The Role of Vocational and Technical Education

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PURDUE UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE SCHOOL
Thesis Acceptance
This is to certify that the thesis prepared
By
Ramlee Bin Mustapha__________________________________________ __________
Entitled
The Role of Vocational and Technical Education in the Industrialization of
Malaysia as Perceived by Educators and Employers
Complies with University regulations and meets the standards of the Graduate School for originality
and quality
For the degree of
Doctor of philosophy
___________________________________
Signed by the final examining committee, chair
Approved by:
Date
This thesis 0
is not to be regarded as confidential.
jA.
.............
Major Professor
Format Approved by:
j _______________ .
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Cnair, Final Examining Committee
or
Thesis Format Adviser
THE ROLE OF VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION

IN THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF MALAYSIA
AS PERCEIVED BY EDUCATORS AND EMPLOYERS
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Faculty
of
Purdue University
By
Ramlee Bin Mustapha
In Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Philosophy
May 1999
UMI Number: 9952000
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DEDICATIONS
<1o my wife who introduced me to the wonder o f Love

To my parents who introducedme to the wonder of Life
Ho my teachers who introduced me to the wonder o f Knowledge
fin d ft6ovefl.il
Ho my Qodwho introduced me to the wonder o fExistence!
By:
Ramlee Bin Mustapha
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Foremost, I thank and praise Allah, God Almighty for giving me inner
strengths and patient to complete my doctoral program. Also, I would like to
offer my everlasting gratitude to my dissertation committee: Dr. James P.
Greenan, Dr. Donald Buskirk, Dr. Kathryne Newton, and Dr. Mary Pilat.
Professor Greenan has been a source of inspiration throughout my graduate
studies. He has helped enormously in making the presentation of my
dissertation more readable and in forcing me to clarify my ideas. Through his
probing questions and meticulous review of my thesis, several philosophical
and methodological issues were brought to light. My greatest appreciation is
also extended to the other three members of my committee, Dr. Donald
Buskirk, Dr. Kathryne Newton, and Dr. Mary Pilat, for their intellectual
contributions, insights, and valuable comments which helped shape the work
to its final form. They extended their hands when I was groping in the dark
until I could see the light at the end of a long tunnel.
I am particularly indebted to all educators, especially the principals
of vocational and technical schools and polytechnics, and employers who
participated in the study despite their tight and busy schedule. Without them,
this study will never progress beyond the proposal stage. I am also grateful
to a group of Malaysian educators who piloted the instrument. They attended
a 3-month short course at Purdue University during Fall Semester, 1997.
The officials at the Ministry of Education, Malaysian Industrial Development
Authority (MIDA), and Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia have been very
helpful in assisting me get through the bureaucracy. I am specially indebted

to Dr. Ahmad Sipon, Awang Ngah, Khairuddin, and Khalid Ayob for
providing me with the directory of vocational and technical educators.
My friends and colleagues have also played an important role in this
study. I am grateful to Abd. Halim, Abd. Rahim, Dr. Abd. Wahab, Dr. Abu
Bakar, Dr. Abdullah, Dr. Amir, Farid, Faridah, Fauzi, Halimah, Hamdan,
Dr. Hamirdin, Dr. Juriah, Dr. Rosli, Hamzah, Khalid, Mahzam Bee, Mohd Zin,
Nik Mat, Dr. Norazizah, Rahman, Ramesh, Haji Rashid, Ridhwan, Dr. Robiah,
Rozi, Ruhizan, Ruslan, Salleh, Sidek, Dr. Sobri, Dr. Subahan, Tajuddin, Wan
Mustaffa, Dr. Zaharah, Zubir, and Zul for their unwavering support and
encouragement.
My close friends and their wives, Md. Noh and Noraishah, Moh Salleh
and Kak Ros, Ali and Kak Zai, Haji Ali and Kak Gayah, Dr. Mokhtar and Norma,
Salim and Laila, Dr. Sharif and Iman, Dr. Farouk and Huda, Jumahadi and Nora,
Jamal and Jun, Yahya and Zurina, and Haniff and Nadia supported me during
moments of despair.
My sojourn would be impossible without the financial support and
grants from the following agencies: Malaysian Public Service Department,
Ministry of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, and Purdue
University. I thank them all. I am also indebted to my Head Department and
the Dean of the Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia for
their understanding and support in extending my study leave to the maximum
length.
My family has been very kind to me during the long gestation period
of the research. I wish to express my deepest gratitude and love to my family
for everything that they have given me: my parents Hajjah Hamidah and Haji
Mustapha; and my grandparents, Hajjah Hasnah and Haji Abd. Hamid who are
deeply caring, selflessly devoted, and quietly proud. My in-laws, Hajjah Esah
and Haji Abdullah (Haji Abdullah died before this dissertation could be completed May Allah shower mercy on him) who were ever supportive and nurturing.
And most of all my wife, Mastura, not only for her emotional support and
continuing love but also for her patience and sacrifice in taking care of our
six children when I was away in the United States while she and my children
in Malaysia. She took the heavy responsibility as both mother and father to
my children for 22 months. To her, I dedicated this dissertation.
My children: Muaz, Iffah, Husna, Syamila, Iqbal, and Ihsan, who
had emotionally suffered during my sojourn abroad, I hope I can reconnect
the emotional ties and bring back to a normal life. My other family members,
Fauziah, Kamal, Capt. Apollo, Ali, Sarah, Nizam, Dr. Abu, Suraya, Kak Ton,
Azmi, Yati, Latifah and Hisham, though I cannot name them all, who have
helped in one way or another, I express my heartfelt gratitude. With them,
I share the joy of this success.
Finally, I would like to thank my colleagues and friends at Purdue
University and 4-H program: Amit, Bonnie, Brandy, Charles, Chezari, Erik,
Jessica, Linda, Lisa, Mark, Michelle, Ming, Nita, Dr. Pam Morris, Pasha,
Dr. Pomery, Pauline, Steve, Sue, Sunny, Sandra, Tony, and Ursula, for their
wonderful friendship.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
List of T ables.........................................................................................viii
A bstract......................................................................................................... ix
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION..................................................................1
Nature of the Problem................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem............................................................. 7
Purpose and Objectives of the Study............................................9
Significance of the Study............................................................. 9
Delimitations of the Study...........................................................10
Assumptions of the Study........................................................... 11
Definitions of Terms..................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE................................... 15
Education for Work, Training, and Industrialization......................15
The Role of Vocational and Technical Education
and Training in Economic Development............................32
Public Perceptions of Vocational and Technical
Education and its Graduates.............................................38
Employer Perceptions of Vocational and Technical
Education and its Graduates.............................................42
Sum m ary............................................................................................ 48
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY............................................................... 50
R ationale........................................................................................... 50
Theoretical Framework..................................................................50
Research
D esign............................................................................ 54
vii
Page
Research Q uestions..........................................................................55
Population and Sample...................................................................56
Instrum entation...................................................................................58
Data C ollection................................................................................ 60
Data A nalysis................................................................................... 61
CHAPTER 4: FIN D IN G S.............................................................................. 64
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS..................................................... 102
CO N CLU SION S...............................................................................102
IM PLICA TIO NS.............................................................................. 106
RECOMM ENDATIONS.................................................................114
REFERENCES.............................................................................................. 120
APPENDICES
Appendix A. Malaysia: A Brief Introduction............................160
Appendix B. Vocational and Technical Education in Malaysia.......164
Appendix C. Industrial Development in Malaysia.......................173
Appendix D. Vocational and Technical Educator
Q uestionnaire............................................... 178
Appendix E.
Employer Questionnaire.........................................186
Appendix F-l Application for Permission to Conduct Research......194

Appendix F-2 Letter of Permission to Conduct Research...............199
Appendix F-3 Confirmation Letter............................................... 204
V ITA ............................................................................................................... 207
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1
Demographic Information for the Vocational and

Technical Educators.......................................................... 65
Table 2
Demographic Information for the Employers......................68
Table 3
Role of Vocational and Technical Education in

Economic Developm ent.................................................... 72
Table 4
Employability of Vocational and Technical

G raduates.............................................................................. 75
Table 5
Factors that Facilitate or Inhibit the Restructuring

of Vocational and Technical Programs.............................79
Table 6
Governments Effectiveness in Satisfying

Human Resource Development........................................82
Table 7
Factors that Contribute to Shortages of

Skilled W orkers................................................................. 84
Table 8
Governments Responsiveness to the Needs of

Vocational and Technical Education and Training.............. 86
Table 9
Governments Responsiveness to Business

and Industry........................................................................90
Table 10
Critical Factors in Planning the Improvement of

Vocational and Technical Education................................ 94
Table 11
Barriers to the Improvement of Vocational and

Technical Education.......................................................... 97
Table 12
Important Skills and Knowledge that Vocational

and Technical Graduates should Possess......................... 98
Table 13
Additional Problems and Issues related to

the Role of Vocational and Technical Education in
the Economic Development of Malaysia..........................100
ix
ABSTRACT
Mustapha, Ramlee B. Ph.D., Purdue University, May, 1999. The Role of

Vocational and Technical Education in the Industrialization of Malaysia as
Perceived by Educators and Employers. Major Professor: James P. Greenan.
The purpose of this study was to identify the perceptions of educators
and employers regarding the role of vocational and technical education in the
industrialization of Malaysia. The first population was all vocational and
technical educators (N=4,316) in public vocational and technical schools and
polytechnics in Peninsular Malaysia. A random sample of 300 educators was
selected. The second population was employers from large and medium-size
manufacturing companies in Klang Valley and Selangor. The sample consisted
of 120 employers. The Industrialization Needs Survey was developed to
identify the perceptions of educators and employers regarding the
industrialization of Malaysia. The internal consistency reliability of the
instrument was estimated to be Cronbachs Coefficient a =s 0.94. A total of
276 educator instruments and 53 employer instruments were returned which
yielded final response rates of 92 % and 44 %, respectively.
Several conclusions were drawn from the findings of the study:
(a) both educators and employers believed that vocational and technical
education has assumed a major role in the economic development of Malaysia
and that a substantial financial investment in vocational and technical education
and training was justified, (b) employers and educators were less certain
regarding the employability skills of vocational and technical graduates,
(c) educators and employers differed with regard to the factors that facilitated
or inhibited the restructuring of vocational and technical education; however,
both groups agreed that input from the private sector and technical exchanges
between vocational institutions and business/industry were mutually beneficial,
(d) educators and employers believed that the public sector did an inadequate job
in satisfying the human resource needs of the industrial sector, (e) both groups
were unclear regarding the factors that led to shortages of skilled workers, and
(f) educators and employers differed regarding the governments role in
satisfying the needs of vocational and technical education and the needs of
business and industry.
Based on the results and limitations, several recommendations were
offered: (a) the public and private sectors should maintain and expand
vocational and technical education and training, (b) a balanced curriculum that
integrates technical, employability, and generalizable skills should be adopted
in vocational and technical programs, (c) the Ministry of Education should
consider decentralizing the management of public vocational and technical
institutions and encourage the expansion of private vocational and technical
institutions, (d) the public sector should be more proactive rather than reactive
in responding to human resource needs, (e) the government should address the
issue of dissatisfaction among vocational and technical educators, and (f) policy
makers should introduce legislation related to new reform initiatives such as
school/business partnerships; school-to-work activities; and work force
development to sustain employer and private sector commitment to education,
training, and human resource development.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Nature of the Problem

Malaysia, long known to the ancient mariners as The Land Where
the Winds Meet, has attracted foreign traders since the dawn of time.
Seafaring Malays settled the coastal areas and traded with the early Arab,
Indian, and Chinese traders who sailed its shores with the monsoon winds
in search of gold, spices, and jungle exotica. Located at the crossroads of
two major sea routes, Malaysias history has been shaped by the force of
the annual monsoon winds (Moore, 1991). Malaysia was a British colony
until independence was granted to Peninsular Malaysia (then known as
Malaya) in 1957. Also, Malaysia is a multiracial society with three major
races - Malay, Chinese, and Indian (see Appendix A).
During the early 1990s, and prior to the recent currency crisis
in the Asian region, Malaysia was one of the fastest growing economies in
Southeast Asia. Traditionally an agrarian nation, Malaysia has experienced
a tremendous transformation in the last three decades - from primary
commodities producer to one of the largest exporters of selected manufactured
goods. With a vision of becoming a manufacturing leader on a global scale,
the government has committed itself to a systemic process of change
(Buskirk & Emhousen, 1996).
Manufacturing surpassed agriculture in the percentage of gross
domestic product (GDP) in 1987 and has been widening the margin ever
since (Buskirk & Emhousen, 1996). While manufacturing accounts for more
than 50 percent of Malaysias exports, it is the worlds largest exporter of

computer chips, air-conditioners, and latex gloves (Buskirk & Emhousen,
1996). The nation also manufactures its own automobile, the Proton, which
has captured 74 percent of the domestic market, and is exported to 18
countries including the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Australia
(Abdul Wahab, 1995; Mohd Salleh, 1995).
To sustain such robust economic transformation and development,
the government has emphasized education and human resource development
(Hock, 1994). In the Seventh Malaysia Plan (1996-2000), the government
allocated 15.4 percent of the total public funding as compared to 13 percent
in the Sixth Malaysia Plan (1991-1995) on Education and Training
(Economic Planning Unit, 1996). Education and skills training is accorded
high priority in order to provide a well-educated, skilled, and motivated work
force; and to produce responsible citizens with high moral and ethical values.
With the emerging industrialization, workplaces are also undergoing a
pervasive change. The change is in response to the changing technologies,
demographics, organizations, markets, and international competition (Ford,
1995; Rubenson & Schutze, 1995).
Formal vocational and technical education was introduced in Malaysia
(formerly Malaya) by the British in 1897 to train local youth as technicians
to work as train engineers (see Appendix B). As industrialization progresses,
the increasing demand for skilled and semi-skilled workers has pressured
the government to seek alternative ways to educate and train its youth
(Zakaria, 1988). In addition to traditional vocational and technical schools
and polytechnics, there is a variety of training options. These include public

and private skills training institutions, foreign government-sponsored
advanced technical training centers, youth training centers, out-of-school
apprenticeships, in-company training programs, industrial internships, and
other non-traditional types of training.
Historically, Malaysia has been an agriculture-based economy
(Abdul Rahman, 1994; Yan, 1994). Industrial development emerged during
the colonial period but it was limited to a few primary industries (Jomo,
1994a; Puthucheary, 1960; Wheelwright, 1963a, 1963b, 1965). Malaysias
industrialization began in the early 1980s, when an aggressive and ambitious
program occurred under the leadership of Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad.
Since assuming office in 1981, he has transformed Malaysia into one of
Asias most dynamic economies (Davies, 1997; Johnstone, 1997). He led
the nations quantum leap into the subsequent stage of economic development;
an economy based on capital-intensive high-technology industries (Johnstone,
1997). This initiated the establishment of the Heavy Industries Corporation
of Malaysia Limited (HICOM) in the early 1980s (Abdul Wahab, 1995;
Jomo, 1994a; Lim 1987). The intent of HICOM has been to diversify and
increase capital-intensive heavy industries in Malaysia such as steel, concrete,
petrochemical, and automotive industries (Jomo, Chung, Folk, Ul-Haque,
Phongpaichit, Simatupang, & Tateishi, 1997; Lall, 1995). The corporation
is also expected to venture into selected heavy industries which have the
potential to create indigenous technological capability (Mustapha, 1998).
The heavy industrialization agenda has not been without criticism.

Local and foreign critics have considered the project high risk and a
bound-to-fail investment. Their criticisms focus on financial burden, lack of
a strong industrial research and development (R & D) base to support such
industries, and the inability to compete in highly competitive international
markets (Colquhoun, 1987; Gomez, 1991; Jayasankaran, 1993; Jomo 1994a,
1994b; Lim, 1987,1994; Smith, 1987). However, several arguments have
supported the establishment of heavy industries, such as, the reduction of
technological dependency, promotion of self-sufficiency, upgrading of skilled
human resources, and catalyst for other related industries (Abdul Wahab, 1995;
Abul Hassan, 1995; Ali, 1992; Lim, 1987). The government has formulated
strategies to aggressively attract direct foreign investment (DFI) in Malaysia
in order to further strengthen its economic base, propel its development, and
diversify its export base so that it will not be overly dependent on commodities
such as rubber, tin, and palm oil (Zakaria, 1988). As a result, Malaysias
economy has achieved remarkable growth rates in real gross domestic product
(GDP), averaging 8.8 percent per annum over the past eight years (1988-1995).
The manufacturing sector has increased by an average of 14 percent from 1987
to 1995 (Ministry of International Trade and Industry, 1996). The Seventh
Malaysia Plan targets high output growth for the manufacturing sector at an
average annual rate of 10.7 percent, while the sectors share of GDP is
forecasted to increase from 33.1 percent in 1995 to 37.5 percent in 2000
(Economic Planning Unit, 1996).
The per capita income of Malaysians has risen significantly from

US$ 978 in 1970 to US$ 9,470 in 1995 (Economic Planning Unit, 1996).
Malaysias per capita GDP ranked among the highest in Southeast Asia,
exceeded only by Singapore and Brunei (Szarina, 1995; World Almanac,
1996). The major contributing factor is the role of the industrial and
service sectors in the economy regarding output and employment. To sustain
this growth, Malaysian industry will have to develop new modes of business
networking in order to create synergistic relationships with foreign markets
and companies. Malaysia has chosen a strategic shift in its next phase of
industrial development by deemphasizing industries which are laborintensive and producing low value-added products toward those which are
more capital, skill, and knowledge intensive; producing higher value-added
products and services (Ministry of International Trade and Industry, 1996).
The high economic growth of this period (1988-1995) was
accompanied by a structural transformation of the economy. This
transformation was consistent with the modernization and diversification
of the economy and the gradual shift from labor intensive to high-tech capital
intensive and technology-based activities (Economic Planning Unit, 1996).
Sustainable economic growth was necessary to achieve the nation's New
Economic Policy (1970-1990) and the New Development Policy (19912000) goals. Industrialization is expected to become more dominant in
Malaysias economic scenario in the coming decades. The nation's Vision
2020 and the series of Industrial Master Plans map the pathway for the
country's industrial development. The ultimate goal of the Vision is for

Malaysia to become a fully industrialized nation by the year 2020
(Mohamad, 1991).
Employment has expanded at an impressive rate because of strong
economic growth, especially in the manufacturing sector. With the rapid
growth, demand for labor has grown 9.0 percent per annum with total
employment at 2.1 million in 1995 (Economic Planning Unit, 1996).
Manufacturing is the largest sector in terms of new job creation in the
economy (Economic Planning Unit, 1996). The subsectors having high
rates of employment were electrical and electronic products, wood and
wood products, petroleum refineries, transport equipment, plastic products,
and fabricated metal products, with growth rates ranging from 10 to 23
percent per annum. Consequently, the unemployment rate has declined from
6.8 percent in 1985 to 2.8 percent in 1995 (Economic Planning Unit, 1996).
Adequate employment opportunity is a necessary, however,
insufficient condition of the human resources and industrialization policies
to achieve the objectives. Therefore, to sustain the growth and productivity
of the Malaysian economy in an era of rapid, global economic, and
technological changes, there is a critical need to continuously assess and
evaluate the role of vocational and technical education and training, a major
source of its work force.
Statement of the Problem

Malaysia is confronted with issues related to educational delivery
and insufficient numbers of graduates with technical degrees, knowledge,
and skills (Abdullah, 1996; Buskirk & Emhousen, 1996). According to the
First Malaysias Industrial Master Plan report (Lim, 1987; MIDA-UNIDO,
1986), the manufacturing sector employed approximately 12,000 engineers
and technicians or 2.4 percent of the labor force. With a population of 18
million, this is comparatively low compared to 6 - 8 percent in advanced
countries (Lim, 1987; Zakaria, 1988). Furthermore, the Ministry of Human
Resources had announced that Malaysia will need more than 300,000 skilled
workers to occupy various positions in the industrial sector by 2000 (Amin,
1992). Lim (1987) indicated that the low supply of engineers and technicians
has major implications for the Nation's industrialization program and claimed:
1.
the absorptive capability of Malaysias product

technology will remain low and consequently the
process of technological indigenization will be
slow, and
2.
the dependence on foreign expatriates for

technological support will continue.
Malaysia is also confronted with the challenge of producing an

adequate supply of skilled and high-tech workers for the expanding
industrial sector and, therefore, inhibits the nations progress towards a hightech capital intensive economy (Chew, Heng, Sugiyama, & Leong, 1993;
Davies, 1997; Edwards, 1994; Johnstone 1997). Rapid economic growth has
increased the demand for technicians and skilled workers resulting in higher
wages and increased competition for labor among Malaysian industries.
This has necessitated industries to make adjustments toward capital-intensive

and labor-saving operations. The transition, however, will greatly depend on
the absorptive capacity of the work force and the ability of the existing public
and private sectors to engage in skills training and upgrading (Malaysia
Industrial Digest, 1997).
Another problem is the increase in the number of graduates of
secondary vocational and technical schools and post-secondary training
institutions who are unable to obtain employment. In a study of Malaysian
vocational and technical graduates conducted by the Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia (1989), it was found that 24.8 percent of public vocational and
technical school graduates and 18.3 percent of polytechnic graduates were
unemployed. Most unemployed persons lacked the necessary interpersonal
skills and possessed negative attitudes toward work. As Lee (1986) noted,
although many jobs require occupationally-specific competencies, those
skills which emphasize problem-solving and affective skills are increasingly
important. Numerous studies have indicated that employers prefer
employees who possess positive attitudes, affective skills, and technical
competencies (Baxter & Young, 1982; Custer & Claiborne, 1995; Greenan,
1986,1989, 1994; Greenan, Wu, Mustapha, & Ncube, 1998; Junge, Daniels,
& Karmos, 1984; Kutscher, 1990; Lankard, 1994; Lee, 1986; Mobley, 1998).
Existing research and practice have clearly revealed the challenges
confronting the field of vocational and technical education and training in
preparing youth with the essential work attitudes and employability skills.
In the world of work, policy makers, educators, parents, and employers seem
perplexed about the direction for vocational and technical education and are
concerned about the challenges youth will face in the new millennium.
Therefore, there was a critical need to assess and examine the role of
vocational and technical education and training in the industrialization of
Malaysia.
Purpose and Objectives of the Study

The purpose of this study was to investigate the perceptions of
educators and employers regarding the role of vocational and technical
education in the industrial development of Malaysia. Specifically, the
objectives of the study included:
1.
To examine the perceptions of educators regarding

the role of vocational and technical education in
the industrialization of Malaysia.
2.
To examine the perceptions of employers regarding

the role of vocational and technical education in the
industrialization of Malaysia.
Significance of the Study

Empirical research concerning the role of vocational and technical
education and training in the industrial development of Malaysia is minimal.
In addition, few studies have been conducted from the perspectives of
vocational and technical educators and employers. Further, the perspectives
of educators related to the development and improvement of vocational and
10
technical education policies appear frequently not considered in the decision

making process (Greenan, Wu, Mustapha, & Ncube, 1998). Therefore, the
results from this study can contribute to the knowledge base of research with
respect to the linkages between vocational and technical education and
industrial development. Also, the results of this study can assist policy
makers, educators, and business/industry personnel to develop policy and
plan short and long-term strategies for training and human resource
development.
Delimitations of the Study

There were two target populations in this study. The first population
was vocational and technical educators in public secondary and post
secondary vocational and technical institutions. The second population was
employers from large and medium-size manufacturing companies. The
companies were limited to 3 categories: Fabricated Metal Products,
Machinery Manufacturing, and Transport Equipment. The industrial
categories were based on the classification used by the Malaysian
Industrial Development Authority (MIDA). The three industrial categories
were chosen since the majority of vocational and technical graduates were
employed in these industries. Therefore, this study excluded other industrial
categories such as agri-business, food service, chemical, and textiles.
Further, all data were collected in Peninsular Malaysia and excluded the
states of Sabah and Sarawak in East Malaysia. Sabah and Sarawak are
situated on the island of Borneo which is physically separated from
11
Peninsular Malaysia by the South China Sea. Also, the economic

development of Sabah and Sarawak is less advanced than the Peninsular
states. This is mainly due to the islands geographical and demographic
factors. Because it is mountainous and has a dense rain forest, the island is
sparsely populated and the infrastructure is underdeveloped. Also, these two
states have few manufacturing industries and are primarily dependent on
agriculture. Due to these delimitations, the results of this study have
somewhat limited generalizability.
Assumptions of the Study

