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C has emerged as the most widely used programming language for software
development. Its features allow the development of well-structured programs. Most
computers directly support its data types and control structures, resulting in the
construction of efficient programs. It is independent of any particular machine architecture
or operating system, which makes it easy to write portable programs. It is this contribution
of rich control structure and data types, portability and conciseness that has contributed to
the popularity of C.
History of C
C programming language is basically developed for UNIX Operating System.
UNIX was developed in 1969 at bell telephone laboratories. It was entirely written on PDP
7 assembly language. After UNIX has been implemented Ken Thompson implemented a
compiler for a new language called B used for transporting UNIX onto other machines. B
was heavily influenced by BCPL (Basic Cambridge Programming Language) written for
writing system software. B was latter modified by Dennis Ritchie who was also working
at bell Labs. He named the successor C. Unix was later rewritten in C by Dennis Ritchie,
Thompson and others by 1973.
C Program Structure
A basic fact about computer programming is that all programs can be written using
a combination of only three control structures: Sequential, Selective and repetitive. The
sequential structure consists of a sequence of program statements that are executed one
after another in order, the selective structure consists of a test for a condition followed by
alternative paths that the program can follow, and the repetitive structure consists of
program statements that are repeatedly executed while some condition holds.
The sequential structure can be pictorially represented as follows
Entry
Statement 1
Statement 2
Statement 3
Exit
All C programs are made up of one or more functions, each performing a particular task.
Every program has a special function named main. It is special because the execution of
any program starts at the beginning of its main function.
A typical C program has following sections
1. Preprocessor Directives
2. Global Variable Declarations
3. Functions
In a C program, preprocessor directive, if present, should come first followed by global
variable definition if any.
Variable Declaration in C
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Data Types
Every programming language has its own data type. The basic data types in C are
Int - an integer
Float a single precision floating point number
Char - a character in C character set
Double a double precision floating point number
Variables
Variables are data objects that are manipulated in a program. Information can be
stored in a variable and recalled later. Variables must be declared before they can be used
in a program.
Constants
A constant is an entity whose value does not change during program execution.
Constants are of five different types
1.
2.
3.
4.
Integer Constants
Floating point Constants
Character Constants
String Constants
C Operators
The operators in C include
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Arithmetic
Assignment
Relational
Increment and Decrement
Bit
Logical or Boolean
Conditional expression
INPUT / OUTPUT
The important aspects of C programming language are its ability to handle input and output
(I/O). A program using input / output functions must include the standard header file
(stdio.h) in it using the directive.
Printf functions (CONIO.H, STDIO.H)
printf sends formatted output to stdout
fprintf sends formatted output to a stream
cprintf sends formatted output to the text window on the screen
Scanf Function
Scanf - reads data from stdin
Fscanf reads data from stream
The GETCHAR and PUTCHAR Function
Getchar, putchar (STDIO.h)
-
getch gets a character from console but does not echo to the screen
getche gets a character from console and echoes to the screen
gets, puts
LOOPS IN C
WHILE LOOP
While loop provides the mechanism for looping as long as a specified condition is met.
The while loop should be used in applications that do not require the modification of any
variables at each iteration.
SYNTAX
While (condition)
Statements
The statement may be a single statement or a block of statements that is to be repeated. The
condition may be any expression, with true being any non-zero value. The statements are
executed while the condition is true. When the condition becomes false, program control
passes to the line after the loop code.
FOR LOOP
This is used when the statements are to be executed more than once. This is the most widely
used iteration construct. The for loop supported by C is much more powerful than its
counterpart in any other programming language.
SYNTAX
For (exp1;exp2;exp3)
{
statements;
.
}
Generally exp1 is an initialization, exp2 is condition checking; exp3 is either an increment
or decrement statement.
The initialization is usually an assignment statement that is used to set the loop control
variable. The condition is a relational expression that determines when the loop will
terminate. The increment determines how the loop control variable change each time the
loop is repeated.
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
main()
{
int n, i, seven=0, sodd=0;
int a[25];
clrscr();
printf(:\n Enter the total number to be entered:);
scanf(%d,&n);
printf(\n Enter the values);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
if(a[ i]%2==0)
seven=seven+a[i];
else
sodd=sodd+a[I];
}
printf(\n The Sum of Even number is %d,seven);
for(i=2;i<=n/2;i++)
{
if(n%i= =0)
printf(\n the given number is not prime);
break;
}
if(n%i)
printf(\n the given number is prime);
getch();
}
e=(e*10)+s;
p=p/10;
}
if(e= = n)
printf(\n the given number is palindrome);
else
printf(\n the given number is not a palindrome);
getch();
}
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int n,q,r,s=0;
clrscr();
printf(\n Enter the no");
scanf(%d,&n);
while(n!=0)
{
q=n/10;
r=n-q*10;
s=s+r;
n=q;
}
printf(\n the sum of digits :%d,s);
getch();
}
7. Write a program to find whether the given number is perfect or not.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int a = 0;
int m;
printf(Enter a number to check whether it is a perfect number or not \n);
{
int n,a[30],sea,flag;
clrscr();
printf(\n Enter the number of terms :);
scanf(%d,&n);
printf(\n Enter the values:);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
scanf(%d,a[i]);
printf(\n Enter the number to be searched :);
scanf(%d,&sea);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
if(a[i] = = sea)
{
flag=1;
break;
}
else
flag=0;
}
if(flag= = 1)
printf(\n The given number %d is present in the position number
%d,sea,i);
