion of surface binder to

vehicle tyres

Thin bituminous overlay

49

Severity Levels of Delamination

Low Severity
- peeling of the top surface has started

Moderate Severity
- surface area peeled off between
0.1m2 to 2.5m2
- severe crocodiles cracks in and around
the peeled off area.

50

Severity Levels of Delamination

High Severity
- a group of more than 2 moderate
delaminations along a short stretch of road

Measurements to be taken:
thickness of layer peeled off
area of individuall delaminations
number of delaminations

51

4. PATCH AND POTHOLES

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PATCH
Patch is a repaired section of pavement where a portion of the pavement surface
has been removed and replaced.
Effect: Caused further defects, where it raised or depressed below the level
of the pavement surface
Low Severity
- patch is in good condition
- has low severity distress

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PATCH
Moderate Severity
- patch has moderate severity distress

High Severity
- patch has high severity distress

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POTHOLES

Potholes is bowl shaped cavity in the pavement surface, produced when traffic
breaches small pieces of pavement surface and allow water entry.
Cause by : the loss of wearing course and binder course materials
the weakening of the base course or poor surfacing quality
Severity levels of Potholes:
AREA (square metre)
Depth (mm)

< 0.1

0.1 - 0.3

> 0.3

< 25

Low

Low

Moderate

25 - 50

Moderate

Moderate

High

> 50

Moderate

High

High

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POTHOLES
Low Severity
- area < 0.3m2 and depth < 25mm

Moderate Severity
- area < 0.3m2 with depth 25 mm to 50 mm

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High Severity
- area > 0.1 m2 with depth > 50 mm

No

Possible Cause

Probable Treatments

Loss of surface course

patching

Moisture entry to base course

through a cracked pavement
surface

Cut and patch

Load associated disintegration of

base

Base reconstruction
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5. EDGE DEFECTS
Edge Defects occur along the interface of flexible pavement and the shoulder,
where the shoulder is unsealed
The Effect of edge defects:
reduction of pavement width
loss of quality of ride, possible loss of vehicle control
entry of water into base
leading to erosion of shoulder

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5. EDGE DEFECTS

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EDGE BREAKS

Edge break occur when the edge of the bituminous surface are fretted or
broken
No

Possible Causes

Probable Treatments

Inadequate pavement width

Widen the pavement

Alignment which encourage

drivers to travel on pavement
edge

Pavement widening and

realignment

Inadequate edge support

Shoulder strengthening

Edge drop-off

Strengthening and leveling of

shoulder with road surface

Loss of adhesion to base

Cut and patch

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Severity Levels of Edge Break

Low Severity
- edge break has just started

Moderate Severity
- edge break with considerable breakup

61

Severity Levels of Edge Break

High Severity
- significant length of edge break and
surfacing loss

62

EDGE DROP-OFFS
Edge drop-off is the difference elevation between the traffic lane and
outside shoulder
Usually occur when the outside shoulder settles or erodes
It is not a defect if the drop-off is less than 25 mm
No Possible Causes

Probable Treatments

Inadequate pavement width

Widen the pavement

Shoulder material with inadequate Replace shoulder material and

resistance to erosion and
reconstruct
abrasion

Resurfacing of pavement without

resurfacing the shoulder

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Leveling the shoulder with road

surface

63

Severity Levels of Edge Drop-Off

Low Severity
- slight drop-off

Moderate Severity
- significant drop-off

64

Severity Levels of Edge Drop-Off

High Severity
- height of drop > 100 mm and it is
danger to traffic

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