This study, like most studies, had several assumptions. The samples
selected for this study were assumed to be representative of the populations.
In addition, the questionnaire was prepared in English and no attempt was
made to translate it into Malay, the lingua franca of the respondents. Since
English is a second language in Malaysia, it was assumed that the respondents
had proficiency at least at the 8th grade English reading level. Further, it was
assumed that the respondents were frank in the completion of the questionnaire.
These assumptions were perceived to be reasonable and necessary.
Definitions of Terms
1.
Bumiputra: The native Malay and other minority indigenous

groups and non-Bumiputra refer to the non-indigenous
minority groups, especially the Chinese and Indian.
12
2.
Cost-benefit analysis: An evaluation strategy that compares the

costs and outcomes of alternatives when the outcomes can be
assessed in monetary terms (Mishan, 1976).
3.
Employability skills: The non-technical skills such as basic skills,

specific attitudes, values, communication skills, and work habits
essential to effective work performance, job satisfaction, and job
success (Lankard, 1990).
4.
Formal training: Structured training that is delivered at an established

location and time. Examples of formal training include seminars,
workshops, and structured on-the-job training (Lynch & Black, 1996).
5.
Generalizable skill: A cognitive, affective, or psychomotor trait

which is basic to, necessary for success in, and transferable across
vocational programs and occupations (Greenan, 19S3).
6.
Human capital: The theory that human beings invest in

themselves by means of education, training, or other activities,
which raises their future income by increasing their lifetime
earnings (Woodhall, 1995).
13
7.
Indigenous technological capability: The capacity to create, adapt,

and modify technology. It includes any local adaptation of
imported technology as well as the creation of new technology
(Enos, 1991; Stewart, 1984).
8.
Industrialization: A process through which human beings apply

scientific and engineering principles to achieve practical and
profitable outcomes on a large scale (Kipnis, 1990; McNeil, 1990;
UNCTAD, 1990).
9.
Informal training: Unstructured training such as informal

one-on-one demonstration regarding how a job is performed
(Lynch & Black, 1996).
10.
Large-size manufacturing company: A company which

employs 500 or more employees.
11.
Medium-size manufacturing company: A company which

employs 100 to 499 employees.
12.
Semi-skilled workers: Graduates from certified skill training

programs at secondary vocational or technical schools
(Buskirk & Emhousen, 1996).
14
13.
Skilled workers: Graduates of post-secondary vocational or

technical institutions (Buskirk & Emhousen, 1996).
14.
Vocational and technical education: Specialized programs in

secondary or post-secondary education settings that are designed
to prepare individuals for entry into the labor market (United States
Statutes, 1991).
15.
Vocational training: Any type of job-related learning that raises

an individuals productivity. It includes learning in formal
vocational and technical school programs, training centers,
institutes, and the workplace; both on- and off-the-job
(Tsang, 1997).
15
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The review of the literature synthesizes the research related to the
problem of this study. It includes a review of education for work, skills
training, and industrialization. Further, a review of the role of vocational
and technical education and training in the context of industrialization is
provided. Finally, studies regarding the employability of vocational and
technical graduates as perceived by educators and employers are reviewed.
A summary is also provided.
Education for Work. Training, and Industrialization

The concept of a craft "occupation" has a long history, dating back to
the craft guilds of medieval Europe. Apprenticeship was probably the first
organized form of vocational education (Roberts, 1957). An apprentice was
bound by a contract, usually seven years to a craft master, whose obligation
was to teach the apprentice a vocation (Frasca, 1988; McClure, Chrisman, &
Mock, 1985). The master, in addition to teaching a trade, was usually required
to teach the apprentice reading, writing, and arithmetic (Bennett, 1926).
The idea of using schools to train youth for work was not entirely
novel in the early nineteenth century (Kantor, 1988). Colonial America
viewed apprenticeship and vocational training as something for the lower
socio-economic classes, taught through imitation, not thought processes
(Miller, 1993). This was in contrast to European perceptions. In Europe,
apprenticeship and vocational training in skilled trades and technical
16
subjects were viewed as vital components in the fierce competition among

emerging industrial nations (Law, 1986). Therefore, during the middle
1800s, European states were establishing hundreds of trade and technical
schools. However, Americans expended little attention to such a movement
as they focused their attention on the establishment of academia and colleges
(Law, 1986).
Eventually, colonial leaders could no longer romanticize their
Renaissance philosophy with the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in
Europe during the late 1700s (Miller, 1993). Innovations in farming
techniques, mass production processes, and engineering technology led
manufacturing to emerge as profitable industries in the United States.
The influence of the Industrial Revolution in Europe was also felt in
the American education system through the philosophies of two Swiss
Educators - Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) and Philip Emanuel
Von Fellenberg (1771-1844).
As educational thinker, Pestalozzi was inspired by the writings and
philosophy of Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). Pestalozzi believed that
children in school should leam to work, not only because of the economic
value of skill and the habit of labor, but because this experience gave senseimpressions which, like the study of object, became the basis of knowledge.
He recognized the fact that doing leads to knowing (Bennett, 1926).
Pestalozzi also insisted that education must be comprehensive and in
harmony with nature. Therefore, he recognized three basic aspects of
education: intellectual, moral, and practical education (Heafford, 1967).
17
His methodology emphasized that the subject taught had to be adapted to

the nature of children, their stages of development, and their individual needs.
In his experimental schools, educational topics were simplified to their basic
elements and then presented in a natural progression from simple to complex
relative to the students capacity to comprehend (Heafford, 1967).
Pestalozzis influence on vocational and technical education was
important from the eighteenth century to the present. He has been referred to
as "the father of manual training" and is considered the founder of modem
educational methodology. He established a series of schools in which manual
work was combined with general education (Bennett, 1926; McClure,
Chrisman, & Mock, 1985). Pestalozzi believed that the way to alleviate
poverty was to train the youth of the poor in work skills. His purpose was
not only educational reform but also social reform (Heafford, 1967). At the
same time, he believed that it was equally important to cultivate students
minds and social consciences. An education that emphasized either
vocational or general exclusively, created an individual who was of little
value to society.
Pestalozzi's first school known as Neuhof was designed to train
children, especially those from poor families, in handicrafts, farming, and
basic general education (Bennett, 1926). As Pestalozzi developed his
methodology, drawing and using real objects became an integral part of the
curriculum. He used drawing as a means to sharpen the students' powers of
observation and description, but its importance as a factor in industrial
education later increased the appeal of Pestalozzian pedagogy (McClure,
18
Chrisman, & Mock, 1985). Even though Pestalozzis ideas and methodology
were widely recognized, his schools were eventually closed because of
mismanagement and financial problems.
Von Fellenberg, although using some of the educational methods of
Pestalozzi, differed with him in several ways. Von Fellenberg believed that
society represented a natural separation of people according to their abilities
(Bennett, 1926). Consequently, individuals could be best educated and
trained within their own groups. However, each group should also be taught
to understand and respect the position and function of the other groups.
Therefore, Von Fellenberg's schools had an academy for sons of the elite,
a school of applied science for sons of the middle class, and a farm and trade
school for sons of the poor (Roberts, 1957). He carefully selected skills that
were necessary to the efficient operation of the school and its farm. As a result,
his school was a financial and an educational success.
In the early twentieth century, the influence of these two philosophers
on American education was profound. With the growth of mass production,
the debate was focused on how schools should respond to the new industrial
order which had emerged (Kincheloe, 1995). David Snedden, the former
Commissioner of Education for Massachusetts, a proponent for social
efficiency, argued that schools should focus on the production of social and
economic efficiency. Similar to Von Fellenberg, Snedden advocated for the
establishment of separate vocational schools to train students in specific job
skills. According to social efficiency advocates, vocational education would
19
provide practical training for working-class students and assist them in

securing their rightful places in society (Prosser & Allen, 1925; Shor,
1988).
However, progressive educators and social reformers, such as John
Dewey and Jane Addams, opposed the separation of vocational and general
education. Dewey believed that democracy could not flourish where there
was vocational education for one class and liberal education for another
(Cremin, 1961). He asserted:
The things which are socially most fundamental, that is, which
have to do with experience in which the widest groups share, are
the essentials (Dewey, 1916, p. 225).
Similarly, Addams argued that schools should provide all students with the
skills they will need to function in society. She stated:
T he most noteworthy attempt has been the movement toward
industrial education, the agitation for which has been ably seconded
by manufacturers of a practical type, who have from time to time
founded and endowed technical schools, designed to workingmens
sons. The early schools of this type inevitably reflected the ideal of
the self-made man. They succeeded in transferring a few skilled
workers into upper class of trained engineers, and a few less skilled
workers into the class of trained mechanics, but did not aim to educate
the many who are doomed to the unskilled work which the permanent
specialization of the division of labor demands (Addams, 1920,
p. 201-202).
Thus, progressive educators advocated work education for all students through
raising the consciousness of the learners about the context within which a job
was performed and the social significance of the work (Bjorkquist, 1991;
Cremin, 1961; Giroux, 1991; Kantor, 1988). Therefore, school should prepare
all students with the necessary attitudes, knowledge, and skills for success in
the world of work.
20
Work education has sometimes become the new panacea for

addressing the economic, political, and cultural crises that are threatening
the political and economic stability of several nations. Rising unemployment,
lack of adequately trained workers for the increasing low-end service sectors
of the economy, high drop-out rates, and the changing cultural and
demographic nature of the work force, have placed the issue of work
education high on the agenda of educational reform (Giroux, 1991).
Labaree (1997) summarized the purpose of American education into
three categories: democratic equality, social efficiency, and social mobility.
From the democratic equality perspective, the purpose of schooling is to
provide equal access to education and to prepare all young individuals to
become responsible citizens and to play constructive roles in a democratic
society (Cremin, 1980; Kaestle, 1983). This is basically the ideology of the
progressive education movement. The second educational goal, social
efficiency, can be described as the effort to make the school curriculum more
practical and responsive to the needs of the job market. Schools should
prepare and supply future workers with appropriate skills that will enhance
their productivity and, therefore, promote economic growth (Finch, 1993).
Vocational and technical education has been generally delivered within the
paradigm of social efficiency advocated by the pro-industrial movement
since the earlier part of the 20th century (Dentith, 1997; Herschbach, 1979).
The third educational goal, social mobility, is viewed as the preparation of
individuals to compete for social positions in society.
21
Vocational and technical education has been broadly defined as

efforts by schools to include relevant practical subjects in the curricula which
are likely to produce basic knowledge, specific skills, and dispositions that
prepare students for employment (Bacchus, 1988; Barlow, 1974; Thompson,
1973; Wenrich, Wenrich, & Galloway, 1988). In most developing countries,
the main objectives of vocational and technical education have been to
expand the occupational choices of students so that they become aware of
the emerging cluster skills that are needed in the labor market.
Secondary education comes in several forms. Often it is general in
nature and provides students with broad knowledge and basic skills.
The basic skills of reading, writing, computing, and problem-solving are
fundamental to productivity in all types of employment. Another component
is generalizable skills. Generalizable skills are those skills that are basic to,
necessary for success in, and transferable across vocational programs and
occupations (Greenan, 1983). Research indicates that 115 generalizable
skills are clustered into the areas of Mathematics, Communication,
Interpersonal, and Reasoning. Generalizable skills have been validated and
applied to a variety of vocational and employment settings (Greenan, 1986,
1989,1994; Nwagbara, 1990; Wu, 1995). Moreover, these competencies
are learned within a curriculum that develops the knowledge base needed
for effective participation in society. The broad values of general and
academic education justify substantial public interest and investment
(Psacharopoulos & Woodhall, 1985; White, 1988).
22
In the workplace, broad-base education is required to cope with the

post-Taylorist work environment in which workers are expected to perform
more broadly-defined jobs (Luttringer, 1995; Noyelle & Hirsch, 1995;
Williams & Homsby, 1989). In general, employers expect high school
graduates to possess basic skills, effective work habits, and positive attitudes
toward work (Heckert, 1984; Lee, 1986; Levin & Rumberger, 1983; Lund &
Hansen, 1986; Wellington, 1987). Therefore, vocational and technical
education should assist students develop their capacity to learn; to think
critically; and, to adjust to rapid changes in technology (Cantor, 1989)
Secondary education has been perceived as general preparation for
entry into the world of work. However, the general education track has been
severely criticized. For example, the William T. Grant Foundation (1988),
highlighted the forgotten half, the 20-million non-college bound youth in
America who are ill-prepared for the labor force. Academic secondary
education, however, has been traditionally oriented toward entry into higher
education. Although the structure of the curriculum has much in common
with general secondary education, the standards and requirements are higher
and most often based on the knowledge and competencies needed to enter the
university. These two forms of secondary education do not prepare students
for specific occupations. In contrast, vocational and technical education and
training develop specific skills that a worker is expected to use in the
workplace. The extent to which these skills can be effectively used depends
to a large extent on the requirements of jobs in the community.
23
The debate between general and vocational education has had

high social and political visibility because of the assumption that vocational
preparation significantly improves the chances for youth to obtain
employment, especially those who are economically or academically
disadvantaged (Bacchus, 1988; Dunham, 1989; Jonathan, 1990; Middleton,
Ziderman, & Adams, 1993). Numerous studies have revealed inconclusive
findings regarding the cost-effectiveness and cost-benefits of vocational
education.
A number of case studies conducted in Third World and developing
countries have indicated that vocational education is less cost-effective than
traditional academic secondary education (Bellew & Moock, 1990; Foster,
1965; Grootaert, 1988; Psacharopoulos, 1985,1987, 1994; Psacharopoulos
& Loxley, 1985). The cost of providing vocational and technical education
is substantially higher than traditional academic education and, in economic
terms, the higher costs do not appear to be compensated by a high return.
In general, public vocational and technical programs are inflexible and
inefficient compared to skills training offered by employers and private
training institutions, which are influenced by market forces (Middleton,
Ziderman, & Adams, 1993; Psacharopoulos, 1988). However, there is
also empirical evidence from industrialized and developing countries that
vocational education can be a cost-effective alternative to traditional
academic secondary education (Bishop, 1989; Castro, 1979; Corazzini,
1968; Freeman, 1973; Gustman & Steimeier, 1982; Min, 1995; Neuman
& Ziderman, 1989; Schroeder, 1990).
24
Nevertheless, the application of cost-benefit and cost-effective

methods to determine the economic efficiency of vocational training has
been criticized (Klees, 1991; Shugoll & Helms, 1982). The methodological
limitations inherent in these techniques are significant. Even a comparison
of the rates of returns of vocational educational versus general education may
be challenged on the basis that the two educational programs serve different
purposes and are designed to fulfill unique needs (Shugoll & Helms, 1982).
According to Dunham (1989), vocational and technical education
and training exemplifies the experiential method of learning, recognized
by both educators and employers as essential for most learners. The
learning by doing approach provided through both real and simulated
situations in vocational classrooms, laboratories, shops, and on-the-job
learning sites, recognizes the uniqueness of each learner, accommodates
a variety of learning styles, and reinforces the learning theory through
immediate practice.
Advocates of vocational and technical education have argued that
unemployment has been due basically to the academic nature of the school
curriculum (Balogh, 1962; Dumont, 1966). Diversifying the secondary
school curriculum to include vocational and technical courses was,
therefore, proposed to prepare non-college bound school leavers with basic
occupational skills to enable them to enter the job market, thus reducing
unemployment (Abrokwa, 1995; Sifuna, 1992). However, critics of
vocational education have claimed that the stagnant economies of these
countries, not the school curriculum, was the cause of acute unemployment
25
(Bacchus, 1979, 1988; Foster, 1965; Lillis & Hogan, 1983; Okwuanaso,
1984; Psacharopoulos, 1985). Neuman and Ziderman (1989) succinctly
described this debate:
Since the publication of Fosters now classic works on the
vocational schooling fallacy (Foster, 1965a, b), the appropriate role
to be accorded to vocational education within both the schooling and
the training systems has been an issue of serious, even intense debate.
The protagonists in this debate have been defined largely along
disciplinary lines: educational economists have been in the forefront
of those pressing the offensive, while educational policy-makers and
administrators, particularly in developing countries, have continued
to argue, often on the basis of perceived labour market needs, that
vocational education should remain a central element in national
educational policies (p. 151).
According to Bacchus (1988), vocational and technical educators and
policy makers appear to believe that if individuals in a society possess the
appropriate skills, they would be more productive than persons without
such skills. Following this logic, they have made what seems to be a
reasonable conclusion - that if students were provided with some useful and
practical vocational skills relevant to the needs of society, they would be
better prepared to contribute to its economic development. Existing school
systems seem to stress academic education leading students to aspire to
white collar jobs which are becoming relatively more difficult to obtain.
Further, educators and policy makers believe if schools could provide
students with marketable skills, this would widen their range of career choices,
make their aspirations more realistic, and prepare them to work in those fields
that are needed in the labor market (Bacchus, 1988; Middleton, Ziderman, &
Adams, 1993). Therefore, a more effective educational policy would be for
schools to attempt to provide students with a more relevant vocational and
technical training.
26
A persistent theme is that the skills required for the emerging work
force are changing (Custer & Claiborne, 1992). Therefore, the responsiveness
of vocational and technical education and other skills training delivery
systems to rapid changing technologies is crucial to improve competitiveness.
With severely constrained public budgets, nations must mobilize the training
capacity of employers and improve the efficiency and effectiveness of
training. In many countries, this will require a multi-faceted approach both
from government and the private sector to ensure that the skills needed are
efficiently provided.
Custer and Claiborne (1992) proposed three broad categories of skills
that emerged from research on critical cluster skills in vocational training, and
they include: (1) technical skills, (2) basic skills, and (3) employability skills.
Technical skills are specific knowledge and skills that are necessary to
function successfully on a job. Basic skills include reading, writing,
arithmetic, thinking, and problem solving skills. Employability skills
encompass a wide range of skills needed for work, including appropriate
attitudes and motivation, behavior, and interpersonal skills. Therefore,
employability skills are those general skills and knowledge needed by
individuals to be effective in seeking, obtaining, and retaining
employment (Lankard, 1990).
Improving the job skills of the work force has been the cornerstone
of economic development theory and practice and has received serious
attention in recent years. Since improving work force competencies can be
accomplished by improving vocational and technical education and training
27
systems, more international assistance has been channeled to vocational and

technical education than any other type of education (Middleton, 1991;
Middleton, Ziderman, & Adams, 1993). Developing countries have an
extensive history of devoting significant resources to the development of
vocational and technical education. It has been estimated that about 60
percent of the US$ 1.6 billion in lending from 1977 to 1986 was related to
vocational and technical education programs (Middleton, 1988).
Extensive support from international assistance agencies that began in
the 1950s has contributed substantially to the establishment and expansion of
public vocational education and training systems and to legitimizing pre
employment training as an important component of public education and
training. From 1963 to 1976, more than one-half of World Bank-assisted
investments in the educational systems in developing countries supported
vocational education or training (Middleton, Ziderman, & Adams, 1993).
The results of these investments have been mixed. In some countries, public
vocational and technical training has been effective (Arriagada & Ziderman,
1992; Chung, 1987; Min, 1995; Neuman & Ziderman, 1989; Ziderman, 1997).
However, in other countries, both effectiveness and efficiency have been low,
leading to wasted public investment in training systems that respond only
weakly to economic changes (Bellew & Moock, 1990; Foster, 1965;
Psacharopoulos, 1985; Psacharopoulos & Loxley, 1985; Sultana, 1994).
Paradoxically, the large potential of employers and private sector
involvement in vocational training remains underdeveloped, placing
additional burdens on inefficient public training systems.
28
The causes of poor returns in training investment are complex and

vary from country to country (Middleton, Ziderman, & Adams, 1993).
In some cases, the economic problems of nations have led to slow growth in
skilled employment. In other cases, inefficient government administration
has reduced the returns in public training investments. Employer training
programs have also been limited by economic policies that suppress the
incentives to firms and individuals to invest in skill training. Moreover,
the training potential of employers and private training organizations, both
voluntary and profit-making, have been generally ignored in public training
policy (Middleton, Ziderman, & Adams, 1993). Therefore, partnerships
between public and private sectors are critical to sustain economic growth
and productivity (Duscha, 1988; Honeycutt, 1996).
Although the benefits of training are increasingly recognized, minimal
attention has been focused on the distinction between employer-sponsored
training and self-sponsored training. From the individuals perspective,
employer-sponsored training is low cost, low risk, and apparently high
benefits while self-sponsored training is commonly the opposite. Employer
training, such as on-the-job training, is usually based on the trainability and
retainability of the prospective trainees (Ryan, 1995). The high rates of
employee turnover in America have explained the lower investments in
on-the-job training in comparison to Japan and Germany (Bishop, 1995).
Employer-sponsored training is also affected by new technology and the
increased competition in product markets.
29
Self-sponsored training, however, depends directly on an individuals

motivation and resources to invest in training. After completion of training,
the trainee would expect to obtain a better job and an increase in future
income. However, self-sponsored training is constrained by high costs and
high risks. Public policy apparently has failed to offset the disincentives
incurred by such employers and individuals (Ryan, 1995).
According to human capital theory, individuals who decide to acquire
training, do so with the expectation that it will help them improve their
incomes, by enabling them either to enter employment or to obtain higherpaying jobs with their current or other employers. Individuals may also seek
training for other reasons, such as, a desire to work in a certain occupation
or for personal satisfaction. In addition, skills are acquired for economic
gain.
According to Middleton, Ziderman, and Adams (1993), the critical
issue in developing nations is that they are faced with two enormous
challenges: (1) to improve productivity under severe resource constraints,
and (2) to respond to competing demands for public education and training
resources. Therefore, the policy makers in these countries need to focus on
efficiency and partnership with the private sector in formulating training,
human resource development, and industrialization policies.
Due to industrialization, the educational systems in many countries
changed rapidly especially after World War II (Timmons, 1988). The
reconstruction and industrialization era created the need for factory workers
and the demand for educated and skilled persons to train and supervise them.
30
Farm machinery reduced the need for farm laborers, and people needed
new skills and knowledge to obtain jobs in the industrial sector. School
attendance at the secondary and post-secondary levels increased rapidly.
The new demand for practical education for the majority of the youth
population caused an expansion of the school curriculum (Manning, 1993).
In the context of industrialization, scientific knowledge and research
about advanced technologies have become valuable commodities (Strub,
1993). It is increasingly common for researchers and patent owners to
transfer research results to profitable commercial use. Further, technology
has become more mobile and transferable. Technology transfer by
multinational companies (MNCs) into Third World and developing
countries is more common (Mustapha, 1998; Safarian & Bertin, 1987;
UNCTAD 1975,1987,1990,1991a, 1991b; UNCTC, 1990).
Over the past two decades, emphasis has been on issues related to
the industrial development and economic transformation of Malaysia (Ariff,
1991; Brookfield, 1994; Ghosh, Wah, & Narayanan, 1997; Huq, 1994;
Jesudason, 1989; Kanapathy & Salleh, 1994; Mehmet, 1986; Onn, 1986;
Rudner, 1975; World Bank, 1993). Since independence, Malaysia has
undergone several phases of industrial development (see Appendix C).
Malaysias industrialization has arrived at a critical crossroads. Its attraction
as a low cost, labor-intensive production base for multinational corporations
(MNCs) is currently being constrained by skilled and unskilled labor shortages.
The future of industrialization programs, therefore, lies in the strengthening
of the competitive advantage of Malaysian manufacturing establishments
31
through increased productivity and the shift toward new technology

development and innovations, as well as developing indigenous
technological capability.
In order for industrialization programs to be efficient and successful,
the nation needs an adequate pool of skilled workers and an appropriate
infrastructure. Infrastructure includes an adequate supply of power and
water; industrial facilities; Free Trade Zones (FTZ); and access to highways,
airports, sea ports, and adequate support systems. Concerns regarding the
effects of industrialization and technology are numerous. Most critics have
focused on environmental problems such as environmental pollution,
depletion of natural resources, and the problem of toxic residues of industrial
processes (Anderson, 1994; Carnegie Commission, 1992; Grubler, 1994;
United States Office of Technology Assessment, 1993). Others have been
concerned with the problems caused by excessive industrialization, such as,
the creation of low-skilled assembly and production jobs, low salary,
alienation and exploitation of workers, and the bureaucratic and hierarchical
control and command system (Dickson, 1974; Leonard, 1988). Still others
have viewed the effect of industrialization on society at large, such as,
industrial control of political and economic power, erosion of democracy,
and social stratification between the educated elite and its less educated
counterparts (Dickson, 1974; Leonard, 1988; Smith, 1986).
The Role of Vocational and Technical Education and