else
printf(\n The given number is not present);
getch(); }
10. Write a C program to find the given number using binary search method.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int n,a[30],sea,flag,x,y,t;
int low,high,mid;
clrscr();
printf(\n Enter the number of terms :);
scanf(%d,&n);
printf(\n Enter the values:);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
scanf(%d,a[i]);
for(x=0;x<n-1;x++)
for(y=x+1;y<n;y++)
10
{
if(a[x]>a[y])
{
t=a[x];
a[x]=a[y];
a[y]=t;
}
}
printf(\n The sorted numbers are :);
for(x=0;x<n;x++)
printf(%d\n,a[x]);
printf(\n Enter the number to be searched :);
scanf(%d,&sea);
low=0;
high=n;
while(low<=high)
{
mid=(low+high)/2;
if(t<a[mid])
high=mid-1;
if(t>a[mid])
low=mid+1;
if(t= = a[mid])
{
printf(\n the number %d is present in the position %d,t,mid);
flag=0;
break;
}
if(mid = =1 | | mid= = n)
break;
}
if(flag)
printf(\n The given number is not present);
getch();
}
11
{
int n;
void fibo(int);
clrscr();
printf(\t\t PROGRAM TO PRINT THE FIBONACCI SERIES \n);
printf(\n Enter the number of terms to be in the series \n );
scanf(%d,&n);
fibo(n);
getch();
}
void fibo(int num)
{
int I=1,ct,ft,st;
ft = 0;
st = 1;
printf(\t %d \t %d,ft,st);
while(I<=num-2)
{
ct = ft + st;
ft = st;
st = ct;
printf(\t%d,ct);
I++;
}
}
12. Program to perform the matrix additions
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[10][10],b[10][10],c[10][10],row,col,r,co,I,j,k;
clrscr();
printf(\t\t Matrix Addition\n);
printf(Enter Row order of Matrix A : );
scanf(%d,&row);
printf(Enter Column order of Matrix A : );
scanf(%d,&col);
printf(Enter Row order of Matrix B : );
scanf(%d,&r);
printf(Enter Column order of Matrix B : );
scanf(%d,&co);
if ((row!=r) || (col != co) )
{
12
13
fact = fact * I;
printf(The factorial of a given number is %d\n,fact);
}
14
15
printf("\n");
}
getch(); }
17. Program to implement to Pascal Triangle
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1,j,k,m,n;
clrscr();
printf("\t\t\tPascal Triangle\n");
printf("\t\t\t===============\n");
printf("Enter the no of Lines:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(j=0;j<n;++j)
{
for(k=35-2*j;k>0;k--)
printf(" ");
for(m=0;m<=j;++m)
{
if((m==0)||(j==0))
i=1;
else
i=(i*(j-m+1))/m;
printf("%4d",i);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}
16
17
scanf("%s",name1);
i=j=0;
while(name[i]!='\0')
{
name2[i]=name[i];
i++;
}
while(name1[j]!='\0')
{
name2[i]=name1[j];
i++;
j++;
}
name2[i]='\0';
printf("Resultant String in name2 is%s",name2);
break;
}
case 2:
{
printf("\t\tReverse\n");
printf("\t\t=======\n");
printf("Enter the string \n");
scanf("%s",name);
i=j=0;
while(name[i]!='\0')
i++;
while(--i>=0)
name1[j++]=name[i];
name1[j]='\0';
printf("\nThe reversed String is%s",name1);
break;
}
case 3:
{
printf("\n\t\tFind\n");
printf("\t\t====\n");
printf("\nEnter first string:");
scanf(" %[^\n]",name);
printf("Enter search string:");
scanf(" %[^\n]",name1);
l=strlen(name);
l1=strlen(name1);
for(i=0;i<l;++i)
{
c=0;
if(name[i]==name1[c])
18
{
m=i;
sign=0;
while(name1[c]!='\0'&&sign!=1)
{
if(name[m]==name1[c])
{
m++;
c++;
}
else
sign=1;
}
if(sign==0)
{
printf("The given string is present");
printf("\nIts starting position is%d",i+1);
exit(1);
k=-1;
}
}
if(k<0)break;
}
if(sign!=0)
printf("The given string is not present");
break;
}
case 4:
{
i=0;
j=0;
strcpy(nameff," ");
puts("Enter the string:");
scanf(" %[^\n]",name);
fflush(stdin);
puts("Enter find string");
scanf(" %[^\n]",name1);
fflush(stdin);
puts("Enter replace string:");
scanf(" %[^\n]",namer);
fflush(stdin);
l=strlen(name);
strcat(namer," ");
while(i<l)
{
19
j=0;
for(k=0;k<80;++k)
name2[k]=' ';
while(name[i]!=' '&&name[i]!='\0')
{
name2[j]=name[i];
++i;
++j;
}
name2[j]='\0';
++i;
if((strcmp(name2,name1))==0)
{
strcat(nameff," ");
strcat(nameff,namer);
}
else
{
strcat(nameff," ");
strcat(nameff,name2);
}
}
puts("string after replacement");
puts(nameff);
break;
}
case 5:
{
i=0;
printf("Enter String:");
scanf(" %[^\n]",name);
while(name[i]!='\0')
i++;
printf("\nThe length of the given string is%d",i);
break;
}
}
getch();
}
20
Data Structures
An introduction to C:
Dennis Ritchie at AT & T Bell laboratory, Murray Hill, New Jersey,
developed the programming language C in 1972. The languages BCPL and B mainly
influenced it. It was named as C to present it as the successor of B language which was
Designed earlier by Ken Thompson in 1970 for the first UNIX system on the DECPDP-7
Computer.
How to run C program:
1. From the Ms Dos prompt start C by typing tc.
2. Open a file by selecting File | Open | File name from the IDE menu. Or press
F3 Key
3. Run the program by selecting Run | Run, Or press
Ctrl+F9 Key
4. To see the programs output select Window | User screen or press
Alt+F5 Key.
We may compile and run the programs from the Dos command
Line like
tcc Filename <Enter>.
After the program is compiled, we may run it and view the output by typing
Filename <Enter>
Problem solving using computer:
To solve a problem using a computer, the following steps are required :
A program is developed using a high level programming language (program
development)
The developed program is entered into a commuter (Program editing).
The edited program is translated and is produced as an executable machine code.
The Executable machine code is run in the computer to carry out the actual task
(execution).
To implement the above steps, the programmer develops a program and the
developed program is entered and edited with the help of an editor. Normally the editor is
provided along with the compiler. After editing the program, the compilation commands
us used for the translation process. Then the execution command is used to run the program
to get the desired output.
21
Compilation:
High-level languages allow some English like words and mathematical
expressions that facilitate the better understanding of the logic involved in a program.
High-level languages are machine independent. Since a computer system cannot follow
programs written in a high language, high language programs are translated into low-level
language programs and then executed.
Translation of a high-level language program to allow level language
program is done by software known as Compiler. Object code is an intermediate code
between the source code and the executable code.
Linking:
Linker performs the linking of libraries with the object code, to make the generated
object code into an executable machine code. Thus the object code becomes an input to the
linker, which produces an executable machine code. Sometimes programs are divided into
modules and these modules are compiled separately and then linked by the linker and
executed.
When running a program, the following files will be created automatically.
