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Composite materials or composites are materials made from two or more constituent
materials having significantly different physical or chemical properties, that when combined,
produce a material with characteristics different from the individual components. The
individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new
material may be stronger, lighter or less expensive when compared to traditional material. It
is man made.
The two distinct phases of composite materials are.
Reinforcement phase (e.g., Fibres)
Binder phase (e.g., compliant matrix)
Interface is the distinct region that separates the reinforcements and the matrix. It plays
significant role in controlling the properties of the composites. Sometimes it can give
synergistic properties to the composites.
If the composite contains one type or kind of reinforcement it is called as mono-composite
and if it contains more than one type or kind of reinforcements it is called hybrid
composite.
Examples of naturally occurring composites
Wood: Cellulose Fibres bound by lignin matrix
Bone: Stiff mineral Fibres in a soft organic matrix permeated with holes filled with
liquids. Collagen fiber in apatite matrix
Granite: Granular composite of quartz, feldspar, and mica
Classification:
Based on Matrix
Polymeric Matrix Composites [PMCs]
Metal Matrix Composites [MMCs]
Ceramic Matrix Composites [CMCs]
Carbon matrix composites commonly referred to
composites(CCCs).
as carbon-carbon
Unidirectional
Continuous
Bidirectional
Single Layer
Composite
Random
Discontinuous
Fibre Reinforced
Preferred
Multi layer
Cmposite
Particle
Reinforced
Random
Preferred
with fiber length. Fibers are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although
they have very good tensile properties. These fibers must be supported to keep individual fibers
from bending and buckling.
a) Fiber
b) Matrix
c) Fillers
d) Coupling agents
e) Coatings
Fibre:
Fibers are circular of nearly circular and have structural orientation in the longitudinal
direction. Fibers are most popular and demanded reinforcements in the advanced composites
because of their high strength and flexibility in handling. The synthetic fibers normally have
few micrometers in diameters, have preferred orientation and shape and have smaller
diameter and length compared to fibers.
The high strength comes due to the direct effect of size effects. Smaller the diameter, lower
the probability of having the imperfections or defects in the material. Besides, the orientation
of the bond in the longitudinal direction makes them stronger and stiffer. During application,
the high aspect ratio (length/diameter, l/d) allows very large fraction of the applied load to be
transferred via matrix to the stiff and stronger fiber
The high modulus associated with the high flexibility helps in shaping of components.
The flexibility of fiber increases with the decrease in the diameter of the fiber
However, the cost of the fiber increases with the decrease in the diameter of the fiber.
Different methods available for spinning of the fibers are wet spinning, Dry spinning,
melt spinning and dry jet wet spinning.
Role of fibre:
In a composite material, the fibre material serves the following functions:
Commercially available Fibres are of various types such as glass, carbon and kevlar
49.
Matrix
A large melting temperature difference may result in matrix creep while the
reinforcements remain elastic, even at temperatures approaching the matrix melting
point. However, creep in both the matrix and reinforcement must be considered when
there is a small melting point difference in the composite.
The matrix must have a mechanical strength commensurate with that of the
reinforcement i.e. both should be compatible. Thus, if a high strength fibre is used as
the reinforcement, there is no point using a low strength matrix, which will not
transmit stresses efficiently to the reinforcement.
The matrix must stand up to the service conditions, viz., temperature, humidity,
exposure to ultra-violet environment, exposure to chemical atmosphere, abrasion by
dust particles, etc.
Smoke requirements.
Life expectancy.
Distributes the loads evenly between fibers so that all fibers are subjected to the same
amount of strain.
Helps to avoid propagation of crack growth through the fibers by providing alternate
failure path along the interface between the fibers and the matrix.
Low shrinkage.
Good flow characteristics so that it penetrates the fiber bundles completely and
eliminates voids during the compacting/curing process.
These are applied on the fiber to improve their wetting with matrix
Coupling agent used with glass fiber is silanes (Organo functional silicon compound)
FIller
To reduce cost
Dimensional Stability
Increase modulus
Among the many factors that govern the characteristics of composites involving a
fibrous material, such as carbon, glass, or ceramic, and a macromolecular matrix, it is
certain that the adhesion between fiber and matrix plays a predominant part.
The stress transfer at the interface requires an efficient coupling between fiber and
matrix. It is important to optimize the interfacial bonding since a direct linkage
between fiber and matrix gives rise to a rigid, low impact resistance material.
Lamina or Ply incorporation of fiber into a thin layer of matrix [ 0.1 1 mm thick]
Thus a lamina (laminae) is any arrangement of unidirectional or woven Fibres in a
matrix. Usually this arrangement is flat, although it may be curved, as in a shell.
Laminate obtained by stacking a number of thin layer of Fibres and matrix (Ply) for
desired thickness.