Training in Economic Development
Historically, public education has been challenged to solve the social,
political, economic, and educational problems of society (Asche, 1991).
The field of vocational and technical education has been no exception.
Ever since the Industrial Revolution during the late eighteenth century,
economic progress and development have been closely identified with
industrialization (Jomo, 1993). The structuring of vocational and
technical education systems in response to industrialization and social
changes has existed for more than two hundred years. However, the most
recent developments have focused on preparing an educated, skilled, and
motivated work force.
The role of vocational and technical education and training in the
economic development of both industrialized and developing countries has
been increasingly recognized (Abrokwa, 1995; Bennell, 1993; Chin-Aleong,
1988; Chung, 1995; Kraak, 1991; Lewin, 1993; Lewis, 1991; Qureshi, 1996;
San, 1991). Even though the subject of vocational and technical education
would continue to be an international and national debate among proponents
and critics, the application of a more broad-base form of vocational education
can be an effective alternative (Abrokwa, 1995; Qureshi, 1996). In fact,
appropriate and relevant vocational and technical education and training
systems can increase productivity and thereby, accelerate economic
development (Lewin, 1993)
33
The relationship between vocational and technical education and

economic productivity has been the subject of numerous studies in education,
economics, and the social sciences (Min, 1995). Empirical studies have been
conducted to investigate the extent to which education influences the
productivity of workers. In particular, a significant number of empirical
studies has compared the productivity of vocational education graduates
with general education graduates in industrialized and developing countries.
The findings from studies are varied, with some indicating higher
earnings or productivity for vocational education graduates (Arriagada &
Ziderman, 1992; Bishop, 1989; Bulino & Uri, 1982; Castro, 1979; Chung,
1987, 1990; Corazzini, 1968; Fredland & Little, 1980; Freeman, 1973;
Gustman & Steinmeier, 1982; Hu, Lee, & Stromsdorfer, 1971; Min, 1995;
Min & Tsang, 1990; Neuman & Ziderman, 1991; Petty, McNelly, & Searle,
1989; Schroeder, 1990), while others have indicated lower earnings/
productivity for vocational graduates or no significant difference between
the general and vocational graduates (Bellew & Moock, 1990; Clark, 1983;
Clouse, 1997; Fuller, 1970; Godfrey, 1977; Grasso & Shea, 1978; Meyer &
Wise, 1982; Psacharopoulos & Loxley, 1985; Rumberger & Daymont, 1984).
In addition, there are some issues to consider in generalizing these results
(Min, 1995). First, most of the studies did not directly measure productivity
but assumed productivity was reflected in individual wages. Second, most
of the studies have not considered the impact of work activities on
productivity. Finally, most of the studies have ignored the potential
interaction among workers that could influence productivity (Min, 1995).
34
Industrialized and developing countries must improve productivity

throughout their economies if they are to compete successfully in an era of
rapid economic and technological changes. Numerous studies suggest that
a relationship seems to exist between education and economic development
(Camoy, 1995b; Hock, 1994; Lee, Liu, & Wang, 1994; Min, 1995; Mphisa,
1997; Psacharopoulos, 1988; Qureshi, 1996). Globally, governments play a
major role in financing education and training (Jimenez, 1995; Lockheed &
Verspoor, 1991; Middleton, Ziderman, & Adams, 1993; Psacharopoulos, Tan,
& Jimenez, 1986; Tan & Mingat, 1992). Although a specific countrys
circumstances differ, most nations are confronted with budget constraints;
thereby, have limited resources to expand and improve education and training.
Psacharopoulos, Tan, and Jimenez (1986) have suggested three elements to
reduce government burden, especially in Third World and developing countries:
(1) reallocating the budget by investing more on the kinds of education which
yield the highest social returns, (2) developing a credit market for education, and
(3) decentralizing the management of public education and encouraging the
expansion of private and community-supported schools.
The quality of a nation's work force is important to economic growth
and social development (Marshall & Tucker, 1992). According to Middleton,
Ziderman, and Adams (1993), there are two factors that determine the quality
of the work force: (1) labor productivity - the value of goods and services
produced by a worker, and (2) the flexibility of the work force - the ability of
workers to move across sectors of the economy and between industries as the
structure of the economy changes.
35
Productivity and flexibility depend on many factors, among them the

level of capital investment, technology, work force, and the quality of a firm's
management (Middleton, Ziderman, & Adams, 1993). They are highly
dependent on the skills of workers at all levels. Effective management is
necessary but insufficient to improve the productivity of a company.
Equally important is the competency of the skilled workers and technicians
who occupy the middle level of the companys hierarchy. In the modem
sector, skilled workers and technicians facilitate the adaptation and
application of new technologies, enhance the efficiency of production and
maintenance, and supervise and train workers. In the rural and urban
sectors, creativity, self-motivation, and entrepreneurship can increase the
productivity of self-employers and small business holders (Middleton,
Ziderman, & Adams, 1993).
Workers commonly use a wide range of general and specific skills.
As the complexity and responsibilities of jobs increase, specific skills
become less important than higher-order conceptual and problem-solving
skills, and theoretical knowledge. The content of vocational and technical
curricula reflects this continuum. Initial training at the semi-skilled level
emphasizes specific skills. Theoretical and abstract conceptual content
tends to receive more emphasis in training for higher level skilled and
technical personnel and can occupy a larger portion of the curriculum.
The level of basic and general education required for successful training also
increases with the level of skills being taught. More broadly educated and
trained workers are better prepared to learn new skills and to climb the
occupational ladder (Middleton, Ziderman, & Adams, 1993).
36
Lewis (1991) argues that vocational and technical education should

assume at least two broad roles, one proactive and the other reactive. In its
proactive posture, institutions project the future needs of the work force and
deliver training on the basis of national rather than local needs. In its reactive
posture, institutions design training programs based on the specific needs of
employers. Customized training exemplifies this approach.
The economic argument in favor of vocational and technical
education and training is linked to the perceived need to orient the formal
educational system to the needs of the world of work (Ishumi, 1988;
Neuman & Ziderman, 1989). It is based on the assumption that economic
growth and development are technology-driven and human capitaldependent. The traditional academic education is an inadequate alternative
to train sufficient numbers of workers to meet current and future demands
for skilled labor. This is further aggravated by the claim that academicallyoriented schools instill attitudes in most students toward white-collar careers
and not toward blue-collar occupations that are in short supply (Middleton,
Ziderman, & Adams, 1993).
A second argument in support of vocational and technical education
is based on a socio-political strategy which pursues equity considerations
(Middleton, Ziderman, & Adams, 1993). An academically-oriented
educational system will likely produce gross inequalities between a small
elite of educated individuals and their uneducated counterparts, especially
those individuals who have dropped out of school.
37
Thirdly, the government must be involved to compensate for limited

private training capacity and to stimulate economic growth with a supply of
trained labor (Neuman & Ziderman, 1989,1991; Middleton, Ziderman, &
Adams, 1993). Furthermore, public pre-employment training can assume
an important complementary role in broader strategies designed to foster selfemployment or to reduce barriers to employment for women and minorities
(Arriagada, 1989,1990; King, 1990).
However, vocational and technical education is often more costly
than academic secondary programs and, therefore, programs hardly qualify
as cost-effective alternatives to eliminate enrollment discrepancies among
the wealthy, poor, urban, and rural segments of the population (Bellew &
Moock, 1990; Chapman & Windham, 1985; Foster, 1965; Grootaert, 1988;
Psacharopoulos, 1985,1987,1994; Psacharopoulos & Loxley, 1985). In
developing countries where public finance is often austere, public school
systems should defer highly differentiated training to firms in the private
sector or specialized vocational training centers (Foster, 1965; Blaug, 1973;
Louglo & Lillis, 1988; Psacharopoulos, 1985,1987,1994; Tilak, 1988).
Schools should focus on teaching academic subjects and analytical methods
for problem solving.
In addition, critics have also argued that vocational and technical
programs have difficulty attracting qualified teachers and acquiring adequate
equipment and facilities (Blaug, 1973; Iram & Schmida, 1998). These
factors can lower the overall quality of education in which students are
neither proficient in academic subjects nor skilled in vocational areas.
38
At best, they will acquire only a general orientation to pre-vocational

education and training.
In lieu of the opposing views, some experts have proposed a middle
position. For example, Lauglo (1992), has argued that vocational and
technical education should be introduced in the public school systems but
it should be based on a broader foundation in scientific and general
education. Silver and Brunar (1988) has proposed liberal vocationalism
as opposed to narrow vocationalism. Liberal vocationalism redefines
vocational education in terms of its broader social, economic, and
technological aspects. It also implies a broader and integrated curriculum
which encompasses interdisciplinary studies, contextual learning, school
and work-based learning, problem-solving, and critical thinking. In this
way, all students will have access to wider educational opportunities.
Public Perceptions of Vocational and Technical

Education and its Graduates
In general, the image of vocational and technical programs and their
graduates have not been entirely positive (Chung, 1995; Collins, 1979;
Feinberg & Horowitz, 1990; Foster, 1966; Goodlad, 1984; SREB, 1985).
Until now, many educators, parents, and some segments of the community
have stigmatized apprenticeship and vocational and technical training as
something for the lower socio-economic classes, taught through imitation,
not thought processes. As Feinberg and Horowitz (1990) stated:
39
The history of the development of vocational education is

important in understanding the way the term functions in
present day educational discourse. The use of vocational
education as a consolation prize for students who were not
identified as academically talented, was certainly an
important moment in constituting the significance of the
term. Yet more is involved than simply perception. The
image that was developed paralleled the distinction made
by Aristotle between training and education. The
vocational student could be trained for a specific task, but
true education - the understanding of theory - would be
reserved for the academically talented student (p. 190).
Vocational students are deemed not capable of understanding theory and
lack the cognitive skills to succeed in academic subjects as compared to
academically talented students. In several countries, the rigid structure of
vocational and technical education has also complicated attempts to reform
vocational and technical programs (Corvalan, 1988; Iram & Schmida, 1998
Ziderman, 1997).
In addition, critics have maintained that vocational and technical
education is considered by students and their parents as a second-class
education which leads to lower status employment (Blaug, 1973; Chung,
1995; Foster, 1965; Lewis & Lewis, 1985; Lyons, Randhawa, & Paulson,
1991; Psacharopoulos, 1991). If graduates do not work in their fields of
specialization, their skills are not utilized in the workplace. Therefore, the
investment in training is not fully realized (Blaug, 1973; Foster, 1965;
Lewin, 1993; Psacharopoulos, 1987).
Negative perceptions toward vocational and technical education
appear to occur in some other nations as well. Ottenberg (1978) described
Russias vocational and technical education system as:
40
The low social prestige of vocational-technical educational

institutions is due partly to the erroneous, but still prevalent
attitude among teachers in our schools that vocationaltechnical institutions are rather second-class institutions.
This attitude has its roots in the fact that, until quite recently,
problem children from secondary general education schools
were sent to these institutions. In the past, vocationaltechnical schools were deadends, providing no opportunities
for continuing education (p. 66).
Iram and Schmida (1998) described the dilemma faced by
vocational and technical education in Israel. They stated:
In order to meet the conflicting demands of economic
development and the student needs, the [education] system
became rigidly stratified. It classified students according to
their scholastic aptitude, degree of sophistication of
occupations and their level of prestige. However, the overall
framework of vocational schools was preserved through
tracking. Oriental students of lower socioeconomic
background were overpresented in the lower tracks, which
trained their graduates for less prestigious and economically
unrewarding occupations (p. 55).
Vocational and technical education in Brazil was also negatively
stereotyped as explained by Gallart (1988):
Brazil traditionally has had a selective academic secondary
education, accompanied by a less prestigious vocational
branch, the latter covering half of secondary enrollment in
1971. This vocational stream included different schools for
agriculture, commercial and industrial tracks. The vocational
tracks were aimed at the lower classes though since 1953 their
graduates have had access to university, although they had to
take special equivalence examinations, until in 1961 they were
given the same rights as students in other tracks to continue
higher studies (p. 211).
Traditionally, a stigma has been attached to vocational education in
Malaysia as described in a report by Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (1984)
pertaining to vocational education:
41
Vocational education in Malaysia is apparently at a turning

point. Traditionally, a stigma is often attached to vocational
education. Vocational education tends to be the dumping
ground for students with academic problems. Parents often
resent if their children were streamed into vocational
education. This factor has affected the normal development
of vocational education to a certain extent. But now, the
situation is changing rapidly. The bad image of vocational
education seems to fade off. Present trends in national
development indicate that Malaysia is forging ahead towards
industrialization (p. 1).
Numerous studies have revealed conflicting findings about public
attitudes regarding vocational and technical education. A number of empirical
studies have indicated negative educator (i.e., teachers and/or administrators)
attitudes regarding vocational and technical education (Dowell, 1980; Hyde,
1968; Malki, 1986; Sawyers, 1978). However, other studies have noted
favorable attitudes of superintendents, principals, and guidance counselors
toward vocational education (Barnett, 1984; Canfield, 1981; Matulis, 1989;
Matthews, 1987; Pryor, 1984; Spillman, 1983; Young, 1971). Further,
research has revealed that students and their parents possess favorable or
positive attitudes toward vocational and technical programs (Akintonde,
1988; Asefpour-Vakilian, 1981; Foldesy, 1990; Gilbertson, 1995; OguamahOkojie, 1998; Ondigi, 1998; Owens, 1983; Phillips, 1981; Slamet, 1987;
Small, 1984; Tseng, 1991; Vos, 1980). Most studies have indicated that
vocational educators, vocational students, and their parents have more
favorable attitudes toward vocational and technical education than nonvocational educators, non-vocational students, and their parents (Gilbertson,
1995; Phillips, 1982; Richards, 1977; Rothenberg, 1972; Slamet, 1987;
Small, 1984).
42
Studies have revealed that the perceptions and attitudes of educators,

counselors, and students toward vocational and technical education are
influenced by prior exposure to vocational education programs (AsefpourVakilian, 1981; Bainter, 1974; Hyde, 1968; Jackson, 1997; LaBorde, 1973;
Sawyers, 1978). Some studies have indicated that the educational level of
educators and parents appear to influence their attitudes toward vocational
education (Foldesy, 1990; Malki, 1986).
Canfields (1981) examined the attitudes of the superintendents of
Kansas public schools toward vocational education. The study found that the
superintendents have a strongly positive attitude toward vocational education.
The majority of the responding superintendents did not view vocational
education as having a lower status than general education. However, the
majority of superintendents were not satisfied with the current status of
vocational programs. Most of the respondents agreed that society can justify
the cost of vocational education.
Employer Perceptions of Vocational and Technical

Education and its Graduates
Employers invest in the skills of their employees to improve
productivity and the profitability of the company (Bartel, 1991; Camevale
& Schulz, 1990; Pucel & Lyau, 1995). Training costs can be substantially
higher than that of general or academic education, but is justified when the
value of the companys earnings and productivity exceeds the cost of the
training (Pucel & Lyau, 1995; Zakaria, 1988). In addition, numerous
43
empirical studies regarding the importance of entry-level employee skills

from the perspectives of employers have been conducted in both industrialized
and developing nations (Bloom, 1985; Harvey; 1998; Junge, Daniels, &
Karmos, 1984; Larson, 1980; Lee, 1986; Mobley, 1998; Wilhelm, 1998).
Education and training programs have traditionally emphasized the
cognitive domain and psychomotor skills for their students (Blaug, 1984;
Bowles & Gintis, 1976; Grubb, 1993; Lee, 1986). However, several studies
have suggested that the affective (socio-psychological) skills related to work
are just as important to job success as those skills in the psychomotor and
cognitive domains (Blaug, 1984; Custer & Claiborne, 1995; Greenan, 1986,
1989,1994; Greenan, Wu, Mustapha, & Ncube, 1998; Hamner & Organ,
1978; Kazanas & Wolff, 1972; Lankard, 1990,1994; Petty, 1983). Affective
work behavior is defined as the desirable character traits that are essential for
employee success. It is linked to attitudes and values (Hamner & Organ, 1978).
Numerous studies have focused on the attitudes of employees toward work.
Kazanas and Wolff (1972) defined work attitude as the manner in which
individuals view and perceive their work. They studied the characteristics of
work habits in vocational education and found that positive attitudes toward
work are the most basic foundations of effective work habits.
Murphy and Jenks (1983) conducted interviews to identify the traits
of successful entry-level professional employment applicants. The job
opportunities investigated were either management trainee positions, junior
level professional, or apprenticeships. Employers clearly indicated that
both functional and adaptive skills were needed. There was also a clear
44
preference for certain types of skills. Nearly 40 percent of the responses

related to communication and persuasion skills. Adaptive skills identified
by the employers included a wide range of attitudes, personality traits, and
work habits. Competition is a major factor that motivates industry to be more
efficient and to employ strategies that will improve production, service, and
product quality. Because such strategies usually involve improving worker
collaboration and teamwork, employers need creative, flexible workers who
have a broad range of interpersonal and managerial skills.
Junge, Daniels, and Karmos (1984) surveyed 116 large companies
to rate the knowledge and skills of employees related to mathematics,
writing, reading, speaking, listening, reasoning, and science. The purpose
of the survey was to determine the perceptions of business and industry
regarding the skills important for successful employment. They found that
speaking, listening, and writing followed by reasoning and reading skills
were regarded as important requirements for successful employment.
The most frequently cited qualities were good attitude toward work;
willingness to adapt and learn; getting along with others; neat and appropriate
appearance; promptness; infrequent absence from work; familiarity with
basic computer knowledge; and good oral, written, and listening skills.
Research has also revealed reasons for rejection of job applicants
and termination of employees. In a survey of employers conducted by the
Advisory Council for Technical and Vocational Education in Texas, the
reasons provided by employers for rejecting job applicants included:
little interest for wanting the job, past history of job hopping, poor
45
communication skills, health problems, immaturity, personal appearance,

poor mannerism, personality, lack of job-related skills, and poorly
completed application forms (Brown, 1976).
Zakaria (1988) studied the perceptions of Malaysian employers and
vocational students regarding employability skills. The study found that
the employers and students ranked employability skills differently. In other
words, employers and students have different perceptions with respect to
the importance of employability skills. Employers rated arrive on time,
demonstrate a sense of responsibility, cooperate with the supervisor, and
possess a positive attitude toward work as the major desirable employee
traits. Vocational students, however, rated respect for authority, arrive for
work on time, career interest, and follow instructions as the main desirable
qualities of an employee.
In 1989, Lieberman Research Incorporated conducted a study of
1,000 senior executives of FORTUNE 500 companies to explore the beliefs
of the executives regarding the American public education system (Lieberman
Research Inc., 1989; Passmore, 1994). Most of the responding employers
were highly critical of the public education system. Approximately twothirds of the respondents asserted that their companies had difficulties hiring
employees because of basic skill deficiencies of job applicants, and that
identifying potential employees with adequate basic skills was becoming
more difficult. Clearly, employers preferred employees who were motivated,
possessed basic skills, and have satisfied a higher performance standard.
Further, none of the responding corporate executives suggested increasing
emphasis on vocational, skill-oriented, or career-oriented education.
46
The Employment and Training Administration of the United States

Department of Labor and the American Society for Training and
Development (ASTD) conducted a survey of employers seeking potential
employees (Passmore, 1994). They found that many employers valued
basic skills - reading, writing, and computing. In addition, the employers
preferred employees who have motivation to learn; could communicate,
especially through listening and oral communication; and could adapt
through creative thinking and problem-solving skills; possess effective
personal management skills; have interpersonal, negotiating, and teamwork
skills that make them effective work-group members; and could influence
others to act through leadership skills. Moreover, employers preferred to
conduct their own technical skills training but only with employees who
possessed basic skills (Camevale, Gainer, & Meltzer, 1990).
The Harris Education Research Center (HERC, 1991) assessed the
views of employers, educators, parents, and students regarding American
education. Employers clearly indicated that their new employees were
borderline in terms of functional literacy, capacity to express themselves,
and basic functional skills. In contrast, students and parents thought that
their schools were doing well.
The United States Department of Labor Secretarys Commission on
Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS, 1991) examined the skills required to
enter employment using interviews with business owners, public employers,
union officials, and line workers. The SCANS report identified five major
competencies and three foundation areas that were required for entry-level
47
job performance. Basic skills, thinking skills, and personal qualities form
the foundation on which the five broad competencies are constructed.
Basic skills included reading, writing, arithmetic, mathematics, speaking,
and listening. Thinking skills included creative thinking, decision making,
problem-solving, abstract visualizing of problems, knowing how to learn,
and reasoning. Desirable personal qualities included individual
responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self-management, and integrity.
Distler (1992) studied attitudes and perceptions of Marylands
employers toward vocational education and employment training programs.
The majority of the employers indicated that the present educational
approach will not be sufficient to train students effectively for the changing
demands of the workplace. If vocational and training programs are to be
effective, cooperation among educators, legislators, employers, and the
community must be established.
An investigation by Custer and Claiborne (1995) supported previous
research in which employers placed more emphasis on employability skills
rather than on technical skills. They surveyed 299 employers in the health,
trade, and industry occupational areas. The purpose was to explore
employers priorities regarding the types of skills they perceived to be critical
to their needs and the work force. The findings revealed that the most
important skills cluster was employability skills. Basic skills ranked second
and technical skills third. Therefore, it is critical that vocational and technical
education address the challenge of enhancing the employability skills of
students.
48
Summary
Education for work, or training youth for work in schools is not
a new notion. It has a long history dating to the apprenticeship system and
the craft guild of medieval Europe during the eighteenth century. The
influence of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Philip Emanuel Von Fellenberg,
and other leaders in the field of vocational and technical education and
training has been well documented. Pestalozzi, known as the father of
manual training advocated for the integration of vocational and academic
education. However, Von Fellenberg provided arguments for the separation
of vocational and academic education; thereby, creating the dual systems.
The debate remains concerning the appropriate models of educational
delivery.
Research is inconclusive regarding the productivity of vocational
graduates compared to general education graduates in employment settings.
Several studies indicated higher productivity for vocational graduates while
other studies indicated no significant differences between the groups.
In general, research has revealed the important role of vocational and
technical education and training in enhancing economic and work force
productivity. An educated, skilled, and motivated work force is required so
that nations can successfully compete in a global economy. However, there
is disagreement among experts as to whether vocational and technical
education should be supported by public school systems or employers.
49
Research regarding public perceptions toward vocational and