Primitive
Example: Integer
Real
Character
Pointer
Logical
Non Primitive
Linear
Example: Linear List
Stack
Queue
22
Non Linear
Example: Graph
Tree
Array
An array is a finite collection of similar elements stored in contiguous location.
The operations done on an array are: Insertion
Deletion
Changing a particular element
Linked List
There are three types of linked lists. They are:
Pointer
Field
The data field contains the data elements that have to be stored in the list. The
pointer will point the next node in the list.
The operations done on a list are: Insertion
Deletion
Insertion
Insertion in the head node
To insert a node in the head node, just change the pointer field of the new
node to point to the head node. Let the new node be Temp and the head node be
Head, then the insertion is
Temp data = X;
Head next = head
23
24
25
frequently used list is known as queue. We have two pointers to access the queue. They
are
1. Front (used for deletion)
2. Rear (Used for insertion)
Insertion :
if rear>n queue overflow
else
increment the rear pointer and insert the value in the rear position.
Deletion :
If front =0 then queue underflow
Else
Increment the front pointer and return the front-1 value
Tree
An important class of digraph, which involves for the description of hierarchy. A
directed tree is an acyclic digraph which has one node called root with in degree 0, while
other nodes have in degree 1. Every directed tree must have at least one node. An isolated
node is also called as directed tree. The node with out degree as 0 is called as leaf. The
length of the path from root to particular node level of the node. If the ordering of the node
at each level is prescribed then the tree is called as ordered tree.
Binary Tree
If a tree has at most of two children, then such tree is called as Binary tree. If the
elements in the binary tree are arranged in the following order
Left element is lesser than the root
Right element is greater then the root
No duplication of elements
Then such binary tree is called as Binary Search Tree
Operations performed in a binary tree are:
o Inserting a node
o Deleting a node
o Traversing the tree
Traversing Methods
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
26
Issues in Sorting
Increasing or Decreasing Order? - The same algorithm can be used by both all we need
do is change
to
What about equal keys? May be we need to sort on secondary keys, or leave in the
same order as the original permutations.
27
What about non-numerical data? - Alphabetizing is sorting text strings, and libraries
have very complicated rules concerning punctuation, etc. Is Brown-Williams before or
after Brown America before or after Brown, John?
We can ignore all three of these issues by assuming a comparison function which
depends on the application. Compare (a,b) should return ``<'', ``>'', or ''=''.
Applications of Sorting
One reason why sorting is so important is that once a set of items is sorted, many
other problems become easy.
Heaps
A heap is a complete binary tree with values stored in its nodes such that no child has a
value bigger than the value of the parent.
Below is a heap.
9
/\
8 2
/\
6 4
A heap provides a representation for a priority queue. Example: messages processed by
priority at a server
28
and then we recursively reestablish the heap property as follows: if the parent is greater
than a child, swap the parent with the highest priority child. Keep swapping until no more
swaps are possible. So in the above tree, first we would swamp 4 with 8.
8
/\
4 2
/
6
Then we would swap 4 with 6.
8
/\
6 2
/
4
The final swap yields a heap!
The cost of removing an item (reheapifiying after removing the item) is O(log n). The
algorithm just traverses one path in the tree, which is O(log n) in length. For each node
on that path it performs at most two comparisons and one swap (3 operations -> constant
time). So overall the algorithm has a worst case time complexity of O(log n).
Space complexity is O(n) since a sequential array representation can be used.
Quick sort
is a very efficient sorting algorithm invented by C.A.R. Hoarer. It has two
phases:
As we will see, most of the work is done in the partition phase - it works out where to
divide the work. The sort phase simply sorts the two smaller problems that are generated
in the partition phase.
This makes Quick sort a good example of the divide and conquers strategy for solving
problems. (You've already seen an example of this approach in the binary search
procedure.) In quick sort, we divide the array of items to be sorted into two partitions and
then call the quick sort procedure recursively to sort the two partitions, i.e. we divide the
problem into two smaller ones and conquer by solving the smaller ones. Thus the
conquer part of the quick sort routine looks like this:
29
Graph Traversal
Systematic traversals of graph are similar to preorder and post order traversal for trees.
There are two graph traversals, depth-first and breadth-first search. Frequently the graph
searches start at an arbitrary vertex. The searches are efficient if they are done in O(n +
m), where n is the number of vertices and m the number of edges.
Graph traversal can be used to determine the general characteristic of the graph, or to
solve a specific problem on a particular graph, for example:
30
Depth-first Search
We start the graph traversal at arbitrary vertices, and go down a particular branch until we
reach a dead end. Then we back up and go as deep possible. In this way we visit all
vertices, and all edges.
Breath-First Search
Breadth-first search visit all adjacent vertices before going deeper. Then we go deeper in
one of the adjacent vertices.
Sparse Matrix :
A matrix consists of more number of zeros is called sparse matrix. Once the matrix
is stored as it is then there is wastage of memory. For an efficient memory utilization the
sparse matrix can be stored in a linear form. The linear form can be of array type or
linked list type.
DATA STRUCTURES
Definition:
Data structure is collection of data elements organized in a specified manner and
accessing functions are defined to store and retrieve individual data elements. Data
structures are sometimes called Data types.
Classification of Data Structure:
A data type may be defined as a set and the elements of the set are called the
values of the type. There are four basic or atomic or primitive data types in C. They are
int, float, char and double. The Simple data types built from primitives are arrays ,
pointers, strings and records with which we can build new types called structured or
composite types such as stacks, queues, and trees etc. The structured data types can be
categorized as linear and non-linear. The linear data structures are stacks, queues and
linked lists. The non-linear data structures are trees and graphs.
Stacks
Definition:
A stack is an ordered collection of items into which new items may be inserted and
from which items may be deleted at one end, called the top of the stack. The first
example of stack, which permits the selection of only its end element , is a pile of coins.
Second example could be a pile of trays or a books lying one above the other.
Let us draw a stack containing integers as in the following figure.
5
9
31
top
1
3
7
Here, 5 is the current of the stack. If we add any element in the stack, it will be placed on
top of 5 , and if we delete an element , it will be 5, which is on top of the stack.
Operations on Stacks:
Associated with the stack , there are several primitives operations. We can define
the following necessary operations on stack.
a)
b)
c)
pop(s)
- To remove the top element of the stack and to return the removed
element as a function value.
d)
top(s)
e) empty(s) - To check whether the stack is empty or not. It returns true if stack is
empty and returns false otherwise.