Thus a laminate is a stack of lamina arranged with their main reinforcement in
at least two different directions.
Prepeg
SMC
Spectra -
Aniosotropic in nature
AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATION
Because of its Lighter, stronger, wear resistance, rustfree, aesthetics characteristics
composites is widely used in automotive industries for
Car body, Brake pads, Drive shafts, Fuel tanks, Hoods, Spoilers and especially EGlass Fiber is used to Replace Leaf Spring
SPORTING GOODS [ Better damping and to store elastic energy]
Because of its Lighter, stronger, toughness, better aesthetics, higher damping properties
characteristics composites is widely used as sporting goods for Tennis, Bicycles, Badminton,
Boats, Hockey, Golfing, Motorcycles. For example, in tennis racket Carbon or Boron fiber
reinforced epoxies as Skin material and Urethane foam as core material leads to weight
reduction as well as greater stiffness.
MARINE APPLICATION
Boat hull, deck, bulk head ,frames etc
MEDICAL APPLICATION
Total Hip replacement- It is the most common artificial joint in humans.
Metal is the most popular material for Hip replacement but has stress shielding
problem. Proposed composites as an alternate for Hip replacement
Polyether-imide reinforced with glass and carbon Fibres.
Polysulfone reinforced with carbon Fibres
Advantages
Limitations of Composites:
Like all things in nature, composites materials have their limitations as well. Some of the
important ones are:
Anisotropy: A large number of composites have direction dependent material
properties. This makes them more difficult to understand and analyse.
Nonhomogenous: Further, these materials by definition are not homogenous. Hence
their material properties vary from pointtopoint. This factor as well makes them
difficult to model, and analyze.
Costly: Composite materials are in general expensive. Thus, they are used only in
applications where their benefits outweigh their costs.
Difficult to fabricate: Further, fabricating structures from such materials is difficult,
time taking, and expensive.
Sensitivity to temperature: Laminated composites are particularly sensitive to
temperature changes. They come in with residual thermal stresses, because they get
fabricated at high temperatures, and then cooled. Such a process locks in thermal
stresses into the structure.
Moisture effects: Laminated composites are also sensitive to moisture, and their
performance varies significantly when exposed to moisture for long periods of time
Composites are more brittle than wrought metals and thus are more easily damaged.
Transverse properties may be weak.
Matrix is weak, therefore, low toughness.
Reuse and disposal may be difficult.
Difficult to attach.
Repair introduces new problems, for the following reasons:
o Materials require refrigerated transport and storage and have limited shelf life.
o Hot curing is necessary in many cases requiring special tooling.
o Hot or cold curing takes time.
Types of Fibre
Glass Fibre
Carbon Fibre
Graphite Fibre
Aramid Fibre
Boron Fibre
Ceramic Fibre
GLASS FIBRE:
Glass Fibre are most commonly used Fibres. They come in two forms:
Continuous Fibres
Discontinuous or staple Fibres
Chemically, glass is sillicon dioxide (SiO2).
Types of Glass Fibre:
E-Glass E stands for electrical
The types of glass fiber most commonly used are mainly E-glass (alumino-borosilicate glass with
less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, mainly used for glass-reinforced plastics, FRP), A-glass (alkali-lime
glass with little or no boron oxide), E-CR-glass (alumino-lime silicate with less than 1% w/w alkali
oxides, has high acid resistance), C-glass (alkali-lime glass with high boron oxide content, used for
example for glass staple fibers), D-glass (borosilicate glass with low dielectric constant), R-glass
(alumino silicate glass without MgO and CaO with high mechanical requirements), and S-glass
(alumino silicate glass without CaO but with high MgO content with high tensile strength.
Glass Fibres used for structural applications are EGlass, and SGlass. Eglass is produced
in much larger volumes than Sglass. It is commonly suitable for polymer matrix.
Principal advantages:
Low Cost
High tensile strength
High chemical resistance
Excellent insulating property
Disadvantages
Low Modulus
High specific gravity (relatively)
Sensitive to abrasion( due to handling)
Low fatigue resistance and high hardness leads to wear
Poor adhesion to specific polymer matrix materials
Poor adhesion in humid environments
Glass Fibres are coated with chemicals to enhance their adhesion properties. These
chemicals are known as coupling agents.
Many of coupling agents are silane compounds
Raw materials (sand, limestone, alumina) are mixed and melted in a furnace at
approximately 1260 C. Molten glass then Either flows directly into a fiberdrawing
facility. This process is known as directmelt process. Most of fiber glass in the
world is produced this way or gets formed into marbles. These marbles are later fused,
and drawn into fibers. For producing continuous fibers, the molten glass is extruded to
the bushing to be formed into fiber. In the direct melt process, the molten glass in the
furnace goes directly to the bushing for formation. The bushing plate is the most
important part of the machinery for making the fiber. This is a small metal furnace
containing nozzles for the fiber to be formed through. It is almost always made of platinum
alloyed with rhodium for durability. Platinum is used because the glass melt has a natural
affinity for wetting it.