technical education and its graduates also reveals varied findings. Several
studies have indicated that educators and parents had positive attitudes
toward vocational and technical education while other studies have
indicated somewhat negative results. In general, research has indicated
that vocational educators, and vocational students and their parents had more
favorable attitudes toward vocational and technical education than nonvocational educators, and non-vocational students and their parents. In
addition, prior exposure to vocational education may influence public
perceptions or attitudes toward vocational and technical education. Finally,
several studies have reported that affective and employability skills are the
most desirable skills of prospective employees.
50
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
education in the industrialization of Malaysia. Chapter 3 discusses the
research methodology that includes the rationale, theoretical framework,
research design, research questions, population and sample, instrumentation,
data collection, and data analysis.
Rationale
Research, in its most basic form, involves the description of certain
phenomena. Descriptive research is designed to examine the characteristics
of a sample or population on prespecified variables and is dependent upon
instrumentation for measurement and observation (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996).
However, descriptive research cannot infer cause and effect relationships.
The focus of this study was to identify the perceptions of educators and
employers regarding the role of vocational and technical education in the
industrialization of Malaysia. Therefore, a descriptive research design was
selected in this study.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework for this study was based on the
theory of Human Capital (Schultz, 1961,1963). Vocational and technical
education has been the subject of considerable research and analysis from
51
many interdisciplinary perspectives (Giroux, 1991). Historians and

sociologists have studied the evolution of the vocational education
movement since the Middle Ages when apprenticeship was the primary
method of vocational education, through the growth of merchant and craft
guilds, to the present career education and school-to-work systems (Barlow,
1967,1976; Benavot, 1983; Bowman, 1990; Cap, 1976; Fisher, 1967; Grabe,
1973; Grubb & Lazerson, 1974; Hillison & Camp, 1985; Pautler, 1994;
Roberts, 1957; Venn, 1964). Economists have studied the costs and
benefits of various kinds of education and training systems, such as pre
employment training and on-the-job training (Bas, 1988; Blaug, 1972;
Bowman, 1995; Camoy, 1995; Cohen, 1985; Dougherty, 1989; Gray &
Warrender, 1993; Lee, 1986; Levin, 1995; Metcalf, 1985; Tsang, 1997).
Other studies have focused on the effects of technological changes on
employment (Adler, 1992; Cyert & Mowery, 1988; Flynn, 1988; Hirschhom,
1984; Rumberger, 1984,1995; Spenner, 1988, 1995). Industrial psychologists
have investigated the processes of learning in employment, job satisfaction, and
work behavior (Fumham, 1997; Fumham & Rawles, 1996; Guion & Landy,
1972; Landy, 1989; Lundberg & Brownell, 1993; Muchinsky, 1997). Further,
educators and policy analysts have been involved in developmental work and
conducted needs analysis and evaluation studies on issues associated with the
effectiveness and efficiency of vocational education and training (Bamow,
1986; Cantor, 1984; Greenan, 1991; Jacobs & Bragg, 1994; Wentling &
Roegge, 1989). The focus in this study, however, is on human capital
development and its relationship to economic development.
52
According to Schultz (1963), human capital theory views the role of

education as an investment in human capital for achieving social and
economic progress. He wrote:
the proposition that people enhance their capabilities as producers
and as consumers by investing in themselves and that schooling is the
largest investment in human capital. This proposition implies that
most of the economic capabilities of people are not given at birth or at
the time when children enter upon their schooling. These acquired
capabilities are anything but trivial. They are of a magnitude to alter
radically the usual measures of the amount of savings and of capital
formation that is taking place. They also alter the structure of wages
and salaries and the amount of earnings from work relative to the
amount of income from property. There are long-standing puzzles
about economic growth, changes in the structure of wages and
salaries, and changes in the personal distribution of income that can
be substantially resolved by taking account of investment in human
capital. (Schultz, 1963, pp. x - xi).
Schultz (1963) argues that since schooling increases the future earning of
a student and the productive capacity of labor, it should be considered as
an investment in human capital. He presents three reasons why economic
growth can best be explained by enlarging the concept of capital formation to
include human rather than mere physical factors. First, the United States
is a nation whose economic growth is the result of investment not only in
physical capital, but equally in education, which has contributed to human
capital formation. Secondly, the wage structures and salaries operating in
many countries can be explained by the educational requirements for the
occupation. Thirdly, the decline in wage gap is not only the result of
curtailing private ownership, but it is related to the attainment of education.
Becker (1964) asserts that the theory of human capital provides a
basis for understanding the choices of skills acquisition and the
consequences for the choices made by workers and training providers.
53
The application of human capital theory in cost-benefit analyses of

investments in human resources provides a basis for determining a workers
wage and a firms productivity.
Harbison (1973) highlights the importance of human capital
development in which the individuals knowledge and skills are applied to the
production of goods or rendering of services in an economy. The human
capital approach also ascribes priority to maximizing skills and knowledge
through education and training followed by the effective utilization of the
investment through the creation of jobs. The results may lead to an increase
in economic growth, enhanced living standards, and more equitable
distribution of income.
According to La Belle (1986), the human capital model views an
economic role of education in which individuals pursue the necessary
knowledge and skills in order to manage the various aspects of economy and
to facilitate its growth through the use of modem technology. In both
industrial and developing countries, higher levels of education increase the
chances that an individual will be employed and will receive additional
training. Further, firms seem to provide more training to employees with
a higher educational level (Benson, 1966; Bishop, 1982; Oi, 1983).
Therefore, educational level appears to influence employees development
within the firm (Hill, 1989).
The public views the relationship between schooling and employment
as important. The Gallup poll (1984) of the publics attitude toward the
public school system in the United States found that 54 percent of the
54
respondents viewed education primarily as a means to economic success.

Economic success for most people depends on securing and maintaining
gainful employment.
Education and training, whether formal or nonformal, is viewed as
an investment that can yield social and private returns through increased
skills and knowledge for economic development and social progress.
According to Hicks (1995), social returns to education differ from private
returns. The social gains are usually measured as pretax income, while the
private gains are net income. In summary, education and training appear
to be the most important investments in human capital.
Research Design
This was a descriptive study intended to examine the perceptions of
education in the industrialization of Malaysia. According to Gall, Borg,
and Gall (1996), descriptive research involves providing careful descriptions
of a phenomenon. Its purpose is to generate an accurate description of an
event, attitude, or behavior.
The research design was based on the studys objectives and the
posited research questions. The demographic variables in this study were
gender, ethnic group, present position, and highest academic qualification.
Additional educator variables included primary program area, type and
location of institution, years of teaching and/or administrative experience,
and numbers of relevant inservice workshops attended. Additional employer
55
variables included years of management experience, company size, and

type of ownership.
The criterion variable was the Industrialization Needs Survey
questionnaire. The purpose of the questionnaire was to identify the
perceptions of educators and employers regarding the role of vocational and
technical education in the industrialization of Malaysia. The questionnaire
was developed based on the posited research questions. Research questions
1 through 7 were used to produce 45 Likert-scale items. Four open-ended
items were generated from research question 8.
Research Questions
This study identified the perceptions of educators and employers
regarding the role of vocational and technical education in the industrial
development of Malaysia. Specifically, the following research questions
were posited:
1.
To what extent does vocational and technical education and training

contribute to the economic development of Malaysia?
2.
What are the perceptions of educators and employers regarding the

employability of graduates of vocational and technical programs?
3.
What are the factors that facilitate or inhibit the restructuring of

vocational and technical education and training in serving the needs
of Malaysias industrialization?
4.
What are the perceptions of educators and employers regarding

the effectiveness of the governments policy and practice of
producing skilled workers as needed by the industrial sector?
56
5.
What are the factors that contribute to the shortage of skilled

workers?
6.
To what extent do educators and employers believe that government

is responsive to the needs of vocational and technical education and
training programs?
7.
To what extent do educators and employers believe that government

is responsive to the needs of business and industry?
8.
What are the suggestions and recommendations of educators and

employers for improving vocational and technical education and
training programs?
Population and Sample

There were two target populations in this study. The first population
was vocational and technical educators in public vocational and technical
schools and polytechnics in Peninsular Malaysia. The directory of
vocational and technical personnel was obtained from the Technical and
Vocational Division, Ministry of Education. The directory contains the
institutions, personnel, program areas, and positions. It consisted of 4,316
full-time vocational and technical educators. A random sample of 300
individuals was selected. To obtain a representative sample, the population
was stratified based on the 5 geographical zones: North, West, Central, East,
and South. Peninsular Malaysia has 6 polytechnics and 68 public vocational
and technical schools. One polytechnic and two schools were randomly
selected from each zone. A total of 5 polytechnics and 10 schools
57
participated in the study. In each selected polytechnic or school, 20 subjects

were randomly selected. The sample of 300 subjects was perceived to be
adequate. The sample represented approximately 7 percent of the total
number of public vocational and technical educators in Peninsular Malaysia.
The second population was corporate management personnel from
large and medium-size manufacturing companies. Klang Valley and
Selangor were selected because of the concentration of large and mediumsize manufacturing companies in these areas. The companies were limited
to three categories: Fabricated Metal Products, Machinery Manufacturing,
and Transport Equipment. The industrial categories was based on the
classification used by the Malaysian Industrial Development Authority
(MIDA). The three industrial categories were chosen based on the
assumption that the majority of vocational and technical graduates were
employed in these industries. The directory of these companies was
obtained from the Malaysian Industrial Development Authority (MIDA).
The management personnel in this study were limited to the Chief Executive
Officer (CEO), Personnel Manager, Production Manager, and Head
Supervisor. These management personnel were assumed to represent the
employer perspectives. With the exception of the Chief Executive Officer,
personnel and production managers and supervisors were assumed to
have regular contact with the employees. Therefore, they were in a unique
position to evaluate the employees. Of the 283 manufacturing companies
in Klang Valley and Selangor, 30 or approximately 10 percent of the
companies were randomly selected. In each selected company, four
58
management personnel (i.e., CEOs, personnel and production managers,

and supervisors) were requested to complete the survey. The sample of
120 employers was deemed adequate.
Instrumentation
The purpose of the Industrialization Needs Survey was to identify the
perceptions of educators and employers regarding the role of vocational and
technical education in the industrialization of Malaysia. Survey construction
techniques and guidelines as described by Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996) were
followed in the development of the instrument. The items were generated
based on the research questions posited for this study. The instrument items,
format, and procedures were constructed based on existing research studies
and literature related to vocational and technical education, educational
reform, economics of education, employability, school and business
partnerships, technology-preparation (tech-prep), school-to-work, and
current trends in education.
The first section of the survey contained a purpose statement,
directions, and demographic information. A code number was assigned to
each instrument to maintain the anonymity of the respondent. The
demographic items for educators and employers included gender, ethnicity,
present position, and highest qualification. The educator survey also
included primary program area, type of institution, location of institution,
years of teaching and/or administrative experience, and the number of
inservice courses attended. Additional demographic information included
59
in the employer survey were years of management experience, company

size, type of ownership, companys product, and the number of blue collar
workers employed in the company.
The second section of the instrument contained directions and 45,
five-point Likert-scale items (i.e., Strongly Agree [5], Agree [4], Uncertain
[3], Disagree [2], and Strongly Disagree [1]). The items were developed
and validated based on the research questions that were posited for the study.
Specifically, Likert items 1 through 5 in the survey were related to Research
Question 1. Items 6 through 14 were related to Research Question 2.
Research Question 3 covered items 15 through 19. Research Question 4
was associated with items 20 through 24. Items 25 through 28 were
generated from Research Question 5. Finally, items 29 through 35 and items
36 through 45 were related to Research Questions 6 and 7, respectively.
The following scale ranges for Strongly Agree, Agree, Uncertain, Disagree,
and Strongly Disagree were constructed:
4.50 - 5.00
Strongly Agree
3.50 - 4.49
Agree
2.50 - 3.49
Uncertain
1.50 - 2.49
Disagree
1.00 -1.49
Strongly Disagree
In the final section of the survey, four open-ended items were

generated from Research Question 8. These items were designed to obtain
further information regarding the role of vocational education in the
industrialization of Malaysia. The focus of the open-ended items included
60
major factors and barriers in planning vocational program improvement,

skills and knowledge needed by vocational graduates, and other related
problems and issues.
Several drafts of the instrument were reviewed by a panel of experts
(2 professors in vocational and technical education and 2 professors in
industrial technology). Revisions were made based on their comments and
recommendations. The instrument was also pilot-tested on a small group
(n=12) of vocational and technical educators. The pilot group consisted of
all vocational and technical educators (10 males and 2 females) from
Malaysia who attended a 3-month short course at Purdue University during
the Fall, 1997 semester. The internal consistency reliability for the
instrument using Cronbachs Coefficient Alpha and was estimated to be
ol -
0.94. Therefore, the final version of the instrument was considered to
possess an adequate degree of content and face validity and internal

consistency reliability (see Appendix D and E).
Data Collection
A letter of transmittal requesting official permission to conduct this
study was mailed to the Ministry of Education in December, 1997 (see
Appendix F). After official permission was granted, the instruments, cover
letters, and self-addressed, stamped return envelopes were mailed to the 300
educators and 120 employers. The cover letter explained the purpose and
importance of the study and requested their assistance and cooperation. Three
follow-up mailings were conducted at three-, six-, and nine-week intervals after
61
the initial mailing. A total of 276 educator instruments and 53 employer

instruments were returned which constituted 92 percent and 44 percent final
response rates, respectively. The low response rate for the employer survey
may be explained by two reasons. First, mail survey may not be the optimal
method to elicit input from employers. Face-to-face interview may be a more
effective alternative. Second, employers may not have perceived the tangible
benefits for their businesses to participate in the study.
Data Analysis
The data were coded and analyzed using Statistical Analysis
Software (SAS) version 6.12. Descriptive and inferential statistics were
used to organize, analyze, and interpret the data. Descriptive statistics
included frequencies, percentages, rank-orders, means, and standard
deviations. Confidence intervals and margins of error were the inferential
statistics used in this study.
This was a descriptive study, therefore, the major focus was to
describe independently the parameters of both populations. As suggested by
Moore and McCabe (1993), confidence interval is an appropriate statistical
procedure to use when estimating population parameters. Therefore, this
study used confidence intervals to analyze the data for both populations.
However, no attempt was made to test the differences between the two
populations because it was beyond the scope of this study.
62
Confidence interval is one of the two most common types of

formal statistical inference (Moore & McCabe, 1993). The purpose of
confidence interval is to estimate population parameters with an
indication of how accurate the estimate is at certain levels of confidence.
Two conditions must be satisfied to use the confidence interval method
(Moore & McCabe, 1993). First, the population from which the sample was
drawn must be normally distributed. Second, the sample must be randomly
selected from the population. In this study, both requirements were met.
Normality tests were conducted on the educator data (W:Normal=.967:
p<W=.35) and the employer data (W: Normal=.981: p<W=.79). Both
populations met the assumption of normal distribution at the p<.05 level. A
p<.05 level of significance was used for all inferential statistical procedures.
Any confidence interval has two parts: an interval computed from
the data and a confidence level. The interval often assumes the form:
means margin of error. The confidence level indicates the probability
that the interval(s) will contain the population parameter. In this study,
a 95 % confidence level was used which suggests that if this study were
repeated, 95 % of the intervals would capture the true population parameter.
As a general rule, a high confidence level and a small margin of error are
desirable. A small margin of error indicates that the method precisely
estimates the population parameter. The margin of error of a confidence
interval increases as the variability of the sample increases. The error also
increases when the sample size is small. The following ranges were used
for the standard deviations to interpret the variability of the data:
63
0.00 - 0.25
Very Low
0.26 - 0.50
Low
0.51-0.75
Medium
0.76-1.00
High
1.01 and above
Very High
Very low to medium ranges of standard deviations indicated a relatively

small variability in the distribution. A low standard deviation for an
item indicated a high consensus among respondents. High to very high
standard deviations indicated a high variation in the distribution. This could
be interpreted as a general lack of consensus among respondents.
The responses to the open-ended items were grouped, frequencycounted, and rank-ordered based on emerging categories (Miles & Huberman,
1994). The category that received the highest frequency count was ranked
the highest, followed by the second-highest, the third-highest, and so forth.
The information was then summarized and described.
64
CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of
education in the industrialization of Malaysia. Chapter 4 focuses on data
analysis and discussion of the findings. The data were organized and
analyzed according to the research questions posited for the study.
Table 1 illustrates the demographic information for vocational and
technical educators who participated in the study. The respondents consisted
of 69 % male and 31 % female. The majority of the respondents were Malay
(85.7 %), Chinese (12.5 %), and Indian (1.5 %). Most of the respondents
(13 %) were represented by the Electrical Engineering program area, 89 %
of the respondents were teachers, and 11 % were administrators. Two-thirds
(66 %) of the respondents were educators in vocational and technical schools
and 34 % were polytechnic educators. Approximately 20 % of the
respondents were from the North, East, South, Central, and West zones.
Most of the respondents (41 %) possessed a Bachelors degree. More than
one-fourth (26 %) of the sample had 6 to 10 years teaching experience. The
majority (60.8 %) of the participants had no administrative experience.
Most of the respondents (31.3 %) indicated that they had attended 3 to 5
inservice courses or workshops during the past 5 years. Approximately
one-third (31.7 %) of the participants indicated that only 1 to 2 inservice
courses or workshops that they had attended during the past 5 years were
relevant to their teaching.
65
Table 1
Demographic information for the vocational and technical educators

Variables
Gender:
1. Male
2. Female
Ethnic Group:
1. Malay
2. Chinese
3. Indian
4. Other
Primary Program Area:
1. Air-conditioning & Refrigeration
2. Architecture
3. Automotive Technology
4. Building Construction
5. Business/Commerce
6. Civil Engineering
7. Computer Technology
8. Electrical Engineering
9. Electrical & Electronics Technology
10. Fitting & Machining Technology
11. Food Technology
12.
13.
14.
15.
Home Economics
Mechanical Engineering
Welding Technology
Other
Present Position:
1. Administrator
2.
Teacher
(%)
191
85
69
31
234
34
4
1
85.7
12.4
1.5
0.4
14
7
16
20
25
25
13
36
28
19
5
5.1
2.5
5.8
7.2
9.1
9.1
4.7
13.0
10.1
7.0
1.8
11
28
17
12
4.0
10.1
6.2
4.3
30
11
246
89
66
Table 1 (continued)
Variables
(%)
Type of Institution:
1. Vocational and Technical School
2. Polytechnics
Location of Institution:
1. North
2. Central
3. South
4. West
181
94
66
34
55
46
60
56
19.9
16.7
21.7
20.3
5. East
59
Highest Qualification:
1. Malaysian Certificate of Education
14
2. High School Certificate
5
3. Polytechnic Diploma/Certificate
40
4. Technical College Diploma/Certificate 59
5. Bachelors Degree
110
6. Masters Degree
34
7. Other
7
Years of Teaching experience:
1. 0 - 2
26
2. 3 - 5
54
3 .6 - 1 0
72
4. 11-15
46
21.4
5. 16-20
6. Over 20
30
48
5
2
15
22
41
12
3
9.4
19.6
26.1
16.7
10.8
17.4
67
Table 1 (continued)
Variables
Years of Administrative Experience:
1. 0
2. 1 -2
3. 3 - 5
4. 6 -1 0
5. 11-15
6. 16-20
7. Over 20
Number of Inservice Courses:
1. 0
2. 1 -2
3. 3 - 5
4. 6 - 10
5. 11-15
6. 16-20
7. Over 20
Number of Relevant Inservice Courses
1. 0
2. 1 -2
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
3 -5
6 - 10
11-15
16-20
Over 20
(%)
163
28
60.8
10.5
10.8
29
22
12
11
3
8.2
4.5
4.1
1.1
44
71
85
54
12
5
1
16.2
26.1
31.3
19.9
4.4
56
85
73
46
4
20.9
31.7
27.2
17.2
1.5
1.1
.4
3
1
1.8
.3
68
Table 2 illustrates the demographic information for the employers

who participated in this study. The respondents were 91 % male and 9 %
female. The majority were Malay (76 %), Chinese (15 %), and Indian (9 %).
Over one-half (59 %) of the respondents were Managers, Supervisors (32 %),
and Chief Executive Officers (9 %). Most of the respondents (51 %)
indicated the Bachelors degree as their highest qualification. Approximately
one-third (30.2 %) of the respondents had management experience between
6 to 10 years. Most of the respondents (51 %) were management personnel
from large companies. Over two-thirds (68 %) of the respondents were
management personnel in locally owned companies, Joint-Venture (17 %),
and Multi-National Corporations (15 %).
Table 2
Demographic information for the employers
Variables
Gender:
1. Male
(%)
48
91
40
76
2. Chinese
15
3. Indian
2. Female
Ethnic Group:
1. Malay
69
Table 2 (continued)
Variables
(%)
Present Position:
1. Chief Executive Officer
2. Manager
31
59
3. Supervisor
17
32
1. Malaysian Certificate of Education
17
2. High School Certificate
3. Diploma/Certificate
11
21
4. Bachelors Degree
27
51
5. Masters Degree
6. Other
1. 0 - 2
7.5
2. 3 - 5
12
22.6
3. 6 - 10
16
30.2
4. 11-15
10
18.9
5. Over 20
11
20.8
1. Large
27
51
2. Medium
26
49
Highest Qualification:
Years of Management Experience:
Company Size:
70
Table 2 (continued)
Variables
(%)
1. Multi-National Corporation
15
2. Joint-Venture
17
36
68
Type of Ownership:
3. Local Ownership
The second section of the survey contained 45 Likert items. Similar

items were posed to the educators and employers. The findings were
organized around the studys research questions. The following
abbreviations were used: M for means, SD for standard deviations, and ME
for margins of error.
1.
To what extent does vocational and technical education and

training contribute to the economic development of Malaysia?
Items 1 through 5 addressed Research Question 1. Table 3 illustrates
the means, margins of error, and standard deviations for items 1 through 5.
Regarding item 1, the educators (M=4.64, SD=.53) strongly agreed and
employers (M=4.38, SD=.69) agreed that vocational and technical education
and training has contributed to the economic development of Malaysia.
Relatively small standard deviations for both groups indicated a high
consensus among respondents. For item 2, the educators seemed to agree
(M=3.78, SD=1.07) that vocational and technical institutions have prepared
71
sufficient numbers of skilled workers but the relatively large standard

deviation suggested that the responses were dispersed. Employers (M=3.02,
SD=.97) indicated that they were uncertain. For item 3, educators (M=4.26,
SD=.75) and employers (M=3.91, SD=.77) agreed that polytechnics and
vocational and technical programs were more suitable than academic
programs in preparing for new skills and technology. For item 4, educators
(M=3.60, SD=.97) seemed to agree that public vocational and technical
institutions had produced higher quality graduates than their private
counterparts while the employers (M=3.06, SD=.89) were less certain.
The relatively high standard deviations for both groups suggested a high
variability in the responses. Interestingly, both educators (M=4.02, SD=.73)
and employers (M=3.85, SD=.79) agreed that a substantial financial
investment in vocational and technical education and training was justified
(item 5). The relatively small standard deviations for both groups indicated
a high consensus among respondents.
For items 1 through 5, the margins of error for the educators data
(.06 to . 12) were much lower than the margins of error for the employers data
(.19 to .27) at the 95 % confidence level. One possible explanation is that the
educator sample size was much larger (n=276) than the employer sample size
(n=53). The margin of error of a confidence interval tends to increase when
the sample size decreases and the standard deviation increases. For example,
on item 1, the educator mean was 4.64 and the margin of error was .06. This
suggests that, for item 1, an interval between 4.58 and 4.70 would include the
true population mean at a 95 % confidence level. Employers, however,
72
yielded a larger margin of error o f . 19. Therefore, employers had a wider

interval (4.19 to 4.57) that would capture the true population mean at the
95 % confidence level. The total means and standard deviations for
Research Question 1 were also included in Table 3. Overall, educators
(M=4.06, SD=.46) seemed to agree more than employers (M=3.64, SD=.51)
regarding the positive effect of vocational and technical education on the
economic development of Malaysia.
Table 3
Role of vocational and technical education in economic development
Items
Educators
(n=276)
(ME) SD
Employers
(n=53)
M (ME)
SD
1. Vocational and technical education

and training contribute to economic
development of Malaysia.
4.64(.06)
.53
4.38(.19)
.69
2. Polytechnics and vocational and

technical institutions have prepared
sufficient numbers of skilled and
3.78(.12)
1.07
3.02(.27)
.97
4.26(.09)
.75
3.91(.21)
.77
semi-skilled workers to satisfy the

needs of Malaysias labor force.
3. Polytechnics and vocational and
technical programs are more suitable
than regular academic school programs
in responding to the rapidly changing
nature of skills and new technology.
73
Table 3 (continued)
Employers
Educators
(n=276)
Items
M (ME)
(n=53)
M (ME)
SD
SD
4. Public vocational and technical

institutions and polytechnics are
preparing higher quality skilled and
semi-skilled workers than private
vocational and technical institutions.
3.60(.12)
.97
3.06(.24)
.89
5. Substantial financial investment in

vocational and technical education
and training is justified considering the
high employment rate of vocational
4.02(.09)
.73
3.85(.22)
.79
4.06
.46
3.64
.51
and technical graduates.