If a stack is empty and it contains no element, it is not possible to pop the stack.
Therefore, before popping an element, we must ensure that the stack is not empty.
PUSH & POP OPERATIONS:
When we add an element to a stack, we stay that we push it on the
stack and if we delete an element from a stack, we say that we pop it from the stack.
Let us see how stack shrinks or grows when we pop or push an element in the
following figures.
top
32
top
8
5
9
1
3
7
Top
Popped element = 4
5
9
1
3
7
Top
Popped element = 8
33
We may notice that the last item pushed onto a stack is always the first that will be
popped from the stack. That is why stack is called last in, first out or LIFO in short.
Implementation of Stacks
There are two ways to implement stacks, one using arrays and other is
using linked list.
Array:
Since the elements of the stack are ordered , an obvious choice would be an array as
a structure t contains a stack. We can fix one end of the array as bottom of the stack. The
other end of the array may be used as a top of the stack, which keeps shifting constantly as
items are popped and pushed. We must store the index of the array containing the top
element.
We can , therefore, declare a stack as a structure containing two fields- an array to hold the
elements of the stack, and an integer top to indicate the position of the current top of the
stack within the array.
# define MAX 50
struct stack{
int top;
int elements [5];
};
struct stack s;
Here s is defined to be a stack containing elements of type integer . The maximum number
of elements in the stack is defined to be 50. Elements [0] contain the first element so that
the value of top is 0. If there are five elements in the stack, the value of top will be four and
the top element is in elements[4].
A stack is empty when it contains no elements we can indicate this by making top as 1.
We can write our function clearstack as
clearstack(ts)
struct stack *ts;
{
ts->top = -1;
}
Another operation is to check whether the stack is empty. To do this we must check whether
s.top = = -1.
34
Let us now consider the PUSH operation . To push or add an element we must perform
the two steps:
i.
increment top indicator
ii.
put the new element at the new top.
35
return(0);
else
return(ts->elements[ts->top--]);
}
We can write function empty (s) that returns 1 if the stack is empty and 0 if it is not empty
as follows:
empty(ts)
struct stack *ts;
{
if ( ts -> top = = -1)
return (1);
else
return(0);
}
Stack as a Linked List ( Using Pointers):
Using this representation we are using the pool of available nodes and we
will never have to test whether a particular stack is full. We can declare such as a stack as
follows.
Node structure:
Data field
Each node has two fields. i.e. Data and Next field
Next field
Stack
D
End node
Top element
Declaration : ( Using C++)
# include <iostream.h>
# include < process.h>
class sta{
struct node {
int data;
node * next;
} *stack ;
public :
36
void push();
void pop();
void disp();
}
PUSH OPERATION:
Void sta :: push()
{
int n;
node temp;
temp = new node;
cout << Push the element << endl;
3
( First node of
the stack).
temp
cin >> temp->data;
temp->next=NULL;
if(stack= = NULL)
stack=temp;
else
{
temp->next=stack;
stack=temp;
}
stack
3
stack
4
4
temp
}
4
stack
POP Operation:
stack
2
Void sta :: pop()
{
temp
node *temp;
if (stack= = NULL)
cout << Stack is empty << endl;
else {
stack
temp= stack;
stack= stack->next;
temp
cout << Popped element << endl;
cout << temp->data;
delete temp;
37
}
}
TREE TRAVERSAL:
When traversing a binary tree, we want to treat each node and its sub trees in the
same fashion. If we let L, V, and R stand for moving left, visiting the node, and moving
right when at a node, then there are six possible combinations of tree traversal: LVR,
LRV, VLR, VRL, RVL, and RLV. If we adopt the convention that we traverse left before
right, then only three traversals remain : LVR, LRV and VLR. To these we assign the
names inorder, postorder, and preorder, respectively, because of the position of the V
with respect to the L and the R.
Procedure for Preorder:
1.
2.
3.
Example:
Fig.1
The result is : + A B
Algorithm:
void preorder(node *nodeptr)
{
if ( nodeptr != NULL)
{
printf(%d\n, nodeptr->data); /* visit the root node */
preorder(nodeptr->left);
/* Traverse the left sub tree */
perorder(nodeptr->right);
/* Traverse the right sub tree */
}
38
Fig.2
The result is : A + B
Fig.3
The result is : A B +
39
Fig.4
PRE ORDER
: A,B,D,C,E,AND F
IN ORDER
: B,D,A,E,F,C
POSTORDER
: D,B,F,E,C,AND A
Fig.5.
40
PREORDER
: * +AB/CD
INORDER
: A+B*C/D
POSTORDER
: AB+CD/*
Definition:
A binary search tree is a binary tree. It may be empty. If it is not empty then
it satisfies the following properties:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Every element has a key and no two elements have the same key.
The keys in the left sub tree are smaller than the key in the root.
The keys in the right sub tree are larger than the key in the root.
The left and right sub trees are also binary search trees.
Example Fig.
41
To construct (Insertion) the Binary search tree for the following elements:
25, 15, 27, 13, 17, 26, 29, 28
42
43
44
2. Non-leaf node:
The deletion of a non-leaf element or node that has only one child is also easy. The
node containing the element to be deleted is disposed, and the single-child takes the place
of the disposed node.
So, to delete the element 15 from the above tree, we simply change the pointer from the
parent node (25) to the single-child node(13).
45
3. Root node:
When the element to be deleted is in a non-leaf node that
has two children, the element is replaced by either the largest element in its left sub tree
or the smallest one in its right sub tree. Then we proceed to delete this replacing element
from the sub tree from which it was taken.
If we wish to delete the element with key 25 from the above tree, then we replace it by
either the largest element, 17 , in its left sub tree or the smallest element , 26 , in its right
sub tree. Suppose we opt for the largest element in the left sub tree. The 17 is moved in
to the root and the following tree is obtained.
46
HEAPS
Priority Queue:
The priority queue is a data structure in which the intrinsic ordering of the
elements does determine the results of its basic operations. There are two types of priority
queues:
An ascending priority queue and a descending priority queue.
An ascending priority queue is a collection of items into which items can be inserted
arbitrarily and from which only the smallest item can be removed. A descending priority
queue is similar but allows deletion of only the largest item.
Heaps Definition:
A max (min) heap is a tree in which the key value in each node is no smaller
(larger) than the key values in its children (if any). A max heap is a complete binary tree
that is also a max tree. A min heap is a complete binary tree that is also a min tree.