When bushings were first used they were 100% platinum, and the glass wetted the
bushing so easily that it ran under the plate after exiting the nozzle and accumulated
on the underside. Also, due to its cost and the tendency to wear, the platinum was
alloyed with rhodium. In the direct melt process, the bushing serves as a collector for
the molten glass.
It is heated slightly to keep the glass at the correct temperature for fiber formation. In
the marble melt process, the bushing acts more like a furnace as it melts more of the
material. Bushings are the major expense in fiber glass production. The nozzle design is also
critical. The number of nozzles ranges from 200 to 4000 in multiples of 200. The important
part of the nozzle in continuous filament manufacture is the thickness of its walls in the exit
region. It was found that inserting a counter bore here reduced wetting.
Today, the nozzles are designed to have a minimum thickness at the exit. As glass
flows through the nozzle, it forms a drop which is suspended from the end.
As it falls, it leaves a thread attached by the meniscus to the nozzle as long as the
viscosity is in the correct range for fiber formation. The smaller the annular ring of the
nozzle and the thinner the wall at exit, the faster the drop will form and fall away, and
the lower its tendency to wet the vertical part of the nozzle. The surface tension of the
glass is what influences the formation of the meniscus. For E-glass it should be
around 400 mN/m.
The attenuation (drawing) speed is important in the nozzle design. Although slowing
this speed down can make coarser fiber, it is uneconomic to run at speeds for which
the nozzles were not designed.
In the continuous filament process, after the fiber is drawn, a size is applied.
This size helps protect the fiber as it is wound onto a bobbin. The particular size
applied relates to end-use.
While some sizes are processing aids, others make the fiber have an affinity for a
certain resin, if the fiber is to be used in a composite.
Size is usually added at 0.52.0% by weight. Winding then takes place at around 1000
m/min.
For staple fiber production, there are a number of ways to manufacture the fiber.
The glass can be blown or blasted with heat or steam after exiting the formation
machine.
Usually these fibers are made into some sort of mat. The most common process used
is the rotary process. Here, the glass enters a rotating spinner, and due to centrifugal
force is thrown out horizontally.
The air jets push it down vertically, and binder is applied. Then the mat is vacuumed
to a screen and the binder is cured in the oven.
These fibers are quenched through a light spray of water. Subsequently, fibers are
coated with protective and lubricating agents.
CARBON FIBRE:
Advantages
Low cost
Disadvantages
Kevlar fibre:
Principle Constituents of Kevlar Fibre are C, H2, O2 & Nitrogen
Advantages:
Low Density
Low Cost
Disadvantages
Kevlar 29
Kevlar 49
The Specific Stiffness of Kevlar 49 is high when compared with Kevlar 29.Kevlar 29
is used in bullet proof vests, ropes and cables. Kevlar 49 is used in Aircraft Industry
Characteristics of Kevlar Fibre
Though tensile stress strain curve is linear fiber fracture is preceded by fragmentation,
splintering and even localized drawing.
In bending Kevlar 49 fiber exhibit yielding on compression side. This noncatastrophic failure leads to damage tolerance against impact or dynamic loading.
Prolong direct exposure to sunlight causes to dis- coloration and loss in tensile
strength ( problem is less in laminates)
BORON FIBRE:
Resistance to buckling
Manufacturing
CERAMIC FIBRE:
Silicon carbide and aluminum oxide fibers are examples of ceramic fibers
Finished Structure
Prepregs
Prepegs
Prepregs are thin sheets of fibers impregnated with predetermined amounts of
uniformly distributed polymeric matrix
Qualities of prepeg:
Manufacturing of prepeg
This method is frequently used to fabricate boats, ducts, pools, furniture, shells and sheets
(corrugated or flat).
This method essentially requires a flat surface (for making sheets), or a mold and cavity for
providing shape to the final product. The molding tool may be made from metals, plastics,
wood, or some other appropriate material.
The first stage in the in the cure cycle consists of increasing the temperature up to
0
130 C.
During this temperature dwell, an external pressure is applied on the prepreg stack.
The cure temperature and pressure are maintained for 2 hour or more.
The flow of excess resin from the prepreg is extremely important in reducing the void
content in the cured laminate.
Lay-up thickness
Heating rate.
It is mostly used for transforming sheet molding compounds (SMC) into finish products.
Complex shapes or parts can be fabricated at a faster rate using this process
The top half of the mold is lowered at a constant rate until the pressure on the charge
increases to a pressure level.
Increasing the pressure, the SMC material in the mold starts to flow and fill the cavity.