Total (Items 1 to 5)
Note. In parenthesis is the margin of error for 95% confidence level.
2.
What are the perceptions of educators and employers regarding

the employability of graduates of vocational and technical
programs?
Items 6 through 14 were formulated to identify the employability
skills of vocational and technical graduates (see Table 4). Regarding

employment opportunities (item 6), both educators (M=4.44, SD=.72) and
employers (M=4.08, SD=.65) agreed that completers of vocational and
74
technical programs have better employment opportunities than completers of

academic programs. The relatively small standard deviations for both groups
indicated a high consensus among the respondents. For item 7, educators
(M=4.12, SD=.74) and employers (M=3.57, SD=.79) agreed that their
graduates were well prepared to enter the work force. With regard to
communication skills of the graduates (item 8), both educators (M=3.46,
SD=..88) and employers (M=2.70, SD=.85) were uncertain regarding the
communication skills of vocational and technical graduates. Variability
was relatively high for both groups. With respect to interpersonal skills
(item 9), the educators (M=3.70, SD=.83) seemed to agree that their
graduates possessed interpersonal skills but the employers (M=2.89, SD=.89)
were unsure. Again, the standard deviations were relatively high which
suggested dispersed responses. For item 10, employers (M=3.02, SD=.75)
were uncertain regarding the self-motivation of vocational and technical
graduates while the educators (M=3.64, SD=.84) appeared to agree
that their graduates were self-motivated. Both educators (M=3.72, SD=.82)
and employers (M=3.70, SD=.80) tended to agree that completers of
vocational and technical program possessed technical skills (item 11).
However, educators (M=3.38, SD=.91) and employers (M=2.70, SD=.95)
were uncertain regarding the critical thinking and problem-solving skills of
vocational and technical graduates (item 12). In terms of entrepreneurial
skills (item 13), educators (M=3.54, SD=.83) slightly agreed while
employers (M=2.26, SD=.92) disagreed that vocational and technical
graduates possessed entrepreneurial skills. The standard deviations on
75
items 8 through 13 for both groups were relatively high which suggested a
lack of consensus among educators and employers regarding the
employability skills of vocational and technical graduates. With regard to
positive attitudes toward work (item 14), educators (M=3.98, SD=.67)
agreed while the employers (M=3.39, SD=.72) were uncertain whether
graduates of vocational and technical programs possessed positive attitudes
toward work. At a 95 % confidence level, the margins of error for items 6
through 14 ranged from .08 to .11 for educators and .18 to .26 for employers.
The total for Research Question 2 indicates that educators (M=3.77, SD=.55)
had slightly more favorable attitudes toward the employability of vocational
and technical graduates than the employers (M=3.14, SD=.52).
Table 4
Employability of vocational and technical graduates
Educators
(n=276)
Items
6. Graduates of polytechnics/vocational
Employers
(n=53)
M fMEl
SD
M (M I)
SD
4.44(.09)
.72
4.08(.18)
.65
4.12(.09)
.74
3.57(.22)
.79
and technical schools have better

employment opportunities than
graduates from academic secondary
schools.
and technical schools are wellprepared to enter the competitive
workforce.
76
Table 4 (continued)
Educators
Employers
(n=276)
M (ME)
SD
(n=53)
M (ME)
SD
3.46(.10)
.88
2.70(.23)
.85
and technical schools possess
necessary social and interpersonal
skills.
3.70(.10)
.83
2.89(.24)
.89

and technical schools are self
motivated.
3.64(.10)
.84
3.02(.20)
.75

necessary technical skills in their
specialization.
3.72(.09)
.82
3.70(.22)
.80

necessary critical thinking and
problem-solving skills.
3.38(.ll)
.91
2.70(.26)
.95
3.54(.10)
.83
2.26(.26)
.92
Items
necessary communication skills.
and technical schools have

entrepreneurial skills.
77
Table 4 (continued)
Items
and technical schools possess positive
attitudes toward work.
Educators
(n=276)
M M El
SD
Employers
(n=53)
M (ME)
SD
3.98(.08)
.67
3.39(.20)
.72
3.77
.55
3.14
.52
3.
What are the factors that facilitate or inhibit the restructuring

of vocational and technical education and training in serving the
needs of Malaysias industrialization?
Items 15 through 19 (see Table 5) identified the factors that facilitate
or inhibit the restructuring of vocational and technical programs to serve the

needs of the labor force. On item 15, educators (M=4.00, SD=.81) agreed
that government is committed to restructure vocational programs while
employers (M=3.68, SD=.80) slightly agreed. With respect to business
and school partnerships (item 16), educators (M=3.63, SD=.87) seemed to
agree, however, the employers (M=3.04, SD=1.09) were unsure about the
governments initiatives to link vocational and technical institutions with
business and industry. The standard deviations for items 15 and 16 were
relatively high which indicated that the responses were dispersed. In terms
78
of the relevancy of vocational and technical curriculum to the needs of the

labor market (item 17), educators tended to agree (M=3.69, SD=.85) but the
employers (M=3.43, SD=.82) were uncertain. Again, the standard deviations
for both groups were relatively high which suggested a lack of consensus
among the respondents. In item 18, both educators (M=3.65, SD=.81) and
employers (M=3.52, SD=.63) slightly agreed that the structure of vocational
and technical education has become more flexible. However, the standard
deviation for educators was relatively high which indicated a high variation.
Interestingly, both educators (M=4.01, SD=.82) and employers (M=4.11,
SD=.93) seemed to agree that public vocational and technical institutions
would achieve greater efficiency if they were managed similar to businesses
(item 19). However, the variability of the responses was relatively high for
both groups. The margins of error for items 15 through 19 ranged from .09
to .10 for educators and .17 to .30 for employers. Overall, educators (M=3.80,
SD=.56) seemed to agree more than employers (M=3.56, SD=.52) with regard
to the role of the government in restructuring vocational and technical programs.
79
Table 5
Factors that facilitate or inhibit the restructuring of vocational and technical programs
Educators
Employers
(n=276)
M (ME")
SD
M(ME1
SD
15. The government is committed to

restructure vocational and technical
education and training to meet the
needs of Malaysias industrialization.
4.00009)
.81
3.68(.22)
.80
16. The government provides a clear

direction regarding how to initiate
partnerships or collaboration
between vocational and technical
institutions and business/industry.
3.63(. 10)
.87
3.04(.30)
1.09
17. The technical content of vocational

and technical curriculum is based
on the needs in the labor market.
3.69(.10)
.85
3.43(.23)
.82
18. The structure of vocational and

technical education and training is
3.65(.09)
.81
3.52(. 17)
.63
Items
(n=53)
becoming more flexible in

responding to the changing labor
market.
80
Table 5 (continued)
Educators
Items
19. Public vocational and technical
Employers
(n=276)
M (ME)
SD
(n=53)
M (ME)
SD
4.01 (.10)
.82
4.11 (.26)
.93
3.80
.56
3.56
.52
institutions and polytechnics would

achieve greater efficiency and
productivity if managed like
businesses.
4.
What are the perceptions of educators and employers regarding the

effectiveness of the governments policy and practice of producing
skilled workers as needed by the industrial sector?
Items 20 through 24 were focused on Research Question 4 (see
Table 6). Educators (M=3.76, SD=.80) seemed to agree that the government
was proactive in satisfying the human resource needs (item 20), however,
the employers (M=3.42, SD=.84) were uncertain. The relatively high standard
deviations for both groups indicated dispersed responses. For item 21, both
educators (M=3.79, SD=.75) and employers (M=3.53, SD=.82) seemed to
agree that the government was focusing on the long-term solution to human
resource needs. However, the employers standard deviation was relatively
high which suggested a high variability. With regard to the provision of
81
adequate facilities and resources to ensure quality vocational and technical

graduates (item 22), the educators (M=3.52, SD=.97) slightly agreed while
the employers (M=3.25, SD=.81) were less certain. Again, the variation for
both groups was relatively high which indicated dispersed responses. On
item 23, educators (M=3.67, SD=.79) appeared to agree but the employers
(M=3.30, SD=.89) were unsure regarding the governments efforts to seek
input from business and industry on matters concerning human resource needs.
The employers standard deviation was high which suggested a lack of
agreement. For item 24, the educators (M=3.56, SD=.78) somewhat agreed
that the government had utilized a systematic mechanism to assess and forecast
the human resource needs of business and industry while the employers
(M=3.17, SD=.91) were uncertain. The employer data yielded high
variability. The margins of error for educators were .09 t o . 12 and for
employers were .22 to .25. The total for Research Question 4 suggests
that both educators (M=3.66, SD=.60) and employers (M=3.33, SD=.68)
were rather uncertain regarding the governments effectiveness in satisfying
the human resource needs of the industrial sector.
82
Table 6
Governments effectiveness in satisfying human resource development

Educators
(n=276)
Items
Employers
(n=53)
M (ME!
SD
M (ME)
SD
20. The government is proactive in

satisfying the human resource needs.
3.76(.10)
.80
3.42(.23)
.84
21. The government is focusing on

long-term solution of the human
3.79(.09)
.75
3.53(.22)
.82
3.52(.12)
.97
3.25(.22)
.81
3.67(.09)
.79
3.30(.25)
.89
3.56(.09)
.78
3.17(.25)
.91
3.66
.60
3.33
.68
resource needs.
22. The government provides adequate

facilities and resources to prepare
high quality vocational and
technical graduates.
23. The government seeks input from
business and industry on matters
concerning industrialization and
human resource needs.
24. The government has utilized a
systematic mechanism to assess
and forecast the human resource
needs of business and industry.
83
5.
What are the factors that contribute to the shortage of skilled

workers?
Items 25 through 28 identified the elements that contributed to the
shortage of skilled workers (see Table 7). With respect to the rapid industrial
expansion as a possible explanation for the skilled worker shortage (item 25),
educators (M=3.61, SD=.89) appeared to agree but the employers (M=3.43,
SD=.87) were rather uncertain. The relatively high standard deviations for
both groups indicated a lack of consensus among the respondents. For item
26, educators (M=3.09, SD=.97) and employers (M=2.94, SD=.97) were
unsure whether vocational and technical graduates were more interested in
obtaining white-collar rather than blue-collar jobs. The standard deviations
for both groups were relatively high which suggested dispersed responses.
On item 27, educators (M=3.63, SD=.98) and employers (M=3.55, SD=.93)
slightly agreed that parents preferred white-collar jobs for their children.
However, there was a relatively high variability in the responses for both
groups. It is noteworthy that both educators (M=2.65, SD=1.10) and
employers (M=2.53, SD=1.01) tended to disagree that communities seemed
to have negative images of vocational and technical graduates (item 28).
However, the standard deviations for items 26,27, and 28 were relatively
high which suggested a general lack of consensus among the respondents
regarding the factors which led to skilled worker shortages. Employers had
higher margins of error (.24 to .28) than educators (.10 to .13) for items 25
through 28. The total for Research Question 5 suggests that both educators
84
(M=3.24, SD=.65) and employers (M=3.11, SD=.53) were less certain

regarding the factors that contributed to the shortage of skilled workers in
Malaysia.
Table 7
Factors that contribute to shortages of skilled workers
Educators
Items
Employers
(n=276)
M (ME)
SD
SD
3.43(.24)
.87
25. Industries in Malaysia are expanding

so rapidly that the vocational and
technical institutions are not likely
to provide the required workforce.
3.61 (.10)
26. Vocational and technical graduates

are more interested in obtaining
white-collar than blue-collar jobs.
3.09(.ll)
.97
2.94(.27)
.97
27. Parents prefer white-collar jobs to

blue-collar jobs for their children.
3.63(.12)
.98
3.55(.25)
.93
28. Community has a negative image of

vocational and technical graduates.
2.65(.13)
1.10
2.53(.28)
1.01
3.24
.65
3.11
.89
(n=53)
M (ME)
.53
85
6.
To what extent do educators and employers believe that

government is responsive to the needs of vocational and technical
education and training systems?
Table 8 illustrates the means, margins of error, and standard deviations
for items 29 through 35. Regarding item 29, educators (M=3.82; SD=.81)
agreed that the government is responsive to the needs of vocational
and technical education and training while employers (M=3.55; SD=.70)
only slightly agreed. On item 30, both educators (M=3.88; SD=.77) and
employers (M=3.57; SD=.60) slightly agreed that the governments policy
was focusing on the expansion of vocational education and training. With
respect to public funding (item 31), educators (M=3.57, SD=.98) only slightly
agreed that the government had allocated sufficient funding to upgrade
vocational programs while employers (M=3.34, SD=.68) were uncertain.
The standard deviation for educators (item 31) was relatively high which
suggested dispersed responses. Regarding the provision of adequate facilities
and resources for vocational and technical institutions (item 32), educators
(M=3.49, SD=.97) and employers (M=3.21, SD=.69) were less certain. A high
standard deviation for educators indicated a lack of general agreement. For
item 33, the educators (M=3.80; SD=.94) appeared to agree that the government
is committed to maintaining the high quality standards of vocational education
and training while the employers (M=3.26; SD=.86) were rather uncertain.
Again, large standard deviations for both groups suggested a relatively large
variability of responses. On item 34, educators (M=4.07, SD=.75) and
employers (M=4.30, SD=.72) agreed that input from joint public and private
86
sector advisory committees is crucial for the improvement of vocational and

technical education and training systems. Employers (M=4.51; SD=.58)
strongly agreed and the educators (M=4.26; SD=.75) agreed regarding the
positive benefits of technical exchanges between vocational institutions and
business/industry (item 35). The relatively small standard deviations for items
34 and 35 indicated strong agreement among respondents. The margins of
error for items 29 through 35 ranged from .09 to .12 for educators and from
.15 to .24 for employers. The total for Research Question 6 indicates that
both educators (M=3.84, SD=.55) and employers (M=3.68, SD=.43) slightly
agreed that the government was responsive to the needs of vocational and
technical education and training in Malaysia.
Table 8
Governments responsiveness to the needs of vocational and technical
education and training
Items
Educators
(n=276)
M (ME!
SD
Employers
(n=53)
M (M !)
SD
29. The government is responsive

to the needs of vocational and
technical education and training.
3.82(.09)
.81
3.55(.19)
.70
30. The governments policy is focused
3.88(.09)
.77
3.57(.17)
.60
on expanding vocational and

technical education and training.
87
Table 8 (continued)
Educators
(n=276)
M (ME)
SD
Employers
(n=53)
M(ME)
SD
31. The government allocates sufficient

funding to upgrade and expand
vocational and technical and training
programs.
3.57(. 11)
.98
3.34(.18)
.68
32. The government provides adequate

facilities, equipment, and resources
to vocational and technical
institutions.
3.49(.12)
.97
3.21(.19)
.69
33. The government is committed to

maintaining the high quality
standards of vocational and
technical education and training
programs.
3.80(.ll)
.94
3.26(.24)
.86
34. Input from joint public and private

sector advisory committees is
crucial for the improvement of
4.07(.09)
.75
4.30(.20)
.72
Items
vocational and technical

education and training systems.
88
Table 8 (continued)
Items
35. Exchange of technical expertise
Educators
(n=276)
M (ME)
SD
Employers
(n=53)
M (ME)
SD
4.26(.09)
.75
4.51(.15)
.58
3.84
.55
3.68
.43
between vocational and technical

institutions and business/industry
is beneficial for both parties.
7.
To what extent do educators and employers believe that

government is responsive to the needs of business and industry?
Table 9 includes the means, margins of error, and standard deviations
for items 36 through 45. On item 36, both educators (M=3.94, SD=.67) and
employers (M=3.87, SD=.73) agreed that the government was responsive to
the needs of business and industry. The relatively small standard deviations
indicated a high consensus among educators and employers. Regarding the
provision of incentives and excellent infrastructure to attract business/industry
(item 37), employers (M=3.49; SD=.82) were uncertain and educators
(M=3.81; SD=.82) seemed to agree. However, the standard deviations were
relatively high which suggested a high variation in responses. For item 38,
educators (M=3.63; SD=.80) appeared to agree that the government provided
89
adequate incentives and support for research and development while employers
(M=2.92; SD=1.05) were largely uncertain. The employer standard deviation
was relatively high which suggested a lack of agreement. On item 39,
employers (M=3.72, SD=.82) agreed while educators (M=3.49; SD=.77) were
uncertain regarding the effectiveness of government policy in attracting
foreign investment. Both employers (M=2.62; SD=.97) and educators
(M=3.29; SD=.87) were less certain that the level of technology transfer was
satisfactory. The relatively high standard deviations indicated a lack of
consensus among the respondents. Similarly, both employers (M=2.66;
SD=1.00) and educators (M=3.42; SD=.74) were not sure whether the
governments policy regarding technological indigenization was successful
(item 41). The employer standard deviation was high and, therefore, suggested
a lack of agreement. On item 42, the educators (M=3.54; SD=.79) seemed to
agree that the government plan toward assisting local entrepreneurs was
successful while employers (M=3.32; SD=.78) were uncertain. For item 43,
educators (M=3.49, SD=.79) and employers (M=3.19; SD=.83) were uncertain
whether or not local entrepreneurs participation in the domestic economy
was successful. Further, the employers (M=2.26; SD=.81) disagreed that the
participation of local entrepreneurs in the global economy was successful
while the educators (M=3.18; SD=.92) were somewhat uncertain (item 44).
Finally, educators (M=3.68; SD=.88) appeared to agree that Malaysia
would achieve the status of an industrialized nation by 2020 while the
employers (M=3.00; SD=.85) were rather skeptical. However, the standard
deviations for items 44 and 45 were relatively high which indicated a general
90
lack of consensus among the respondents. The margins of error for item 36
to 45 ranged from .08 to .11 for educators and .20 to .29 for employers at the
95 % confidence level. The total for Research Question 7 indicates that both
educators (M=3.55, SD=.54) and employers (M=3.10, SD=.60) were uncertain
regarding the government effectiveness in responding to the needs of business
and industry. The grand total for items 1 through 45 (Research Question 1
through 7) summarized the perceptions of educators and employers regarding
the role of vocational and technical education in the industrialization of
Malaysia. In summary, educators (M=3.70, SD=.23) appeared to possess
more favorable attitudes than the employers (M=3.37, SD=.24) regarding the
role of public vocational and technical education in the industrialization of
Malaysia.
Table 9
Governments responsiveness to business and industry
Educators
(n=276)
Employers
(n=53)
M (ME)
SD
M (ME)
SD
36. The government is responsive to

the needs of business and industry.
3.94(.08)
.67
3.87(.20)
.73
37. The government provides attractive

incentives and excellent infra
structure to attract business and
3.81(.10)
.82
3.49(.23)
.82
Items
industry.
91
Table 9 (continued)
Educators
(n=276)
Employers
(n=53)
M (ME)
SD
M (ME)
SD
3.63(.09)
.80
2.92(29)
1.05
39. The government policy regarding

attracting direct foreign investment
is successful.
3.49(.09)
.77
3.12(22)
.82
40. The level of technology transfer

to this country by the foreign MultiNational Corporations is satisfactory.
3.29(. 10)
.87
2.62(21)
.91
41. The governments plans and actions

toward encouraging technological
indigenization (the creation of local
technology capability) are successful.
3.42(.09)
.74
2.66(.28)
1.00
42. The governments plans and actions
3.54(.09)
.79
3.32(.22)
.78
Items

incentives and a conducive
environment for the public and
private sectors to initiate research
and development activities.
to help local entrepreneurs to

establish and expand their
businesses are successful.
92
Table 9 (continued)
Educators
(n=276)
M (ME)
SD
Employers
(n=53)
M (ME)
SD
43. The participation of local

entrepreneurs in the domestic
economy is satisfactory.
3.49(.09)
.79
3.19(.23)
.83
44. The participation of local

entrepreneurs in the global
economy is satisfactory.
3.18(.ll)
.92
2.26(.22)
.81
45. Malaysia will achieve the status
3.68(.10)
.88
3.00(.24)
.85
3.55
3.70
.54
.23
3.10
3.37
.60
.24
Items
of an industrialized nation by
the year 2020.
Grand Total (Items 1 to 45)
93
Open-ended Items
The final section of the instrument was based on Research Question 8.
This section focused on identifying the suggestions and recommendations of
educators and employers regarding vocational and technical program
improvement. Four open-ended items were posed and focused on the major
factors and barriers in planning vocational program improvement, skills and
knowledge needed by vocational graduates, and other related problems and
issues.
8.
What are the suggestions and recommendations of educators

and employers for improving vocational and technical education
and training programs?
Open-ended item 1 asked the respondents to list the three most
important factors that should be considered when planning the improvement

of vocational and technical education and training. The responses were
categorized, frequency-counted, and ranked-ordered. The highest frequency
category was ranked first, followed by the second-highest, the thirdhighest, and so forth. Table 10 presents the ranking of the most important
factors in planning the improvement of vocational and technical education
and training systems as perceived by educators and employers. The
educators ranked professional development and inservice training for
vocational and technical teachers as the most important factor. Lack of
inservice training and professional development is evident in this study.
In fact, 16.2 percent of educators reported that they have never attended any
94
inservice training during the past 5 years. Professional development included

professional networking, industrial attachment, knowledge and skills
upgrading, and higher education. The provision of adequate facilities and
current equipment was ranked second and the allocation of adequate funding
was ranked third. Other critical factors included the need to revise the
curriculum, input from the private sector, and needs analysis.
The employers, however, ranked input from business and industry as
the most important factor to be considered when planning the improvement
of vocational and technical education and training systems. The revision of
vocational and technical curriculum to meet the needs of industry was ranked
second and the establishment of quality standards of vocational programs
was ranked third. The quality standards included entrance requirements,
teacher certification, accreditation, and standard assessment. Other factors
that were important but less frequently cited included adequate facilities,
clear goals and objectives, and qualified teachers with industrial backgrounds.
Table 10
Critical factors in planning the improvement of vocational and technical education
Employers
Educators
(n=276)
Rank
1
Factor
Professional development
and inservice training for
(n=53)
Frequency
146
Factor
Input from Business
and Industry

educators
Frequency
25
95
Table 10 (continued)
Educators
(n=276)
Rank
2
Factor
Adequate facilities and
Employers
(n=53)
Frequencv
106
equipment
Factor
Frequencv
Vocational and technical
19
curriculum must meet

industrial needs
Adequate funding
66
Establishment of
13
quality standards
Revise the curriculum
55
Adequate facilities and
11
latest equipment
Input from private
33
Conduct needs analysis
objectives
sector
Clear goals and
22
Experienced teachers
96
Item 2 asked respondents to identify the three most important barriers

that they believe impeded efforts to initiate the improvement of vocational
and technical education and training systems. As illustrated in Table 11,
educators cited inadequate funding as the most important barrier while the
employers identified government bureaucracy as the most important
barrier to improve the public vocational and technical education and training
system. Interestingly, both educators and employers viewed the lack of
industrial experience among the vocational teaching staff as the second
most important barrier. The third most frequently cited barrier by educators
was inadequate facilities. Facilities included laboratory equipment, library
resources, and supplies. Other barriers perceived by educators included
government bureaucracy, political intervention, and the lack of incentives for
vocational and technical educators.
Employers cited out-dated equipment as the third major barrier to
vocational program improvement. Most of the technology used by students
in vocational and technical schools was not current with the technology used
by business and industry. Employers also identified the lack of partnerships
with the private sector, inadequate funding, and a negative image of vocational
education as important barriers.
97
Table 11
Barriers to the improvement of vocational and technical education