47
Max. Heap
Min. Heap
QUEUE
Definition:
A queue is an ordered collection of items from which items may be deleted at one
end ( called the front of the queue) and into which items may be inserted at the other end
( called rear of the queue). This data structure is commonly known as FIFO or first-infirst-out.
48
Fig.1
3
Fig.2
8
OPERATION S ON QUEUES:
It has two operations. They are
Insertion
Deletion
Insertion an element is popularly known as ENQ and deleting an element is known as
DEQ. A minimum set of useful operations on queue includes the following.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
We can obtain the queue by the following sequence of operations. We assume that the
queue in initially empty.
49
ENQ(q,8)
5
ENQ(q,9)
ENQ(q,4)
50
Array :
Let us implement the queue within an array so that the array holds the
elements of the queue. There are two variables front and rear to indicate the positions of
the first and last element of the queue within the array.
Let the size of the array be 4. Initially let us assume that the queue is empty which means
front = 0 and rear = -1.
Empty Queue:
q[0]
q[1]
q[2]
q[3]
rear = -1 ( NULL)
Insertion:
There are two variables front and rear to indicate the positions of the first and
last element of the queue within the array. Let the size of the array be 4. Initially let us
assume that the queue is empty which means front = 0 and rear = -1.After we have added
three elements to the queue rear becomes 2 and front becomes 0. Now if we add one
more elements to the queue from the rear, the value of rear changes to 3. Now the queue
becomes full.
ENQ(q,3)
51
3
q[0]
q[1]
q[2]
q[3]
q[2]
q[3]
front = 0 rear =0
ENQ(q,5)
q[0]
q[1]
front = 0 rear = 1
ENQ(q,7)
q[0]
q[1]
q[2]
q[3]
front = 0 rear = 2
ENQ(q,9) [ Q is full ]
q[0]
q[1]
q[2]
q[3]
front = 0 rear = 3
Deletion:
At this point, we delete one element. The element which is deleted is 3. This
leaves a hole in the first position. To delete this element we must increment front, to
indicate the true first element of the queue and assign the value of that slot to x. To check
whether queue is empty or not, we must check whether front = rear.
To add an element we must increment rear so that it points to the location next to the rear
and place an element in that slot of the array. If we wish to add another element, and we
increment rear by 1, rear becomes equal to front, which indicates that the queue is full.
X= DEQ(q)
52
q[0]
q[1]
q[2]
9
q[3]
front = 1 rear = 3
x=DEQ(q)
7
q[0]
q[1]
q[2]
9
q[3]
front = 2 rear = 3
x=DEQ(q)
9
q[0]
q[1]
q[2]
q[3]
q[2]
q[3]
front = 3 rear = 3
x=DEQ(q) [ Queue is empty]
q[0]
q[1]
Therefore, the condition for full queue is that the next slot of rear is equal to front and the
condition for empty queue is that front = rear. Before we DEQ an element from queue we
must make sure that queue is not empty and before we ENQ an element we must ensure
that the queue is not full.
53
class qu{
Public :
Int front, rear, n , q[10];
void get(){
cout<< Enter the Queue size << endl;
cin>> n;
front = rear =-1;
}
void enq();
void deq();
};
int I, a[10];
void qu :: enq(){
int item;
if ( rear >= n)
{
cout << Queue is full \n;
return;
}
else
{
cout << Enter the item to be inserted <<endl;
cin>>item;
rear = rear+1;
q[rear] = item;
i++;
}
}
void qu :: deq()
{
int t;
if ( front >= rear)
{
cout << Queue is Empty << endl;
return;
}
else
{
front = fornt +1;
t = q[front];
cout << The deleted element : << t << endl;
54
}
}
front
8
rear
.
class que {
struct node
{
int data;
node *next;
} * front, *rear;
public:
void insq();
void delq();
que(){
front = rear = NULL;
}
};
55
temp
4
front
{
rear->next = temp;
rear= rear->next;
front
rear
}
}
4
temp
if ( front = = NULL)
cout << Queue is empty << endl;
else
{
front = front->next;
cout << temp->data;
delete temp;
}
front
rear
}
DEQUE:
A single queue behaves in a FIFO manner in the sense that each deletion removes the
oldest remaining item in the structure. A double ended queue or deque, in short is a linear
list in which insertions and deletions are made to or from either end of the structure.
Deletion
Insertion
Insertion
Deletion
Front
Rear
We can have two variations of a deque, namely, the input-restricted deque and the output
restricted deque. The output-restricted deque allows deletion from only one end and
input-restricted deque allows insertions at only one end.
Queue Applications:
The most useful application of queues is the simulation of a real world
situation so that it is possible to understand what happens in a real world in a particular
situation without actually observing its occurrence.
Queues are also very useful in a time-sharing computer system where many users share
the system simultaneously. Whenever a user requests the system to run a particular
program, the operating system adds the request at the end of the queue of jobs waiting to
be executed. Whenever the CPU is free, it executes the job, which is at the front of the
56
job queue. Similarly there are queues for sharing I/O devices. Each device maintains its
own queue of request.
Another useful application of queues is in the solution of
problems involving searching a nonlinear collection of states. Queue is used for finding a
path using breadth-first-search of graphs.
LINKED LIST
Definition:
A collection of node is called list. Each node or item in a linked list must
contain at least two fields, an information field or data field and the next address field.
The first, field contains the actual element on the list which may be a simple integer, a
character, a string or even a large record. The second field, which is a pointer, contains
the address of the next node in the list used to access the next node. A node of a linked
list may be represented by the following figure.
Data or
Info
List
( External pointer)
Next
The entire linked list is accessed from an external pointer List pointing to the first node in
the list. We can access the first node through the external pointer, the second node
through next pointer of the first node, the third node through the next pointer of the
second node till the end of the list.
The next address field of the last node contains a special value, known as the NULL
value. This is not a valid address. This only tells us that we have reached the end of the
list. We will draw linked lists as an ordered sequence of nodes with links being
represented by arrows.
List
4
57
58
getnode(p)
info(p) = x
next(p) = list
list = p
We are assuming that the operation getnode(p) obtains an empty node and sets the
contents of a variable named p to the address of that node.