After a reasonable degree of cure is achieved under pressure, the mold is opened and the
part is removed.
During molding, a complex heat transfer and phenomenon takes place in the cavity.
PUltrusion
Pultrusion is a continuous molding process for producing long, straight structural members
of constant cross section.
Pultruded Products are solid rods, hollow tubes, flat sheets, and various types of beams,
including angles, channels, hat-sectioned and wide-flanged beams.
The total fiber content in a pultruded member may be as high as 70% by weight.
Continuous strand rovings and mats are pulled from one end of the line into a resin path.
Resin path contains liquid resin, curing agent, and other ingredients.
Thermoplastic polyester surfacing veil are added to improve the surface finish
The fiber resin stream is then pulled through a series of preformer where fiber bundle are
evenly distributed through mechanical means. The preformer brings the fiber bundles into
the final form
The stream then enters on to a long pre-heated die. Final shaping and curing takes place in
the die
Once the stream leaves the die, it is cooled and cut into desired length.
The ratio of continuous strand rovings to mats or woven rovings determines its mechanical
properties.
Die temperature, Die length, and pulling speed are controlled to allow the resin to cure
completely.
The most important factor controlling the mechanical performance of a pultruded member
is the fiber wet-out.
FILAMENT WINDING:
Filament winding is a very popular g y p p method to produce composite parts which are axi
symmetric. Composite pipes, tubes, tanks, cylinders, domes, spheres are fabricated using filament
winding technique.
In a filament winding , a band of continuous resin-impregnated rovings is wrapped around a
rotating foam mandrel and cured to produce axisymmetric hollow parts
Care is taken, that there is sufficient tension in fiber so that the winding remains taut
on the mandrel.
Also used to manufacture prepreg sheets
Non-silicone wax release agent, Chem trend mold release wax, and Frekote were used for
easy removal of foam mandrel
The two components of liquid foam were mixed together and the mixture was then poured
into the mold container through the pour hole
The mandrel is grooved using the winding machine as a lathe. The grooves are cut at 00 and
600 to a certain depth depending on the size of the desired ribs.
Once the grooves are machined it is filled with prepreg tapes using the same winding
machine in a 600 fashion
After grooves are filled, the skin of the cylinder is wound at 00 orientation
Then the whole setup is vacuum bagged with Teflon, bleeder cloth and finally the bagging
film
The setup is then kept inside an autoclave for curing. The temperature was maintained at a
constant value (350o F) for 6 hours to achieve complete cure
Applications: automotive drive shaft, helicopter blades, oxygen tanks, pressure vessels,
conical rocket motor cases
Filament winding process has specific advantages and limitations. These are listed below.
Advantages
High strength products are produced due to fine and continual control of fiber angle.
Limitations
Complex shapes, particularly parts with twodirectional curvatures are difficult to produce.
Metal matrix composites require embedding of reinforcing fibers into a metallic matrix. This
requires either melting the matrix material, or hot pressing matrix into fibers. In either case,
high temperature are required to produce these specialty composites.
Further, metal matrix composites are frequently used at elevated temperatures. Under
those conditions the specific matrixfiber combinations may react leading to reduction of
materials performance. Thus, appropriate methods have been devised to manage such
concerns.
For nonreactive fibermatrix systems, molten matrix material is simply poured to impregnate the
fibers.
However, in case of reactive fibermatrix systems, fibers are individually coated with matrix
material, by drawing them rapidly through molten metal, such that there is very little time for fiber
matrix reactions to occur. These coated fibers are subsequently hotpressed to form composite
components.
In other cases, fibers are precoated with a nonreactive material, and only them immersed in the
matrix material bath. For instance, nickel is used to coat graphite fibers, before the fibers are
immersed in aluminum matrix.
In another method, matrix material is alloyed with substances that reduce the matrix melting
point, and thus composites processing temperature. Reduction in processing temperature
significantly reduces rate of reactionbetween fiber and matrix. For instance, addition of 12% silicon
to aluminum, reduces its melting point from 660C to 580C.
Plasma spraying is one more method used to minimize reactions between fibers and matrix. Here,
fibers, supported on a be s a d at e e, be s, suppo ted o thin foil, are exposed to spray of matrix
material. Such a process produces a think tape of metalmatrix composite. This tape is porous, easy
to deform, and amenable to hotpressing for production of final product. In this method, metal spray
cools very rapidly, thereby reducing the time for fibermatrix reactions to occur.
In still other cases, solid matrix, in sheet or powder form, is hot pressed onto fibers. Such an
approach works only for fibers with large diameters (e.g. boron). The process requires tight control
of temperature and pressure to ensure minimal mechanical damage and chemical interaction. Such
a process is used to produce tapes, which have matrix sheets on either side of fibers. These tapes
may be subsequently used to produce final components.
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is another method, through which metal matrix composites are
produced.