Educators
Employers
(n=53)
(n=276)
Rank
Factor
Frequencv
Inadequate funding
100
Bureaucracy
19
Teaching staff lack
99
Teaching staff lack
17
of industrial experience
Factor
Frequencv
of industrial experience
Inadequate facilities
75
Out-dated equipment
13
Bureaucracy
31
Lack of partnerships
12
with private sector
Political intervention
15
Lack of funding
Lack of incentives for
14
Negative image of
educators
education
98
Item 3 asked the respondents to list the three most important

skills and knowledge areas that vocational and technical graduates should
possess. Table 12 illustrates the rank-order as perceived by educators and
employers. Both educators and employers ranked technical skills as most
important. Communication skills were perceived by educators and
employers as the second most important skills and knowledge areas that
graduates should possess. Educators ranked critical thinking and problem
solving as the third most important skills while the employers indicated
interpersonal skills as their third choice. Other skills perceived important
by educators included interpersonal, computer, and basic skills. Employers
also perceived critical thinking, self-motivation, and management as
important skills.
Table 12
Important skills and knowledge that vocational and technical graduates should
possess
Employers
(n=53)
Educators
(n=276)
Rank
Factor
Frequencv
Factor
Frequency
Technical skills
134
Technical skills
26
Communication skills
106
Communication skills
18
Critical thinking and
46
Interpersonal skills
16
problem-solving skills
99
Educators
(n=276)
Employers
(n=53)
Rank
Factor
Frequencv
Interpersonal skills
33
Factor
Frequencv
Critical thinking and
15
Problem-solving skills
Computer skills
Basic skills
19
Self-motivation
Management skills
The fourth item asked respondents to identify any additional problems

or issues related to the role of vocational and technical education in Malaysia.
As presented in Table 13, educators viewed the lack of incentives as the most
important issue. Low salaries, few opportunities for promotion, and lack of
recognition were identified as problematic. Educators cited the vague policy
regarding the status of vocational schools as their second major concern. This
included the new policy of the Ministry of Education to reduce the number of
vocational schools in favor of more academically-oriented technical schools
In addition, educators viewed inadequate affective skills of vocational and
technical students as their third concern.
100
Employers, however, viewed the inadequacy of vocational and

technical education to produce business leaders as their major concern.
A lack of a clear vision and goals regarding vocational and technical
education was cited as the second major concern. Their third concern was
that the government provides minimal or no incentives to the private sector to
become involved in partnerships with vocational and technical education
programs.
Table 13
Additional problems and issues related to the role of vocational and technical
education in the economic development of Malaysia
Educators
(n=276)
Rank
1
Factor
Employers
(n=53)
Frequencv
Lack of promotion and
18
Factor
Frequencv
Vocational and technical
financial incentives for
graduates have not
vocational educators
emerged as exemplary
business leaders
Vague policy regarding the

status of vocational schools
Lack of clear vision

and goals for vocational
and technical education
101
Educators
(n=276)
Employers
(n=53)
Rank
Factor
Frequencv
Lack of emphasis on
Factor
Lack of incentives for
personal development
the private sector to
of vocational and
become involved in
technical students
partnerships with
vocational and
technical education
Frequencv
3
102
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
education in the industrialization of Malaysia. This chapter discusses the
conclusions, implications, and recommendations based on the results of this
study.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the findings of the study, several conclusions can be drawn.
Educators and employers believe that vocational and technical education has
assumed a major role in the economic development of Malaysia. In addition,
both groups also believe that a substantial financial investment in vocational
and technical education and training was justified. However, employers and
educators are less certain regarding the adequacy of the employability skills
of vocational and technical graduates. Employability skills include social,
interpersonal, communication, thinking, and problem-solving skills.
Public vocational and technical institutions may achieve greater
efficiency if they are privatized. Further, the government is less efficient in
providing a clear vision and mission of vocational and technical education.
Similarly, the public policy regarding partnerships between vocational and
technical institutions and business/industry is vaguely articulated and
implemented. Even though the structure of vocational and technical
education and training has become more flexible in responding to the
103
changing labor market, vocational and technical curriculum is not necessarily

based on the needs of the labor market.
Educators believe that the government is focusing on long-term
solutions for satisfying human resource needs. However, employers
perceive the government was neither proactive in managing nor efficient
in seeking input from business and industry on matters relating to human
resource needs.
Both educators and employers seem unsure regarding the factors
that led to shortages of skilled workers in Malaysia. They are unconvinced
that vocational and technical graduates are more interested in obtaining
white-collar rather than blue-collar jobs. Nevertheless, parents prefer
white-collar jobs to blue-collar jobs for their children. Yet, both educators
and employers disclaim that communities have negative perceptions of
vocational and technical graduates. Further, it is uncertain whether the rapid
expansion of industries causes the shortages of skilled workers.
Educators and employers believe that government is responsive to
the needs of vocational and technical education and training. However,
they are uncertain regarding the provision of adequate facilities and
resources for vocational and technical programs. Nevertheless, both groups
perceive that input from public and private sector advisory committees
and technical exchanges between personnel from vocational and technical
institutions and business/industry are mutually beneficial. However, the
private sector perceives that government is less committed to maintaining
high quality standards of vocational and technical education and training
programs.
104
In general, educators and employers believe that the government

is receptive to the needs of business and industry. However, they are less
certain with respect to technological indigenization and the participation
of local entrepreneurs in the domestic economy. In addition, employers
are ambivalent regarding the success of incentives for business/industry,
support for R & D, foreign investment, technology transfer, and assistance
for local entrepreneurs. Further, employers do not believe that the
participation of local entrepreneurs in the global economy was successful.
Educators perceive that Malaysia will achieve the status of an industrialized
nation by 2020, however, employers are skeptical.
Regarding the essential elements needed for the improvement of
vocational and technical education, educators stress that professional
development, provision of up-to-date equipment, and provision of adequate
funding are necessary. Employers, however, perceive input from business/
industry, relevant curriculum reflecting industrial needs, and establishment of
quality standards as the most important factors in planning the improvement
of vocational and technical education and training.
Educators view financial constraint, inexperienced teachers, and
inadequate facilities as the three major barriers to the improvement of
vocational and technical education and training systems in Malaysia.
Employers, however, perceive bureaucratic inefficiencies as the most
important factor that inhibits the improvement of vocational education and
training. Employers believe inexperienced teaching staffs and out
dated equipment are, indeed, the barriers.
105
Educators and employers insist that technical skills are the most
important skills that vocational and technical graduates should acquire.
Communication skills are also essential. However, educators and employers
differ regarding other important skills. Critical thinking and problem
solving skills are perceived by educators as important skills. Employers,
however, believe that interpersonal skills are critical for vocational and
technical graduates to possess.
Regarding additional issues related to vocational and technical
education in Malaysia, educators claim that bias against vocational and
technical educators; inconsistent policies with respect to the status of
vocational schools; and less than satisfactory human resource development
as their major concerns. Employers, however, are more concerned that
vocational and technical systems were not producing entrepreneurs and
business/industry leaders. Employers desire the government, especially the
Ministry of Education, to communicate the vision and goals of vocational
and technical education. Finally, the private sector is willing to participate in
partnerships with vocational and technical education if the Ministry is willing
to create appropriate incentives.
106
IMPLICATIONS
The results reveal that educators and employers believed that
vocational and technical education and training has contributed to the
economic development of Malaysia. In addition, educators and employers
believed that a substantial financial investment in vocational and technical
education and training was justified. Further, they believed that vocational
and technical programs are more appropriate than academic programs in
preparation for new skills and contemporary technology. This implies that
the government and private sector should invest in vocational and technical
education and training in Malaysia.
In terms of the employability of vocational graduates, educators and
employers believed that the completers of vocational and technical programs
have better employment opportunities than completers of academic programs.
Further, educators and employers indicated that vocational and technical
graduates possessed more than adequate technical skills. However, both groups
were less satisfied regarding their motivation, communication, interpersonal,
critical thinking, problem-solving, and entrepreneurial skills. This clearly
suggests that generalizable skills should be integrated into vocational and
technical programs.
Educators and employers perceived that government is committed to
restructuring vocational and technical programs. However, both educators
and employers favored a business approach in the management of public
vocational and technical education. This suggests the need to reduce
bureaucracy and to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of vocational
107
and technical institutions at the secondary and post-secondary levels. In

addition, the government should seriously consider decentralizing the
management of public vocational and technical institutions and encourage
the expansion of private and community-supported vocational and technical
schools and training as suggested by Psacharopoulos, Tan, and Jimenez (1986).
Furthermore, employers perceived that vocational and technical
education curriculum has questionable relevance to the contemporary needs of
business and industry. Employers were also unclear about the motives of the
existing partnerships between schools and business/industry. This suggests
that educational and training institutions should conduct continuous needs
assessments to create relevant curriculum. Government and its agencies
should also initiate outreach programs to establish school/business
partnerships and collaboration with the private sector.
In general, educators and employers believed that the government
responded less than satisfactory to the management of human resource needs.
Employers were not aware of government initiatives to seek input from
business and industry. The implication is that government and its agencies
need to be more proactive rather than reactive in responding to human
resource needs. This can be accomplished by eliciting input from business
and industry and creating meaningful partnerships with the private sector.
With limited financial resources, government must identify alternatives to
encourage the private sector to invest in upgrading vocational and technical
education and training. This is only feasible if the private sector is convinced
that there are mutual benefits and favorable returns.
108
It is not clear which factors caused the shortage of skilled workers

in Malaysia. Employers rejected the idea that rapid industrial expansion was
an explanation for the shortage. Further, there was no evidence that
vocational and technical graduates were more interested in obtaining whitecollar jobs rather than blue-collar jobs. However, educators and employers
believed that parents preferred white-collar jobs for their children. Also,
educators and employers did not believe that communities have negative
perceptions of vocational and technical graduates. This implies that the
shortage of skilled workers needs further investigation.
In general, educators and employers believed that government was
responsive to the needs of vocational and technical education and was
focusing on the expansion of vocational education and training. However,
educators and employers believed that the government - Ministry of
Education, in particular, has not allocated adequate funds to upgrade and
expand vocational programs. Similarly, inadequate facilities and resources
have inhibited the efforts to maintain high quality standards for vocational
Government should seek employers and private sector involvement
in financing and expanding vocational and technical education and training.
The issue of quality and standards is another area that needs to be addressed.
In this study, employers have suggested that to improve vocational
education, emphasis should be focused on establishing and maintaining quality
standards for vocational programs. Quality standards include entrance
requirements, teacher certification, accreditation, and standardized assessment.
109
As expected, educators and employers believed that input from

the public and private sector advisory committees is crucial for the
improvement of vocational and technical education and training systems.
Similarly, educators and employers are in support of technical exchanges
between vocational institutions and business/industry. This implies that a
paradigm shift in which collaboration and partnerships between schools and
business/industry are viewed as the vehicles that would advance the
industrialization agenda.
In general, educators and employers believed that the government
was responsive to the needs of business and industry. However, educators
and employers differed in their perceptions regarding government
effectiveness with respect to Malaysias competitiveness in the global
economy. Employers did not believe that the government provided
incentives and support for research and development (R & D) while
educators believed otherwise. Educators perceived that the government
was inefficient in attracting foreign investment. Employers were not
satisfied with the current level of technology transfer and technological
indigenization. Also, R & D activities in Malaysia appear to have been
initiated by the public sector with private sector participation continuing at
a minimal level. In fact, private sector participation accounts for only 20
percent of the total national R & D expenditure which currently represents
approximately one percent of the gross national product (GNP) (Kassim,
1991; Menudin, 1995). Malaysia must realize that for it to advance toward
high-value added and high-technology industries, industrial R & D must be
110
recognized. For the long-term survival of the economy, Malaysia cannot

continue to depend on borrowed technology which, even at this time could
be obsolete elsewhere (Menudin, 1995). Therefore, collaborative and
systematic R & D activities should be assumed by public and private
universities and research institutions.
In addition, educators and employers did not believe that participation
of local entrepreneurs in the domestic and global economies was successful.
Educators believed that Malaysia would achieve the status of an industrialized
nation by 2020 while employers were skeptical. This suggests that there were
disagreements between educators and employers regarding the effectiveness
of the governments roles in serving the needs of business and industry. The
active role of government in assisting qualified local entrepreneurs is needed
to reduce dependence on foreign direct investment (FDI). State support
should also focus on assisting local companies, especially the small and
medium (SMIs) industries (Mustapha, 1998). Employers were less certain
with respect to the attainment of Vision 2020. An educated, skilled, and
motivated work force is critical if the Nation is to compete in the world
economy. Rapid technological changes and increased global competition
have exacerbated the challenges associated with educational delivery and
professional development (Greenan, Wu, Mustapha, & Ncube, 1998).
Professional development was perceived by educators as the most
important factor to be considered in program improvement of vocational and
technical education and training. This is consistent with Greenan, Wu,
Mustapha, and Ncube (1998) in which vocational teachers believed that
I ll
their professional training and development had been beneficial in assisting

them to engage in vocational program improvement. Further, professional
development offers educators the opportunity for lifelong learning in their
careers (Finch, 1999). This implies that professional development must
be integrated into the reform agenda.
Employers, however, seemed to focus on input, curriculum, and quality.
It seems that educators and business leaders in Malaysia have acknowledged the
interdependence between education and the economy. The keys to linking
education and the economy are work force preparation and performance. One
major outcome with respect to economy and work force preparation has been
the development of industry-based standards, including the certification
of occupational skills and competencies (Bunn, 1996; Sriboonma, 1997). A
study by Sriboonma (1997) concluded that vocational educators in Thailand
believed that national occupational skill standards would enhance vocational
and technical programs. Malaysia should continually upgrade its skill
standards to increase the competitiveness of its work force.
Barriers to the improvement of vocational and technical education were
numerous. Educators perceived inadequate financial support, lack of industrial
experience among teaching staffs, and inadequate facilities as main barriers.
Employers viewed bureaucratic inefficiencies, teachers without industrial
experience, and out-dated-equipment as the major barriers to program
improvement. These barriers should be eliminated or, at least, reduced to
improve and upgrade vocational and technical education and training.
112
Mphisa (1997) studied educator and employer perceptions regarding

vocational and technical education in Zimbabwe and found that the majority
of educators and employers were critical of the governments bureaucracy
and preferred a decentralized and interactive approach regarding the
administration of vocational and technical education. Similarly, Greenan,
Wu, Mustapha, and Ncube (1998) reported that educators identified
bureaucratic inefficiencies as one of the barriers that impeded vocational
education program improvement.
It is interesting to note that educators and employers believed
that the industrial experiences of vocational teachers were important.
Lacking such experiences can affect the quality of vocational and technical
graduates. This also suggests that industrial internships should be
incorporated into inservice education and the professional development of
vocational and technical educators.
Technical skills were perceived by educators and employers as
the most important knowledge and skills that vocational and technical
graduates should possess. Both groups also believed that communication
skills are important. Employers viewed interpersonal skills as important
while educators perceived critical thinking and problem-solving skills as
important. These results seem to support previous research regarding the
importance of employability skills (Custer & Claiborne, 1995; Greenan,
1986, 1989, 1994; Greenan, Wu, Mustapha, & Ncube, 1998; Harris, 1991;
Lee, 1986; Lieberman, 1986).
113
The results also revealed that vocational and technical educators were
dissatisfied with their present status. Specifically, their dissatisfaction focuses
on salary, incentives, and promotion. This phenomenon is not unique to
Malaysia. A study by Sriboonma (1997) also found that the primary need for
the Department of Vocational Education in Thailand is to provide rewards
and incentives to vocational educators. Therefore, the Ministry of Education
must address the issue to prevent low morale and bum out among vocational
and technical educators. Inadequate incentives may diminish the motivation
of teachers and will likely affect the overall quality of vocational and
technical graduates.
Employers are concerned that vocational and technical program does
not produce exemplary business and industry leaders. The absence of
business and industry leaders may reinforce the negative stereotypes that
vocational students are not academically talented, vocational and technical
education and training is less prestigious, and leads to economically
unrewarding occupations. Clearly, the government has a major role in terms
of maintaining the high quality of vocational and technical education at the
secondary and post-secondary levels. For example, entrepreneurship and
business concepts should be incorporated into vocational curriculum.
In addition, the public and private sectors should provide incentives and
opportunities for vocational graduates to expand their enterprises.
Further, educators and employers are also concerned regarding the
status of vocational and technical education in Malaysia. The inconsistency
of public policies may result in diminishing interests among vocational
114
educators, students, parents, and the private sector to promote vocational and
technical education. Therefore, any major policy change regarding the status
of vocational and technical education should be decided by the stakeholders
rather than only by the Ministry of Education. The stakeholders include
educators, business/industry, parents, students, academicians, and other
professionals.
Finally, employers believed that the private sector was not provided
with appropriate incentives to participate in school/business partnerships.
This implies that government should create incentives for employers, such
as, enhancing the benefits to firms, lowering the cost of participation, or
increasing the cost of non-involvement (Bailey, 1995). Benefits for the
private sector may include tax incentives, reduced training costs, and an
adequate supply of skilled workers.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of this study was to identify the perceptions of
vocational and technical educators and employers regarding the role of
vocational and technical education in the industrialization of Malaysia.
However, like most studies, this study had several limitations. The low
response rate of employers was one such limitation. Employers may not
have perceived any immediate benefits for them to participate in the study.
Further, mail surveys may not be the optimal method to collect data from
employers. Non-response bias may have occurred because of the low
response rate. The effort to conduct telephone follow-ups was prohibited
115
by high cost. Nevertheless, the high return rate from the educators provides
a basis to generalize some of the results. The survey instrument was limited
because it did not include all possible definitions and descriptions of
industrialization. However, these are perceived as practical limitations and
do not necessarily inhibit the methods used nor the findings and
conclusions reported. Therefore, based on the results and limitations of this
study, several recommendations for policy, practice, and future research are
offered:
1.
The government and private sector should maintain and

expand vocational and technical education and training in
Malaysia. In particular, the government should utilize the
large potential of employers and private sector involvement
in the investment of vocational and technical education and
training.
2.
Federal, state, and local agencies should provide a clear vision

and mission for vocational and technical education and training.
In addition, the government should provide effective leadership
and incentives to the private sector by assisting to create
partnerships and collaboration with vocational and technical
institutions.
116
3.
The government, especially the Ministry of Education, should

seek input from numerous stakeholders, such as, educators,
business/industry personnel, parents, students, academicians,
and other professionals before formulating major policy
decisions regarding vocational and technical education and
training.
4.
A balanced approach should be emphasized in school

curriculum through the integration of technical, employability,
and generalizable skills curriculum in vocational and technical
programs. In addition, vocational and technical curriculum
should be flexible and responsive to the present and future
needs of the nation.
5.
The government should reduce bureaucracy and increase the

efficiency and effectiveness of vocational and technical
education. Further, the Ministry of Education should
consider decentralizing the management of public vocational
and technical institutions and encourage the expansion of
private and community-supported vocational and technical
schools and training.
117
6.
The government and its agencies should be more proactive

rather than reactive in responding to and managing human
resource needs. This can be accomplished by eliciting input
from business and industry and creating meaningful
partnerships with the private sector.
7.
Increased emphasis should be on establishing and

maintaining quality standards for vocational and technical
programs.
8.
Vocational and technical educators must have additional

professional development opportunities. Professional
development may include inservice education, networking,
industrial attachment, and knowledge and skills upgrading.
9.
Federal, state, and local authorities should address the issue

of dissatisfaction among vocational and technical educators.
Disincentives include, however, are not necessarily limited to
low salary, few opportunities for promotion, and lack of
recognition.
10.
Vocational and technical programs should incorporate

entrepreneurship and business training into its curriculum
to nurture potential entrepreneurs.
118
11.
Public and private sector leadership should become aware

of the importance of research and development to sustain
Malaysias competitive edge. Therefore, collaborative and
systematic research and development should be initiated by
the public and private universities and research institutions.
12.
Policy makers should introduce legislation related to new

reform initiatives such as school/business partnerships, schoolto-work activities, technology preparation, and work force
development to sustain employer and private sector
commitment to education, training, and human resource
development.
13.
Future research regarding the role of vocational and technical

education in the industrialization of Malaysia should include
educators from private vocational and technical institutions
and employers from diverse occupational sectors.
14.
The employers in this study were restricted to Klang Valley

and Selangor. Future research should include diverse
nationwide samples of employers. Further, robust data
collection methods should be utilized to increase employer
participation in future studies.
119
15.
Future research should consider using correlation methods to

determine the relationship between vocational training and
economic productivity in various occupational sectors.
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120
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APPENDICES
160
Appendix A: Malaysia: A Brief Introduction
161
MALAYSIA: A BRIEF INTRODUCTION
Malaysia is a federation of thirteen states, comprising eleven from