Getnode(p)
p
x
Info(x) = p
List
x
next(p) = list
List
4
p
list = p
Sample programs :
Ex. No. 1
Stack
Program:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int top=1;
int a[20];
void main()
59
{
int n,x,b,c,i,temp;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the no of elements\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
do
{
printf("1.PUSH\n");
printf("2.POP\n");
printf("3.DISPLAY\n");
printf("4.EXIT\n");
break; printf("enter your choice\n");
scanf("%d",&b);
switch(b)
{
case 1:
printf("enter the number\n");
if(top>=n+1)
printf("\nstack is overflow\n");
else
scanf("%d",&x);
a[top]=x;
top=top+1;
break;
case 2:
if (top<=0)
printf("stack is underflow\n");
else
{
top=top-1;
temp=a[top];
}
break;
case 3:
for(i=1;i<top-1;i++)
printf("%d-->",a[i]);
printf("%d",a[top-1]);
break;
case 4:
exit(0);
}
printf("\ndo you want to continue(1/0)\n");
scanf("%d",&c);
60
}
while(c==1);
getch();
}
Ex. No. 2
Queue
Program:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int n,x,b,c,i,r=0,f=0,te;
int q[20];
void main()
{
clrscr();
printf("Enter the no of elements\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
do
{
printf("1.insertion\n");
printf("2.deletion\n");
printf("3.display\n");
printf("4.exit\n");
printf("enter your choice\n");
scanf("%d",&b);
switch(b)
{
case 1:
insert();
display();
break;
case 2:
delet();
display();
break;
case 3:
display();
break;
case 4:
exit(0);
}
printf("\ndo you want to continue(1/0)\n");
scanf("%d",&c);
61
}
while(c==1);
getch();
}
insert()
{
if(r>=n)
printf("\nqueue is overflow\n");
else
{
printf("enter the number\n");
scanf("%d",&x);
r=r+1;
q[r]=x;
}
if(f==0)
f=1;
return(0);
}
int delet()
{
int te;
if (f==0)
printf("queue is underflow\n");
else if (f==r)
{
f=0;r=0;
}
else
{
te=q[f];
f=f+1;
}
return(te);
}
display()
{
if(r==0)
{
printf(" queue is empty");
}
else
{
for(i=f;i<r;i++)
62
printf("%d-->",q[i]);
printf("%d",q[r]);
}
return(0);
}
Ex. No: 3
Program:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define null 0
int a,s;
struct node
{
int data;
struct node *link;
};
struct node *head,*first,*previous,*temp;
void main()
{
first=null;
head=null;
clrscr();
do
{
printf("1.creation\n");
printf("2.display\n");
printf("3.insert first\n");
printf("4.insert last\n");
printf("5.insert middle\n");
printf("6.delete first\n");
printf("7.delete last\n");
printf("8.delete middle\n");
printf("enter your choice");
scanf("%d",&a);
switch(a)
{
case 1:
create();
display();
break;
case 2:
63
display();
break;
case 3:
insfirst();
display();
break;
case 4:
inslast();
display();
break;
case 5:
insmiddle();
display();
break;
case 6:
delfirst();
display();
break;
case 7:
dellast();
display();
break;
case 8:
delmiddle();
display();
break;
case 9:
exit(0);
}
printf("\ndo you want to continue(1/0)\n");
scanf("%d",&s);
}
while(s==1);
}
create()
{
int s;
s=sizeof (struct node);
first=(struct node*) malloc (s);
printf("enter the data");
scanf("%d",&first->data);
first->link=null;
if(head==null)
head=first;
64
else
{
previous=head;
while(previous->link !=null)
previous=previous->link;
}
previous->link=first;
previous=first;
return(0);
}
display()
{
if(head==null)
printf("null first");
else
temp=head;
while(temp!=null)
{
printf("%d->",temp->data);
temp=temp->link;
}
printf("null\n");
return(0);
}
insfirst()
{
int s;
if (head==null)
printf("list is null");
else
{
s=sizeof (temp);
temp=(struct node*) malloc(s);
printf("enter data\n");
scanf("%d",&temp->data);
temp->link=head;
head=temp;
}
return(0);
}
delfirst()
{
int s;
65
if(head==null)
printf("list is null");
else
head=head->link;
return(0);
}
inslast()
{
int s;
struct node *temp,*last;
if (head==null)
printf("list is null");
else
{
s=sizeof (last);
last=(struct node*) malloc(s);
printf("enter the data\n");
scanf("%d",&last->data);
last->link=null;
temp=head;
while(temp->link!=null)
temp=temp->link;
temp->link=last;
}
return(0);
}
dellast()
{
int s,m;
struct node *pre,*next;
if(head==null)
printf("list is null");
else
{
next=head;
next=head->link;
pre=head;
while(next->link!=null)
{
next=next->link;
pre=pre->link;
}
pre->link=next->link;
}
66
return(0);
}
insmiddle()
{
int s,f,count;
struct node *next,*pre,*nex;
if (head==null)
printf("list is null");
else
{
s=sizeof (temp);
temp=(struct node*) malloc(s);
pre=head;
next=pre->link;
count=2;
printf("enter the position of the element");
scanf("%d",&f);
printf("enter the data\n");
scanf("%d",&nex->data);
while((count<f) && (next->link!=null))
{
next=next->link;
pre=pre->link;
count=count+1;
}
if((count<f) && (next->link==null))
{
printf("not possible to insert. the list is contains %d elements",count);
}
else
{
pre->link=nex;
nex->link=next;
}
}
return(0);
}
delmiddle()
{
int s,f,count;
struct node *next,*pre,*nex;
if (head==null)
printf("list is null");
else
{
67
s=sizeof (temp);
temp=(struct node*) malloc(s);
pre=head;
next=pre->link;
count=2;
printf("enter the position of the element");
scanf("%d",&f);
while((count<f) && (next->link!=null))
{
next=next->link;
pre=pre->link;
count=count+1;
}
if((count<f) && (next->link==null))
{
printf("not possible to insert. the list is contains %d elements",count);
}
pre->link=next->link;
}
return(0);
}
Ex. No. 4
Program:
4. Write a C program to implement the Double Linked List.
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
struct student
{
int rollno;
struct student *prev;
struct student *next;
};
typedef struct student list;
void add(list *head,int rollno)
{
list *new_elt,*temp=head;
68
new_elt=(list *)malloc(sizeof(list));
new_elt->rollno=rollno;
new_elt->next=NULL;
while(temp->next!=NULL)
temp=temp->next;
new_elt->prev=temp;
temp->next=new_elt;
}
void insert(list *head,int rollno,int position)
{
int i;
list *new_elt,*adj_elt,*temp=head;
new_elt=(list *)malloc(sizeof(list));
new_elt->rollno=rollno;
for(i=1;i<position;i++)
temp=temp->next;
adj_elt=temp->next;
adj_elt->prev=new_elt;
new_elt->next=adj_elt;
new_elt->prev=temp;
temp->next=new_elt;
}
int find(list *head,int rollno)
{
list *temp=head->next;
int found=0,i=1;;
while(temp!=NULL)
{
if(temp->rollno==rollno)
{
found=i;
break;
}
i++;
temp=temp->next;
}
return found;
}
void removeElt(list *head,int rollno)
69
{
list *del_elt,*successor,*predecsor,*temp=head->next;
int i,found;
found=find(head,rollno);
if(found!=0)
{
while(temp->rollno!=rollno)
temp=temp->next;
del_elt=temp;
predecsor=del_elt->prev;
successor=del_elt->next;
predecsor->next=del_elt->next;
successor->prev=del_elt->prev;
free(del_elt);
printf("\nOne Element is deleted");
}
else
printf("\nElement has not Found!Cann't perform Deletion!");
}
void print_list(list *head)
{
if(head->next!=NULL)
{
list *temp=head->next;
printf("\nThe List:\n");
while(temp!=NULL)
{
printf("%d--> ",temp->rollno);
temp=temp->next;
}
printf("Null");
}
else
printf("\n The List is Empty");
}
void make_emptylist(list *head)
{
head->prev=NULL;
head->next=NULL;
printf("\nThe List has been deleted!");
}
void main()
{
70
list *head;
int position,rollno,option;
head=(list *)malloc(sizeof(list*));
head->prev=NULL;
head->next=NULL;
clrscr();
while(1)
{
printf("\n\n1.Add\n2.Insert a Item\n3.Remove a Item\n4.Find\n5.Print the
List\n6.Delete the List\n7.Exit");
printf("\nEnter your Choice:");
scanf("%d",&option);
switch(option)
{
case 1:
printf("\nEnter Rollno of the New Element:");
scanf("%d",&rollno);
add(head,rollno);
break;
case 2:
printf("\nEnter Rollno of Element to be Inserted:");
scanf("%d",&rollno);
printf("\nEnter Position to insert:");
scanf("%d",&position);
insert(head,rollno,position);
break;
case 3:
printf("\nEnter the Rollno of the element to Removed:");
scanf("%d",&rollno);
removeElt(head,rollno);
break;
case 4:
printf("Enter rollno of Item to be found:");
scanf("%d",&rollno);
position=find(head,rollno);
if(position!=0)
printf("\nElement has been found!Position=%d",position);
else
printf("\nElement has not found in the List!");
break;
case 5:
print_list(head);
break;
case 6:
make_emptylist(head);
71
break;
case 7:
exit(0);
}
} getch(); }
Ex. No: 5
Program :
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int a,s;
struct node
{
int data;
struct node *link;
};
struct node *head,*first,*previous,*last,*temp;
void main()
{
first=NULL;
head=NULL;
previous=NULL;
clrscr();
do
{
printf("1.creation\n");
printf("2.display\n");
printf("3.insert first\n");
printf("4.insert last\n");
printf("5.insert middle\n");
printf("6.delete first\n");
printf("7.delete last\n");
printf("8.delete middle\n");
printf("enter your choice");
scanf("%d",&a);
switch(a)
{
case 1:
create();
display();
72
break;
case 2:
display();
break;
case 3:
insfirst();
display();
break;
case 4:
inslast();
display();
break;
case 5:
insmiddle();
display();
break;
case 6:
delfirst();
display();
break;
case 7:
dellast();
display();
break;
case 8:
delmiddle();
display();
break;
case 9:
exit(0);
}
printf("\ndo you want to continue(1/0)\n");
scanf("%d",&s);
}
while(s==1);
}
create()
{
int s;
s=sizeof (struct node);
first=(struct node*) malloc (s);
printf("enter the data");
scanf("%d",&first->data);
73
first->link=first;
if(head==NULL)
{
head=first;
previous=first;
}
else
{
previous=head;
while(previous->link !=head)
previous=previous->link;
previous->link=first;
previous=first;
}
last=first;
return(0);
}
display()
{
if(head==NULL)
printf("list is null");
else
{
temp=head;
while(temp!=last)
{
printf("%d->",temp->data);
temp=temp->link;
}
if(temp==last)
{
printf("%d ->",temp->data);
temp=temp->link;
}
}
return(0);
}
insfirst()
{
int s;
if (head==NULL)
printf("list is null");
74
else
{
s=sizeof (temp);
temp=(struct node*) malloc(s);
printf("enter data\n");
scanf("%d",&temp->data);
temp->link=head;
head=temp;
first=temp;
last->link=temp;
}
return(0);
}
delfirst()
{
int s;
if(head==NULL)
printf("list is null");
else
head=head->link;
last->link=head;
if(last->link==head)
head=NULL;
return(0);
}
inslast()
{
int s;
struct node *last1,*first1;
if (head==NULL)
printf("list is null");
else
{
s=sizeof (last1);
last1=(struct node*) malloc(s);
printf("enter the data\n");
scanf("%d",&last1->data);
last1->link=NULL;
temp=head;
while(temp->link!=head)
temp=temp->link;
temp->link=last1;
last1->link=head;
75
last=last1;
}
return(0);
}
dellast()
{
int s,m;
struct node *pre,*next;
if(head==NULL)
printf("list is null");
else
{
if(head==last)
head=last=NULL;
else
{
next=head;
while(next->link!=last)
next=next->link;
next->link=head;
last=next;
}
}
return(0);
}
insmiddle()
{
int s,f,count;
struct node *next,*pre,*nex;
if (head==NULL)
printf("list is null");
else
{
s=sizeof (temp);
temp=(struct node*) malloc(s);
pre=head;
next=pre->link;
count=2;
printf("enter the position of the elemant");
scanf("%d",&f);
printf("enter the data\n");
scanf("%d",&nex->data);
while((count<f) && (next->link!=head))
{
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next=next->link;
pre=pre->link;
count=count+1;
}
if((count<f) && (next->link==head))
{
printf("not possible to insert. the list is contains %d elements",count);
}
else
{
pre->link=nex;
nex->link=next;
}