Malay Peninsula and two from the Borneo Island (Sabah and Sarawak); and
also two federal territories of Kuala Lumpur (Peninsular Malaysia) and
Labuan (North-west Borneo). Each of the nine states has Sultan as its head
of the State and Chief Minister as the head of the state government, while
others are headed by Governors appointed by the King who is elected by the
Sultans from among themselves on a rotational basis to serve for a period of
five years. The King, referred to as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, is a
constitutional monarch in a political system based on parliamentary democracy.
While the King is the head of the Federation or the State, the Prime Minister
is the head of the Federal Government. The Federal government is accountable
to the Parliament elected at least once every 5 years in a free, multi-party
election. The Parliament consists of 180 members of the House of
Representatives and 69 members of the Senate. Legislative power is divided
between the Federal Parliament and the elected states assemblies of Malaysias
13 states with state government retaining power over several important
domains, including land use and religion (United States Department of State,
1994; Wickman, 1984).
Malaysia was a British colony until independence was granted to
Peninsular Malaysia (then known as Malaya) in 1957 and to Sabah and
Sarawak in 1963 when they chose to join the peninsular component states to
form the Malaysian Federation. Singapore was a member of the federation
162
briefly for two years (July 1963 - August 1965) before it became an
independent republic.
Malaysia covers a land area of 329,293 square km, of which
Peninsular Malaysia accounts for 131,500 square km. Malaysia is a multi
racial society with an estimated population of about 18.4 million, consisting
of 61.0 percent Bumiputra (comprising mainly of Malays plus other
indigenous groups), 27.8 percent Chinese, 7.8 percent Indians, and 3.4 percent
of other origins (Malaysia, 1995; Hashim, 1996). The Malays in Malaysia are,
by legal definition, Muslims; the Indians are mainly Hindus; and the Chinese
are primarily Buddhists or Taoists. There is also a small percentage of Indians
and Chinese who are either Christians or Muslims. Therefore, Malaysia is a
multiethnic and multireligious society.
For political purposes, the population is dichotomized into
Bumiputras (literally sons of the soil meaning the native Malays and
other minority indigenous groups) and non-Bumiputras (non-indigenous
minority groups, especially Chinese and Indians). In Malaysian politics,
the ethnic factor has always been an important consideration. Indeed, most
political parties are organized along communal lines and the ruling coalition
itself represents an inter-ethnic political platform for the various communities
(Ariff, 1991).
The majority of the Bumiputras are in rural areas and engage in such
traditional activities as farming and fishing, while non-Bumiputras, particularly
the Chinese, are concentrated in urban and metropolitan areas, focusing on
modem sectors including commerce, finance, and manufacturing. Although
163
poverty knows no racial boundaries and there are poor people in all
communities, the Bumiputras are economically more backward, while the
non-Bumiputras are economically far more advanced. With the exception
of one racial tension in 1963, Malaysians are usually pragmatic and have
learned to live with stark realities, exhibiting considerable tolerance and the
spirit of give and take (Ariff, 1991). The racial riots of 13 May 1963 were
really an aberration triggered by excessive communal politicking, which
proved to be explosive in a situation marked by glaring economic disparities.
The disturbance had awaken top leadership of the country of the need to
reform the economic imbalances among the ethnic groups. To preserve
racial harmony and political stability, the government had formulated the
New Economic Policy (NEP) which was designed to redress the problem of
ethnic inequities.
164
Appendix B. Vocational and Technical Education

in Malaysia
165
VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA
Vocational Schools
Vocational education in Malaysia was introduced by the British in
1897 to train Malay youths as mechanics or fitters to manage the railway
lines (Federation of Malaya, 1956; Zakaria, 1988). However, it was not until
1906 when the first public technical school was opened to train technicians
for government service that vocational training began to have an impact
(Lourdesamy, 1972). In 1926, the first trade school was opened in Kuala
Lumpur, marking the beginning of public vocational education in Malaysia
(Ministry of Education, 1967). The trade schools offered courses for fitters,
electricians, carpenters, brick layers, and tailors.
In 1947, Junior Technical Trade Schools were established to provide
a three-year course in machine shop practices, electrical installation, motor
engineering, carpentry, bricklaying, and cabinet-making (Ministry of
Education, 1967). To qualify for admission into the programs, students must
have completed a minimum level of grade five in Malay school or grade seven
from English medium school at that time. This policy continued until these
schools were converted into a technical institute under the recommendation
of the Razak Report (Ministry of Education, 1956). The purpose was to
provide semi-skilled and skilled workers for the expanding public and
private sectors. The Report also recommended the expansion of secondary
trade and technical education and, as a result, fourteen trade schools were
established that offered a two-year program for those who completed primary
education.
166
The period 1961-1965 was a transition period, when a number of

changes were being introduced to adapt the education system to meet the
needs of a rapidly developing nation. Following the recommendation of the
Education Review Committee in 1960, the trade schools which provided twoyear courses were converted into Rural Trade Schools offering apprenticeship
programs for rural Malay youths who had completed six years of elementary
education (Ministry of Education, 1967).
A major change in the vocational education program was in 1965
when the comprehensive education system was introduced. The new system,
which raised the school-leaving age to 15 was designed specifically to change
the form and content of secondary level education, which would offer a greatly
expanded and more diversified range of courses. Students would receive
general education with a vocational or technical emphasis on industrial arts
(woodwork, metalwork, electricity, and power mechanics), agriculture
science, commercial studies, and home science (Kee, 1973; Lourdesamy,
1972; Ministry of Education, 1967; Zakaria, 1988).
In 1987, a new vocational education system was introduced. Under
this system, vocational students had the choice either to enroll in a vocational
or skills training program. A vocational education program requires the
students to take the Malaysian Certificate of Vocational Education (MCVE)
examination at the end of the two-year program. Students who opt for the
skills training program must take the National Industrial Training and Trade
Certification Board (NITTCB) examination at the end of the two-year
training period. The NITTCB was created by the National Advisory
167
Council of Industrial Training to provide common trade standards

and to improve the training institutions throughout the country (Ministry of
Education, 1989).
The goal of the vocational education program in Malaysia was to
provide education and training to individuals for specific occupations. The
objectives of the vocational education system as outlined by the Ministry of
Education (1988) were as follows:
1.
to provide the industrial and commercial sectors with manpower

equipped with basic skills and knowledge,
2.
to provide a flexible and broad-based curriculum to meet not

only the immediate needs but also future needs and changes in
industries,
3.
to provide basic education in science, mathematics, and

languages to enable students to adapt themselves to new
methods of work and achieve greater proficiency in their
future work, and
4.
to provide the foundation for skills and knowledge on which

to build subsequent education and training.
In the vocational track, strong emphasis is on academic subjects with

the purpose of providing students a better foundation should they decide to
continue their higher education in technical colleges or polytechnics without
affecting vocational skills development at the present level. In the skills
training track, students are provided more time and emphasis on skills training
and development as required by industry. Upon conclusion of the course,
168
the student takes the NITTCB examination. Opportunities are offered to

students to continue the advanced and specialized training after completing
the two-year basic skills training program. Completers of the skills training
program will most likely enter the job-market immediately after graduation.
Continued efforts have been directed toward expanding the supply of
skilled and semi-skilled workers through increased enrollment in the secondary
technical and vocational schools. In 1995, there were 9 secondary technical
schools and 69 secondary vocational schools compared to 58 secondary
vocational schools in 1990. The enrollment in these schools increased from
30,940 in 1990 to 48,800 in 1995, while the output was 13,500 for secondary
technical schools and 82,700 for secondary vocational schools for the 5-year
period (Economic Planning Unit, 1996). The majority of the graduates from
secondary technical schools continued their studies in various post-secondary
institutions, while the graduates from vocational and skill programs were
mainly integrated into the work force.
Technical Schools
Recently, the Ministry of Education has made a dramatic effort to
promote technical education (Economic Planning Unit, 1996). In this regard,
22 secondary vocational schools were converted into secondary technical
schools for the 1996 school year. The conversion increased the number of
technical schools from 9 to 31 and decreased the number of vocational schools
from 69 to 47 (Education Statistics, Ministry of Education, 1997). At the same
time, engineering technology and technical drawing subjects were also
169
introduced in selected academic secondary schools. The initiative was to

create opportunities for academic students in technical areas as well as to
prepare them to continue their studies in various science and technicalrelated disciplines at the post-secondary level (Economic Planning Unit,
1996). However, this conversion received considerable criticism,
especially from vocational educators, who perceived the change as a reverse
trend that would affect the future supply of skilled workers already in
severe shortage (Abdul Raof, 1996).
Polytechnics
Since 1969, the Ministry of Education has established 9 public
polytechnics as post-secondary learning institutions for technical and
commercial training. The main objective is to train secondary school
graduates to be qualified technical assistants, technicians, technologists,
paraprofessionals, and business personnel. Polytechnics are internally
accredited by the Ministry of Education and several have received external
ISO 9002 certification. Polytechnics are renowned for their ability to provide
technological knowledge as well as relevant work experience to students.
Presently, all courses offered by the polytechnics are full-time courses
and are categorized as:
1.
Certificate Program, and
2.
Diploma Program.
170
All certificate programs are of two-year duration, while most diploma

programs are of three-year duration; with the exception of the Diploma in
Marine Engineering (4 years) and the Diploma in Secretarial Science (2 years).
Industrial training, for a period of one semester, is a requirement for all
programs. The purpose of industrial training is to allow students to
experience work conditions and to expose them to the realities and demands
of the industrial and commercial sectors (Ministry of Education, 1994).
Post-secondary Advanced Skills Training Programs

Advanced public and private skills training institutions have been
established to supply an adequate number of skilled workers to serve the
needs of the expanding industrial sector. Various measures were initiated to
increase the training capacity through the expansion of existing facilities and
the establishment of new institutions. The number of trainees was also
increased through the introduction of double-shift training sessions and the
implementation of weekend classes. These measures may result in an
increase in the output of trainees from 21,169 in 1990 to 51,983 in 2000.
In the Sixth Malaysia Plan, the output of skilled and semi-skilled workers
from local public and private training institutions totaled 149,580. Of the
total, 121,110 trainees or 80.9 percent were in engineering trades and 11.3
percent in the building trades (Economic Planning Unit, 1996).
To meet the needs for higher skilled workers, especially in the new
technology clusters, and to take advantage of advanced technology in
developed countries; advanced skill training institutes were established
171
with the cooperation of the Federal Republic of Germany, France, and Japan.
The German-Malaysian Institute (GMI), established in 1992, offered
advanced skill training, particularly in production technology and industrial
electronics. The Institute, with a maximum enrollment capacity of 450
trainees, produced its first cadre of 57 graduates in 1995. The MalaysianFrance Institute (MFI), began operation in October 1995, had a capacity of
600 trainees and offered advanced courses in areas such as maintenance of
automated mechanical systems, electrical equipment installation, and
welding technology. In addition, the establishment of the Japan-Malaysia
Technical Institute (JMTI) is at the planning stage.
Based on the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth of 7 percent
per annum, the demand for labor will increase by 3.1 percent annually during
the 1990-2000 period. Total employment was projected to increase from about
6.7 million in 1990 to about 9.0 million in the year 2000. With the labor
supply growing at 2.9 percent annually, the unemployment rate was expected
to decrease from 5.1 percent in 1990 to about 2.8 percent by the end of the
decade.
The high growth of the working-age population has increased the
labor force participation rate from 66 percent in 1990 to 66.9 percent in 1995.
With a large influx of foreign labor, the labor force increased at an average
annual rate of 2.9 percent during the period. The labor force was expected
to increase to 68 percent by the year 2000. The male labor force participation
172
rate increased from 86.3 percent in 1990 to 86.8 percent in 1995, while the
rate of females increased from 45.8 percent to 47.1 percent during the same
period (Economic Planing Unit, 1996).
The educational profile of the labor force indicates a progressively
more educated work force. Approximately 55 percent of the labor force
had a secondary education in 1995 compared to 52 percent in 1990. In
addition, while 5.3 percent of the labor force possessed college or university
qualifications in 1990, the proportion was 6.3 in 1995. Despite this increase,
the proportion was still relatively low, indicating the need to intensify efforts
to increase the supply of highly-educated human resources (Economic
Planning Unit, 1996).
Appendix C. Industrial Development in Malaysia
174
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA
Jomo (1994a) divided the industrial development of Malaysia into

five phases. The first phase - during British colonial rule (1867 - 1957) was largely limited to the export of raw agriculture products and minerals,
mainly, rubber and tin; and the processing and packaging of food and simple
consumer items. The plantations, mining, and the small-scale business
activities were dominated by the British and, to a lesser extent, local Chinese
businessmen (Allen & Donnithome, 1954; Puthucheary, 1960; Wheelwright,
1965).
The second phase (1957 - 1969) began after the independence in
1957 when the new government favored import-substitution industrialization
with little state intervention. Government involvement was only limited to
the provision of tariff protection, infrastructure, tax exemptions, and other
incentives. This strategy sought to encourage foreign investors to set up
production, assembly, and packaging plants in the country to supply finished
goods previously imported. The investment was still dominated by the
British and usually poorly linked to the national economy. Therefore,
such industrialization did not significantly affect new employment and
soon reached its limits in the small domestic market.
The third phase (1970 - 1981) experienced a shift from importsubstitution industrialization to export-oriented industrialization as the
limits of import substitution became apparent and a new international
division of labor emerged, particularly involving manufacturing. This
175
transition was coincided with the introduction of the 20-year New Economic
Policy (NEP). It began in 1970 and intended to create national unity
through massive state intervention in terms of economic redistribution
programs to achieve its objectives of poverty eradication and the
restructuring of society. The NEPs Outline Perspective Plan (OPP)
envisaged the incidence of poverty declining from 49 percent in Peninsular
Malaysia in 1970 to 16 percent in 1990. Restructuring society basically
referred to affirmative action to achieve interethnic parity in occupations
and corporate wealth ownership, and sought to eliminate the identification
of race with economic function. Similarly, in education, admission to
public higher learning institutions was based on ethnic quotas (Pong, 1993)
The NEP also expected to raise the Bumiputra share of corporate
equity from 2.4 percent in 1970 to 30.0 percent in 1990. Although this target
was not achieved, significant progress was made. Bumiputra holdings rose
from 2.4 percent in 1970 to 20.3 percent in 1990 (Crouch, 1996).
Development policy in the 1970s, after the declaration of the NEP, led a
partial abandonment of laissezfaire policies in favor of greater state
intervention in resource allocation and public sector ownership and control
of business enterprises (Jomo, Chung, Folk, Ul-Haque, Phongpaichit,
Simatupang, & Tateishi, 1997). In the mid-1970s, petroleum production off
the east coast of peninsular Malaysia began as the world oil prices soared
beginning with the 1973 oil crisis. Then, it was followed by natural gas
production in the early 1980s offering yet another source of export and
foreign exchange earnings to enhance the Malaysian economy.
176
Economic and trade policy reforms led the way for accelerated
industrialization involving electronic components, electrical goods, textiles,
and other manufactured exports. Although poorly linked to the national
economy, the new labor-intensive industries generated new employment,
but at generally lower wage levels. However, as unemployment
declined and productivity rose, wage levels also increased, at least until the
early 1980s.
The fourth phase (1981 - 1987) was less distinct because the
government did not totally abandon export-oriented industrialization,
however, initiated the heavy industries, which some believed to be part of
a second stage of import substitution (Tan, 1981). During this period,
several new economic reforms were introduced such as Malaysia Incorporated,
privatization, and Look East Policy; all these reforms were aimed at
liberalizing the economy, downsizing the public sector, and allowing the
private sector to play a major role as the engine of growth (Abul Hassan,
1994; Neher, 1994). Nevertheless, rapid growth and industrialization had
not made the Malaysian economy less dependent on the world economy.
The global economic crisis of this period and its ramifications for Malaysia;
for example, through the electronics industry product cycles and the downfall
of the prices of Malaysias major commodity exports, had a strident impact
on the national economy as a whole (Crouch, 1996; Jomo, Chung, Folk,
Ul-Haque, Phongpaichit, Simatupang, & Tateishi, 1997). Meanwhile, new
private investments in manufacturing decreased and resulted in compounding
problems related to fiscal and debt crises, slow growth, and rising
177
unemployment culminating in the mid-1980s. Therefore, the early and

mid-1980s experienced a severe downturn in the Malaysian manufacturing
sector.
The fifth phase (1987 - 1995) of industrialization experienced a
dramatic recovery in the Malaysian manufacturing sector. The government
responded by adopting relatively liberal policies in 1986. At the same time,
the Ringgit was allowed to depreciate sharply. Within a short time, foreign
investment, especially from East Asian countries, was occurring as a result of
the Look East Policy; and the prices of Malaysias exports had begun to
recover. By 1988, the economy was expanding rapidly, and by 1995,
Malaysia had experienced eight successive years of annual growth of more
than 8 percent (Crouch, 1996). Per capita income also increased significantly
from US$ 978 in 1970 to US$ 9,470 in 1995 (Economic Planning Unit, 1996).
A robust economy has led the government to venture into more ambitious
projects such as The Worlds Tallest - Petronas Twin Towers and the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC). The purpose of the MSC is to create a cyber
haven and a quantum leap into the Information Super Highway and Advanced
Information Technology (Johnstone, 1997; Latif, 1997). However, there has
been a mismatch between the countrys leap into the high-tech capital intensive
economy and the shortage of high-tech skilled workers to complement it
(Davies, 1997). In summary, the economic recovery during this period has
been mainly led by foreign investment; therefore, it will be difficult to
sustain indefinitely and is quite vulnerable (Jomo, Chung, Folk, Ul-Haque,
Phongpaichit, Simatupang, & Tateishi, 1997).
178
Appendix D. Vocational and Technical Educator Questionnaire
179
1 Code No.:__
I______________
INDUSTRIALIZATION NEEDS SURVEY

Vocational and Technical Educator Questionnaire
The purpose of this survey is to determine the role of vocational and technical
programs in serving the industrialization needs of Malaysia.
Section I
Directions; Please check [
the appropriate box and provide the requested

information. All information will be held confidential.
1. Gender:
[ ] Male
[ ] Female
2. Ethnic Group:
[ ] Malay
[ ] Chinese
[ ] Indian
[ ] Other (please specify):______
3. Primary Program Area:

[
[
[
[
[
[
[
[
] Air-conditioning & Refrigeration

] Architecture/Regional-Town Planning
] Automotive Technology
j Building Construction
] Business/Commerce
] Civil Engineering
] Computer Technology
] Electrical Engineering
[
[
[
[
[
[
[
] Electrical & Electronics Technology

] Fitting & Machining Technology
] Food Technology
j Home Economics
] Mechanical Engineering
] Welding Technology
] Other (please specify):__________
4. Present Position:
[ ] Administrator
[ jTeacher
5. Type of Institution:
[ ] Vocational and Technical School
[ ] Polytechnics
6. Location of Institution:
[ ] North (Perlis, Kedah, P.Pinang)
[ ] Central (Selangor, W.Persekutuan)
[ ] South (N. Sembilan, Melaka, Johor)
[ ] West (Perak)
[ ] East (Pahang, Trengganu, Kelantan)
180
7. Highest Degree / Qualification:

[
[
[
[
] Malaysian Certificate of Education

[ ] Bachelors Degree
] High School Certificate
[ ] Masters Degree
] Polytechnic Diploma / Certificate
[ ] Other (please specify):________
] Technical College Diploma / Certificate
8. Years of teaching experience:

[ ] 0-2
[ ] 3-5
[ ] 6-10
[ ] 11-15
[ ] 16-20
[ ] over 20
9. Years of administrative experience:

NO
[ ] 1-2
[ ] 3-5
[ ] 6-10
[ ] 11-15
[]
16-20
[ ] over 20
10. How many inservice courses / workshops have you attended during
the past 5 years?
[]0
[ ] 1-2
[ ] 3-5
[ ] 6-10
[ ] 11-15
[]
16-20
[ ] over 20
11. Of the inservice courses / workshops you have attended during

the past 5 years, how many are relevant to your teaching job?
[ ]0
[ ] 1-2
[ ] 3-5
[ ] 6-10
[ ] 11-15
[ ] 16-20
[ ] over 20
Section II
Directions:
Please circle the appropriate response fo r each o f the following
statements.
Strongly
Agree
(SA)
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
(A)
(U)
(D)
Strongly
Disagree
(SD)
1.
Vocational and technical education

SA
SD
2.
Polytechnics and vocational and technical

institutions have prepared sufficient
numbers of skilled and semi-skilled workers
to satisfy the needs of Malaysias labor force.
SA
SD
3.

programs are more suitable than regular
academic school programs in responding to
the rapidly changing nature of skills and
new technology.
SA
SD
181
Strongly
Agree
(SA)
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
(A)
(U)
(D)
Strongly
Disagree
(SD)
4. Public vocational and technical institutions

and polytechnics are preparing higher quality
skilled and semi-skilled workers than
private vocational and technical institutions.
SA
SD
5. Substantial investment in vocational and

technical education and training is justified
considering the high employment
rate of vocational and technical graduates.
SA
SD
6.
Graduates of polytechnics / vocationaland

technical schools have better employment
opportunities than graduates from
academic secondary schools.
SA
SD
7.

technical schools are well prepared to enter
the competitive workforce.
SA
SD
8.

technical schools possess necessary
communication skills.
SA
SD
9.

social and interpersonal skills.
SA
SD
10. Graduates of polytechnics / vocational and

technical schools are self-motivated.
SA
SD
11. Graduates of polytechnics /vocational and

technical skills in their specialization.
SA
SD
12. Graduates of polytechnics/ vocational and

technical schools possess necessary critical
thinking and problem-solving skills.
SA
SD
13. Graduates of polytechnics /vocational and

technical schools have entrepreneurial skills
SA
SD
182
Strongly
Agree
(SA)
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
(A)
(U)
(D)
Strongly
Disagree
(SD)

technical schools possess positive attitude
toward work.
SA
SD
15. The government is committed to restructure

vocational and technical education and
training to meet the needs of Malaysias
industrialization.
SA
SD
16. The government provides a clear direction

regarding how to initiate partnerships or
collaboration between vocational and
technical institutions and business / industry.
SA
SD
17. The technical content of vocational and

technical curriculum is based on the
needs in the labor market.
SA
SD
18. The structure of vocational and technical

education and training is becoming more
flexible in responding to the changing
labor market.
SA
SD

and polytechnics would achieve greater
efficiency and productivity if managed
like businesses.
SA
SD
20. The government is proactive in satisfying

the human resource needs.
SA
SD
21. The government is focusing on long-term

solution of the human resource needs.
SA
SD
22. The government provides adequate facilities

and resources to prepare high quality
SA

business and industry on matters concerning
industrialization and human resource needs.
SA
SD
SD
183
Strongly
Agree
(SA)
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
(A)
(U)
(D)
Strongly
Disagree
(SD)
24. The government has utilized a systematic

mechanism to assess and forecast the human
resource needs of business and industry.
SA
SD
25. Industries in Malaysia are expanding so

rapidly that the vocational and technical
institutions are not likely to provide the
required workforce.
SA
SD
26. Vocational and technical graduates are

more interested in obtaining white-collar
than blue-collar jobs.
SA
SD

SA
SD

SA
SD

to the needs of vocational and technical
SA
SD
30. The governments policy is focused on
SA
SD
SA
SD
SA
SD
SA
SD
SA
SD
expanding vocational and technical

31. The government allocates sufficent funding

to upgrade and expand vocational and
technical and training programs.
32. The government provides adequate facilities,

equipment, and resources to vocational
and technical institutions.
33. The government is committed to maintaining

the high quality standards of vocational and
technical education and training programs.
34. Input from joint public and private sector
advisory committees is crucial for the
improvement of vocational and technical
184
Strongly
Agree
(SA)
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
(A)
(U)
(D)
Strongly
Disagree
(SD)
35. Exchange of technical expertise between

vocational and technical institutions and
business / industry is beneficial for both
parties.
SA
SD
36. The government is responsive to the needs

of business and industry.
SA
SD

incentives and excellent infrastructure
to attract business and industry.
SA
SD

incentives and a conducive environment
for public and private sectors to initiate
research and development activities.
SA
SD
39. The government policy regarding attracting

direct foreign investment is successful.
SA
SD

to this country by the foreign
Multi-National Corporations is
satisfactory.
SA
SD
41. The governments plans and actions toward

encouraging technological indigenization
(the creation of local technology capability)
are successful.
SA
SD
42. The governments plans and actions to help

local entrepreneurs to establish and
expand their businesses are successful.
SA
SD
43. The participation of local entrepreneurs

in the domestic economy is satisfactory.
SA
SD

in the global economy is satisfactory.
SA
SD

of an industrialized nation
by the year 2020.
SA
SD
185
Section III
Directions; Please provide your suggestions or recommendations regarding the
following statements.
1.
List the three most important factors to be considered in planning the

improvement of vocational and technical education and training.
1)_____________________________________________________________________
2)_________________________________________________________
3)_________________________________________________________
2.
List the three most important barriers that impede efforts to improve
vocational and technical education and training programs.
1)_____________________________________________________________________
2)____________________________________________________________
3)_________________________________________________________
3.
List the three most important skills and/or knowledge that vocational and
technical graduates should possess.
1)_____________________________________________________________________
2)_________________________________________________________
3)_________________________________________________________
4.
Other problems or issues related to the role of vocational and technical

education and training in the economic development of Malaysia that were
not addressed in this survey include:
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ASSISTANCE

Ramlee B. Mustapha
186
Appendix E. Employer Questionnaire
187
I Code No.:
INDUSTRIALIZATION NEEDS SURVEY

Employer Questionnaire
The purpose of this survey is to determine the role of vocational and technical
programs in serving the industrialization needs of Malaysia.
Section I
Directions: Please check [^1] the appropriate box and provide the requested
information. All information will be held confidential.
1. Gender:
[ ] Male
2. Ethnic Group:
[ ] Malay
[ ] Chinese
[ ] Female
[ ] Indian
[ ] Other (please specify):_________
3. Present Position:
[ ] CEO / President
[ ] Manager
[ ] Supervisor
[ ] Other (please specify):
4. Highest Degree / Qualification (Optional):

[ ] Malaysian Certificateof Education
[ ] High School Certificate
[ j Diploma / Certificate
[ ] Bachelors Degree
[ ] Masters Degree
[ ] Other (please specify):.
5. Years of M anagement Experience:

[ ] 0-2
[ ] 3-5
[ ] 6-10
[ ] 11-15
[ ] 16-20
[ ] over 20
6. Company Size:
[ ]
[ ]
Large
Medium
7. Type of Ownership:
[ ]
[ ]
Multi-National Corporation
Joint-Venture
[ ] Local Ownership
[ ] Other_(please specify):________
188
8.
My company manufactures this produces):
9.
Approximate numbers of technicians and skilled workers in this

company:
10.
Approximate number of technicians and skilled workers with

Technical Certificate or Diploma from Polytechnics or Vocational
and Technical institutions now working in this company:
Section II
Directions:
Please circle the appropriate response fo r each o f the following
statements.
Strongly
Agree
(SA)
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
(A)
(U)
(D)
Strongly
Disagree
(SD)
1.
Vocational and technical education

SA
2.

institutions have prepared sufficient
numbers of skilled and semi-skilled workers
to satisfy the needs of Malaysias labor force.
SA
SD
3.

programs are more suitable than regular
academic school programs in responding to
the rapidly changing nature of skills and
new technology.
SA
SD
SD
189
Strongly
Agree
(SA)
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
(A)
(U)
(D)

and polytechnics are preparing higher quality
skilled and semi-skilled workers than
private vocational and technical institutions.
SA
Strongly
Disagree
(SD)
U
SD
5. Substantial investment in vocational and

technical education and training is justified
considering the high employment
rate of vocational and technical graduates.
SA
SD

technical schools have better employment
opportunities than graduates from
academic secondary schools.
SA
SD

technical schools are well prepared to enter
the competitive workforce.
SA
SD

communication skills.
SA
SD

social and interpersonal skills.
SA
SD

technical schools are self-motivated.
SA
SD

technical skills in their specialization.
SA
SD

technical schools possess necessary critical
thinking and problem-solving skills.
SA
SD

technical schools have entrepreneurial skills
SA
SD
190
Strongly
Agree
(SA)
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
(A)
(U)
<P)
Strongly
Disagree
(SD)

technical schools possess positive attitude
toward work.
SA
SD
15. The government is committed to restructure

vocational and technical education and
training to meet the needs of Malaysias
industrialization.
SA
SD
16. The government provides a clear direction

regarding how to initiate partnerships or
collaboration between vocational and
technical institutions and business / industry.
SA
SD
17. The technical content of vocational and

technical curriculum is based on the
needs in the labor market.
SA
SD
18. The structure of vocational and technical

education and training is becoming more
flexible in responding to the changing
labor market.
SA
SD

and polytechnics would achieve greater
efficiency and productivity if managed
like businesses.
SA
SD
20. The government is proactive in satisfying

the human resource needs.
SA
SD
21. The government is focusing on long-term

solution of the human resource needs.
SA
SD
22. The government provides adequate facilities

and resources to prepare high quality
SA
SD

business and industry on matters concerning
industrialization and human resource needs.
SA
SD
191
Strongly
Agree
(SA)
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
(A)
(U)
(D)
Strongly
Disagree
(SD)
24. The government has utilized a systematic

mechanism to assess and forecast the human
resource needs of business and industry.
SA
SD
25. Industries in Malaysia are expanding so

rapidly that the vocational and technical
institutions are not likely to provide the
required workforce.
SA
SD
26. Vocational and technical graduates are

more interested in obtaining white-collar
than blue-collar jobs.
SA
SD

SA
SD

SA
SD

to the needs of vocational and technical
SA
SD
30. The governments policy is focused on

expanding vocational and technical
SA
SD
31. The government allocates sufficent funding

to upgrade and expand vocational and
technical and training programs.
SA
SD
32. The government provides adequate facilities,

equipment, and resources to vocational
and technical institutions.
SA
SD
33. The government is committed to maintaining

the high quality standards of vocational and
technical education and training programs.
SA
SD
34. Input from joint public and private sector

advisory committees is crucial for the
improvement of vocational and technical
SA
SD
192
Strongly
Agree
(SA)
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
(A)
(U)
(D)
Strongly
Disagree
(SD)
35. Exchange of technical expertise between

vocational and technical institutions and
business / industry is beneficial for both
parties.
SA
SD
36. The government is responsive to the needs

of business and industry.
SA
SD

incentives and excellent infrastructure
to attract business and industry.
SA
SD

incentives and a conducive environment
for public and private sectors to initiate
research and development activities.
SA
SD
39. The government policy regarding attracting

direct foreign investment is successful.
SA
SD

to this country by the foreign
Multi-National Corporations is
satisfactory.
SA
SD
41. The governments plans and actions toward

encouraging technological indigenization
(the creation of local technology capability)
are successful.
SA
SD
42. The governments plans and actions to help

local entrepreneurs to establish and
expand their businesses are successful.
SA
SD

in the domestic economy is satisfactory.
SA
SD

in the global economy is satisfactory.
SA
SD

of an industrialized nation
by the year 2020.
SA
SD
193
Section III
Directions: Please provide your suggestions or recommendations regarding the

following statements.
1.
List the three most important factors to be considered in planning the

improvement of vocational and technical education and training.
1)_____________________________________________________________________
2 )____________________________________________________________
3)_________________________________________________________
2.
List the three most important barriers that impede efforts to improve
vocational and technical education and training programs.
1)_____________________________________________________________________
2)__________________________________________________________
3)_________________________________________________________
3.
List the three most important skills and/or knowledge that vocational and
technical graduates should possess.
1)_____________________________________________________________________
2)__________________________________________________________
3)__________________________________________________________
4.
Other problems or issues related to the role of vocational and technical

education and training in the economic development of Malaysia that were
not addressed in this survey include:
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ASSISTANCE

Ramlee B. Muslapha
194
Appendix F-l:
Application for Permission to Conduct Research
195
Ramlee Mustapha
207 Blok 3, Jalan 6C/9,
Bandar Baru Bangi
15 hb. Disember 1997
43650 Selangor.
Pengarah
Bahagian Perancangan dan Penyelidikan Dasar Pendidikan
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia
Pusat Bandar Damansara
50604 Kuala Lumpur
Tuan,
Memohon Kebenaran Menjalankan Penvelidikan di Sekolah Menengah
Teknik-Vokasional dan Politeknik.
Dengan hormatnya saya memohon kebenaran pihak Kementerian untuk
menjalankan penyelidikan ilmiah di Sekolah Menengah Teknik-Vokasional
dan Politeknik. Saya adalah pasca-siswazah yang sedang mengikuti progam
Ijazah Doktor Falsafah di Purdue University, Amerika Syarikat. Penyelidikan
ini merupakan tesis Doktor Falsafah saya.
Tajuk kajian saya adalah seperti berikut: The Role of VocationalTechnical Education in the Industrialization of Malaysia as Perceived by
Vocational-Technical Educators and Industrial Empoloyers.
Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk menilai persepsi pendidik and
majikan terhadap peranan pendidikan teknik and vokasional dalam
membantu negara mencapai status negara industri. Hasil kajian ini akan
dapat membantu pihak kerajaan, pendidik, dan majikan dalam merancang
strategi dan polisi mengenai pendidikan, latihan, dan gunatenaga.
Bersama ini saya sertakan cadangan penyelidikan dan lain-lain dokumen
sokongan yang diperlukan. Terima kasih atas kerjasama pihak tuan.
(Ramlee B. Mustapha)
196
(Translated)
Ramlee Mustapha
Bandar Baru Bangi
15th. December 1997
43650 Selangor.
Director
Educational Planning and Research Policy Division
Ministry of Education
50604 Kuala Lumpur
Sir,
Permission to Conduct Research at Vocational and Technical Schools
and Polytechnics
I request permission to conduct academic research at vocational
and technical schools and polytechnics. Im a doctoral student at Purdue
University, USA.
The topic of my research is as follows: The Role of Vocational and
Technical Education in the Industrialization of Malaysia as Perceived by
Vocational and Technical Educators and Industrial Employers.
The objective of this research is to identify the perceptions of
education in the industrialization of Malaysia. The results of this study
would assist educators, employers, and policymakers to plan short and long
term strategies for education, training and human resource development.
Herewith I enclosed a copy of the research proposal and other
relevant documents. Thank you for your cooperation.
197
Ramlee Mustapha
Bandar Baru Bangi
15 hb. Disember 1997
43650 Selangor.
Pengarah
Bahagian Pendidikan Teknik
50604 Kuala Lumpur
Tuan,
Memohon Kebenaran Menjalankan Penyelidikan di Sekolah Menengah
Teknik-Vokasional dan Politeknik.
Dengan hormatnya saya memohon kebenaran pihak Kementerian untuk
menjalankan penyelidikan ilmiah di Sekolah Menengah Teknik-Vokasional
dan Politeknik. Saya adalah pasca-siswazah yang sedang mengikuti progam
Ijazah Doktor Falsafah di Purdue University, Amerika Syarikat. Penyelidikan
ini merupakan tesis Doktor Falsafah saya.
Tajuk kajian saya adalah seperti berikut: The Role of VocationalTechnical Education in the Industrialization of Malaysia as Perceived by
Vocational-Technical Educators and Industrial Empoloyers.
Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk menilai persepsi pendidik and
majikan terhadap peranan pendidikan teknik and vokasional dalam
membantu negara mencapai status negara industri. Hasil kajian ini akan
dapat membantu pihak kerajaan, pendidik, dan majikan dalam merancang
strategi dan polisi mengenai pendidikan, latihan, dan gunatenaga.
Bersama ini saya sertakan cadangan penyelidikan dan lain-lain
dokumen sokongan yang diperlukan. Terima kasih atas keijasama pihak tuan.
198
(Translated)
Ramlee Mustapha
Bandar Baru Bangi
43650 Selangor.
15th. December 1997
Director
Technical Education Division
50604 Kuala Lumpur
Sir,
Permission to Conduct Research at Vocational and Technical Schools
and Polytechnics
I request permission to conduct academic research at vocational and
technical schools and polytechnics. Im a doctoral student at Purdue
University, USA.
The topic of my research is as follows: The Role of Vocational and
Technical Education in the Industrialization of Malaysia as Perceived by
Vocational and Technical Educators and Industrial Employers.
The objective of this research is to identify the perceptions of
education in the industrialization of Malaysia. The results of this study would
assist educators, employers, and policymakers to plan short and long-term
strategies for education, training and human resource development.
Herewith I enclosed a copy of the research proposal and other
relevant documents. Thank you for your cooperation.
199
Appendix F-2:
Letter of Permission to Conduct Research
200
Mt
-
BAHAGIAN PERANCANGAN DAN PENYELIDIKAN

DASAR PENDIDIKAN (BPPDP),
KEMENTERIAN PENDIDIKAN MALAYSIA
Paras 2,3 & 5, Blok J
PUSAT BANDAR DAMANSARA.
50604 KUALA LUMPUR.
Te/efon : 03-2583204
F a k s: 03-2554960
Ruj. K am i : KPfBPPDP* 13/15 Jkl.-Wi'jj

Tarikh
: 5 Januari 1998
En. R am lee M ustap ha.

207. Blok 3. Jalan 6C/9.
B an dar Baru Bangi.
43650 SELANGOR
Tuan.
Kebenaran Untuk Menjalankan Kajian Di Sekolah-Sekolah , Maktab-Maktah

Pergurnan, Jabatan-Jabatan Pendidikan Dan Bahagian-Bahagian Di Bawah
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia_________________________________________________
Adalah saya den gan horm atnya diarah memaklumkan bahaw a permohonan tuan untuk
menjalankan kajian bertajuk:
T h e R ole or V o ca tio n a l-T ech n ica l E d u cation In T h e In dustrialization O f
M ala y sia A s P erceiv ed By V ocation al-T ech n ical E d u cators A nd Industrial
E m p lo y ers* teiah diluluskan
2.
Kelulusan ini adalah berdasarkan apa yang terkandung di dalam cadangan
penyelidikan ya m g tuan kem ukakan ke Bahagian ini. Kebenaran baei meneeunakan
saiiwel kaiian oerlu dioerolehi darinada Ketua Bahasian/Pemaralt Pendidikan

neeeri vane berkenaan.
Sekian untuk m a k lu m a n dan tindakan tuan selanjutnya. T erim a kasih.
B E R K H ID M A T U N T U K N E G A R A "
Saya yang m enurut perintah.
(D R . A B D . K A R IM B IN M I). N O R )
b.p. Pengarah.
Bahagian Perancangan dan Penyelidikan Dasar Pendidikan.
Kementerian Pendidikan M alaysia
201
(Translated)
Educational Planning and Research Policy Division
50604 Kuala Lumpur
Ref: KP(BPPDP) 13/15 Jld.49 (2157)
Date: 5 January 1998
En. Ramlee Mustapha
207 Blok 3, Jalan 6C/9
Bandar Baru Bangi
43650 SELANGOR
Sir,
Permission to conduct research at schools, teacher colleges, education
department, and others under the Ministry of Education
Im pleased that your application to conduct research titled:
The Role of Vocational-Technical Education In The Industrialization Of
Malaysia As Perceived By Vocational-Technical Educators and Industrial
Employers has been approved.
2.
This approval is based on the content of your research proposal
forwarded to this Division. Permission to use samples should be obtain
from the respective Head Department or State Education Director.
Thank you.
SERVE THE NATION
(DR. ABD. KARIM MD. NOR)
202
JABATAN PENDIDIKAN TEKNIKAL,

KEMENTERIAN PENDIDIKAN MALAYSIA,
PARAS 3, BLOKF,
PUSAT BANDAR DAMANSARA,
50604 KUALA LUMPUR
Telefon: 03-2558655
Kawat : PENDIDIKAN
Fax : 03-2551170
Ruj.Kami: KP/JPT-BRS/10/l/(57)
Tarikh : 6 Januari 1998
Encik Ramlee Mustapha

207, Blok 3,
Jalan 6C/9,
Bandar Baru Bangi,
43650 SELANGOR.
Tuan.
Kebenaran U ntuk M enjalankan Kajian Di Politeknik, Sekolah M enengah Teknik
dan Sekolah M enengah V okasional Di Bawah Jabatan Pendidikan Teknikal,
Kem enterian Pendidikan M alaysia______________________________________________
Saya dengan hormatnya merujuk kepada perkara di atas.

Sukacita dimaklumkan bahawa permohonan tuan untuk menjalankan kajian The Role o f
Vocational-Technical Education In The Industrialization O f Malaysia As Perceived By
Vocational-Technical Educators And Industrial Employers di Politeknik, Sekolah Menengah
2.
Teknik dan Sekolah Menengah Vokasional adalah diluluskan.

3.
Bersama-sama ini disertakan sesalinan surat akuan Jabatan untuk tindakan tuan
selanjutnya.
Sekian, terima kasih.
B E R K fflD M A T U N T U K NEG ARA

Saya yang menurut perintah,
CL
<VM
(M D. DESA B IN O SM A N )
"
Pengarah
Bahagian Perancangan dai Penyelidikan
Jabatan Pendidikan Tekniltal
203
(Translated)
Technical Education Department

50604 Kuala Lumpur
Ref: KP/JPT-BRS/10/1/(57)
Encik Ramlee Mustapha
207 Blok 3, Jalan 6C/9
Bandar Baru Bangi
43650 SELANGOR
Sir,
Permission to conduct research at Polytechnics. Technical and Vocational
Schools under Technical Education Division. Ministry of Education
I refer to the above-mentioned inquiry.
2.
Im pleased that your application to conduct research titled:
The Role of Vocational-Technical Education In The Industrialization Of
Malaysia As Perceived By Vocational-Technical Educators and Industrial
Employers at Polytechnics, and Technical and Vocational Schools has been
approved.
3. Herewith I enclosed the confirmation letter.
SERVE THE NATION
(MD. DESA BIN OSMAN)

Director,
Planning and Research Division
Technical Education Department,
Ministry of Education.
204
Appendix F-3:
Confirmation Letter
205
JABATAN PENDIDIKAN TEKNIKAL,

KEMENTERIAN PENDIDIKAN MALAYSIA,
PARAS 3. BLOK F,
PUSAT BANDAR DAMANSARA,
Telefon: 03-2558655
Kawat : PENDIDIKAN
Fax : 03-2551170
50604 KUALA LUMPUR
Ruj. Tuan: UKM (Per) 5703

Ruj.Kami: KP/JPT-BRS/10/l/(57)
Tarikh
: 6 Januari 1998
Kenada Sesiana Yang Berkenaan
ENCIK RAMLEE BIN MUSTAPHA

PURDUE UNIVERSITY. WEST LAFAYETTE, INDIANA. U.S.A
Adalah disahkan bahawa, Encik Ramlee Bin Mustapha sedang menjalankan kajian untuk memenuhi syarat
kursus ijazah Ph.D yang beliau sedang ikuti di Purdue University. Tajuk tesis beliau ialah The Role o f
Vocational-Technical Education in ihe Industrialization o f M alaysia as Perceived by Vocational-Technical
Educators and Industrial Employers.
2.
Tujuan kajian ini ialah untuk menilai sejauh mana kualiti program dan lepasan Politeknik dan
Sekolah Menengah Teknik/Vokasional dapat membantu negara menuju ke arah Negara Perindustrian.
Dengan pengetahuan ini dapatlah sistem pendidikan negara kita amnya dan Kementerian Pendidikan
khasnya mempeibaiki dan meningkatkan lagi prestasi institusi-institusi teknikal dan vokasional untuk
memenuhi tcnaga manusia bagi keperluan negara dan indusui.
3.
Di antara kumpulan sasaran utama yang beliau akan kaji ialah kumpulan pentadbir, pensyarah dan
tenaga pengajar Politeknik dan Sekolah Menengah Teknik/Vokasional. Sehubungan dengan itu, Tuan/Puan
telah dipilih sebagai responden dari kumpulan ini. Keijasama tuan/puan adalah diminta untuk menjawab
soalselidik yang telah beliau sediakan.
4.
Jabatan ini berharap agar pihak tuan/puan dapat memberi keijasama kepada Encik Ramlee Bin
Mustapha semoga kajian ini dapat dijalankan mengikut jadual dan mencapai kejayaan sepeiti diharapkan.
Terima kasih.
BERKHIDMAT UNTUK NEGARA
CK\
(\AA*^P
( HAJI MD. DESA BIN OSM VN)'

Pengarah
Bahagian Perancangan dan Pen; elidikan
Jabatan Pendidikan Teknikal
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.
ms/fln/surat/purduekaji
206
(Translated)
Technical Education Department

50604 Kuala Lumpur
Ref: KP/JPT-BRS/10/l/(57)
To Whom It Mav Concern

MR. RAMLEE BIN MUSTAPHA
PURDUE UNIVERSITY. WEST LAFAYETTE. INDIANA. USA.
This letter is to confirm that, Mr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha, is in the process
of conducting his doctoral research. The title of his thesis is: The Role of
Vocational-Technical Education In The Industrialization O f Malaysia As
Perceived By Vocational-Technical Educators and Industrial Employers.
2.
The purpose of his research is to assess the quality of vocational and
technical graduates and their contribution to the industrial development of
Malaysia. The results of this study may be used to improve our vocational
and technical programs.
3.
One of the target populations of this research is educators from
polytechnics and vocational and technical schools. As an educator, you
have been selected to participated in this study. Your cooperation is needed
to complete the enclosed questionnaire.
4.
This Department is expecting your cooperation. Thank you.
SERVE THE NATION
(MD. DESA BIN OSMAN)

Director, Planning and Research Division
Technical Education Department,
Ministry of Education.
VITA
207
VITA
Ramlee Bin Mustapha
520 North Grant Street,
West Lafayette, IN 47906
USA
Academic Qualifications___________________________________________
Ph. D.
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA.

Vocational and Technical Education.
(May 1999)
M. S.
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA.

Industrial Technology.
(August 1998)
Post-Graduate
Diploma in TESL
SEAMEO Regional Language Centre, Singapore.

Teaching English as a Second Language.
(March 1989).
M.Ed.
Eastern New Mexico University, Portales, New Mexico, USA.

Educational Administration (Secondary Education).
(December 1987)
B.S. ChE.
University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, USA.

Chemical Engineering.
(December 1986)
Cert, in ESL
The Midwest Institute for International Studies.

Augustana College, Sioux Falls, South Dakota, USA.
English as a Second Language.
(August 1982)
208
Professional Experiences
August 1998
Teaching Assistant, Department of 4-H, Purdue University.
May 1999
Jan 1996 -
Research Assistant, Department of Curriculum and Instruction,
May 1997
Purdue University.
June 1992 -
Lecturer, Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan
August 1993
Malaysia.
January 1989 -
Teacher, Language Centre, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
May 1992
May 1984 -
Student Teacher, MARA Junior Science College,
July 1984
Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia.
Presentations at National Conferences_________________________________

Attitudes and motivations of vocational teachers regarding program improvement.
Paper presented at the American Vocational Association Annual Convention,
Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, December 12, 1997.
209
Presentations at Regional Conferences________________________________

"International perspectives on education," presented at Purdue Research Seminar,
West Lafayette, Indiana, USA, September 2, 1994.
"Program improvement needs: Attitudes of vocational teachers," presented at

Purdue Research Seminar, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA, October 20, 1995.
"Vocational education in developing countries," presented at Purdue Research

Seminar, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA, March 22, 1996.
"Attitudes and motivations of vocational personnel regarding program improvement,"

presented at Purdue Research Seminar, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA,
November 22,1996.
The relationship between self-concept and self-rating in post-secondary vocational

programs, presented at Purdue Research Seminar, West Lafayette, Indiana,
USA, April 11, 1997.
Educator perspectives regarding program improvement, presented at Purdue

Research Seminar, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA, December 5,1997.
The relationship between self-concept and self-rating in post-secondary vocational

programs, presented at Purdue Research Seminar, West Lafayette, Indiana,
USA, May 1,1998.
210
Publications in Refereed Journals_______________________________________

Greenan, J.P., Wu, M., M ustapha, R.B., & Ncube, L. (1998). Attitudes
and motivations of vocational teachers regarding program improvement. Journal of
Industrial Teacher Education. 35(3). 6 - 23.
O ther Publications____________________________________________________
Mustapha, R.B. (1998). Technology transfer and technological capability
development: A case study of Malavsian automotive industry. M.S. Directed
Project, Purdue University.

The Role of Vocational and Technical Education

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INFORMATION TO U SER S

Thus, some thesis and

Bell & Howell Information and Learning

Ramlee Bin Mustapha__________________________________________ __________

Signed by the final examining committee, chair

is not to be regarded as confidential.

Format Approved by:

THE ROLE OF VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION

In Partial Fulfillment of the

UMI Number: 9952000

UMI Microform 9952000

<1o my wife who introduced me to the wonder o f Love

helpful in assisting me get through the bureaucracy. I am specially indebted

Appendix F-l Application for Permission to Conduct Research......194

Demographic Information for the Vocational and

Demographic Information for the Employers......................68

Role of Vocational and Technical Education in

Employability of Vocational and Technical

Factors that Facilitate or Inhibit the Restructuring

Governments Effectiveness in Satisfying

Factors that Contribute to Shortages of

Governments Responsiveness to the Needs of

Governments Responsiveness to Business

Critical Factors in Planning the Improvement of

Barriers to the Improvement of Vocational and

Important Skills and Knowledge that Vocational

Additional Problems and Issues related to

Mustapha, Ramlee B. Ph.D., Purdue University, May, 1999. The Role of

Nature of the Problem

than 50 percent of Malaysias exports, it is the worlds largest exporter of

and polytechnics, there is a variety of training options. These include public

The heavy industrialization agenda has not been without criticism.

The per capita income of Malaysians has risen significantly from

country's industrial development. The ultimate goal of the Vision is for

Statement of the Problem

the absorptive capability of Malaysias product

the dependence on foreign expatriates for

Malaysia is also confronted with the challenge of producing an

This has necessitated industries to make adjustments toward capital-intensive

Purpose and Objectives of the Study

To examine the perceptions of educators regarding

To examine the perceptions of employers regarding

Significance of the Study

technical education policies appear frequently not considered in the decision

Delimitations of the Study

Peninsular Malaysia by the South China Sea. Also, the economic

Assumptions of the Study

Bumiputra: The native Malay and other minority indigenous

Cost-benefit analysis: An evaluation strategy that compares the

Employability skills: The non-technical skills such as basic skills,

Formal training: Structured training that is delivered at an established

Generalizable skill: A cognitive, affective, or psychomotor trait

Human capital: The theory that human beings invest in

Indigenous technological capability: The capacity to create, adapt,

Industrialization: A process through which human beings apply

Informal training: Unstructured training such as informal

Large-size manufacturing company: A company which

Medium-size manufacturing company: A company which

Semi-skilled workers: Graduates from certified skill training

Skilled workers: Graduates of post-secondary vocational or

Vocational and technical education: Specialized programs in

Vocational training: Any type of job-related learning that raises

Education for Work. Training, and Industrialization

subjects were viewed as vital components in the fierce competition among

Ramlee Bin Mustapha________________________________