}
return(0);
}
delmiddle()
{
int s,f,count;
struct node *next,*pre,*nex;
if (head==NULL)
printf("list is null");
else
{
s=sizeof (temp);
temp=(struct node*) malloc(s);
pre=head;
next=pre->link;
count=2;
printf("enter the position of the elemant");
scanf("%d",&f);
while((count<f) && (next->link!=head))
{
next=next->link;
pre=pre->link;
count=count+1;
}
if((count<f) && (next->link==head))
{
printf("not possible to insert. the list is contains %d elements",count);
}
pre->link=next->link;
}
return(0);
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Ex. No: 6
Program :
#include<stdio.h>
#include<malloc.h>
struct node
{
int data;
struct node *lchild;
struct node *rchild;
}
void creation()
{
printf("\n Enter the value of the root node \n");
t=(struct node*)malloc(sizeof(struct node));
scanf("%d",&t->data);
t->lchild=NULL;
t->rchild=NULL;
}
void insert(int n,struct node *a)
{
struct node *x;
if(a->data !=0)
{
if(a->data>n)
insert(n,a->lchild);
else
insert(n,a->rchild);
}
x=(struct node*) malloc(sizeof(struct node));
x->data=n;
if(a->data>n)
{
if((a->lchild)==NULL)
{
a->lchild=x;
a->lchild->lchild=NULL;
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a->lchild->rchild=NULL;
}
}
else
if(a->rchild==NULL)
{
a->rchild=x;
a->rchild->lchild=NULL;
a->rchild->rchild=NULL;
}
}
void inorder(struct node* a)
{
if(a!=NULL)
{
inorder(a->lchild);
printf(" %10d ",a->data);
inorder(a->rchild);
}
}
void preorder(struct node *a)
{
if(a!=NULL)
{
printf(" %10d",a->data);
preorder(a->lchild);
preorder(a->rchild);
}
}
void postorder(struct node *a)
{
if(a!=NULL)
{
postorder(a->lchild);
postorder(a->rchild);
printf(" %10d",a->data);
}
}
void main()
{
int num,c;
clrscr();
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creation();
do{
printf("\n 1. Insertion \n2. Inorder \n3. preorder \n4.postorder ");
printf("\n for exit give choice greater than four");
printf(" \nEnter your choice ");
scanf("%d",&c);
switch(c)
{
case 1:printf(" \n Data to be inserted ");
scanf("%d",&num);
insert(num,t);
break;
case 2: inorder(t);
break;
case 3: preorder(t);
break;
case 4: postorder(t);
break;
}
}while(c<5);
}
Ex. No. 7
Program:
7. Write a C program to implement the binary tree operations insert, delete, and search.
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
struct bstree
{
int data;
struct bstree *left;
struct bstree *right;
};
struct bstree *root,*temp;
struct bstree* insertbst(struct bstree *root,int x)
{
if( root == NULL)
{
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root=malloc(sizeof(struct bstree));
root->data=x;
root->left=root->right=NULL;
}
else if(x < root->data)
root->left=insertbst(root->left,x);
else if(x > root->data)
root->right=insertbst(root->right,x);
return root;
}
struct bstree* findMin(struct bstree *t)
{
if(t==NULL)
return NULL;
else
if(t->left != NULL)
return findMin(t->left);
else
return t;
}
struct bstree* findMax(struct bstree *t)
{
if(t==NULL)
return NULL;
else
if(t->right != NULL)
return findMax(t->right);
else
return t;
}
int find(struct bstree *temp,int key)
{
if (temp==NULL)
{
return NULL;
}
else
{
if(key < temp->data)
return find(temp->left,key);
else if (key > temp->data)
return find(temp->right,key);
else
return temp;
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}
}
int find_min(struct bstree *temp)
{
if(temp->left == NULL)
return temp->data;
else
return find_min(temp->left);
}
int find_max(struct bstree *temp)
{
if(temp->right == NULL)
return temp->data;
else
return find_max(temp->right);
}
struct bstree* removeElt(struct bstree *t,int key)
{
struct bstree *temp;
if (t==NULL)
printf("\nNode is not available");
else if(key < t->data)
t->left=removeElt(t->left,key);
else if(key > t->data)
t->right=removeElt(t->right,key);
else if(t->left != NULL && t->right != NULL)
{
temp=findMin(t->right);
t->data=temp->data;
t->right=removeElt(t->right,t->data);
}
else
{
temp=t;
if(t->left==NULL)
t=t->right;
else if(t->right==NULL)
t=t->left;
free(temp);
}
return t;
}
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void main()
{
struct bstree *new_elt;
int option,rollno,info;
root=NULL;
clrscr();
while(1)
{
printf("\n\n1.Insert a Item\n2.Remove a Item\n3.Find\n4.Find Minimum
Value\n5.Find Maximum Value\n6.Print the List\n7.Exit");
printf("\nEnter your Choice:");
scanf("%d",&option);
switch(option)
{
case 1:
printf("\nEnter Rollno of Element to be Inserted:");
scanf("%d",&rollno);
root=insertbst(root,rollno);
break;
case 2:
printf("\nEnter the Rollno of the element to Removed:");
scanf("%d",&rollno);
root=removeElt(root,rollno);
break;
case 3:
printf("Enter rollno of Item to be found:");
scanf("%d",&rollno);
info=find(root,rollno);
if(info!=0)
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Ex. No. 8
Program:
Quick Sort
#include <stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int n,a[30],pass=1;
void quicksort(int low, int high)
{
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if(low<high)
{
int k,i;
k=partition(low,high);
printf("pass %d\n",pass++);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
printf("%6d",a[i]);
printf("\n");
quicksort(low,k-1);
quicksort(k+1,high);
}
}
int partition(int low,int high)
{
int v,i,t;
v=a[low];
i=low;
do
{
while(a[i]<=v)
i++;
while(a[high]>v)
high--;
if(i<high)
{
t=a[i];
a[i]=a[high];
a[high]=t;
}
}
while(i<high);
a[low]=a[high];
a[high]=v;
return high;
}
void main()
{
int low,high,i;
clrscr();
printf(" Enter the array size \n");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter the elements \n");
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
low=1;
high=n;
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quicksort(low,high);
getch();
}
Ex. No. 9
Heap Sort
Program:
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
int x[20],n,n1;
void heapsort();
void adjust();
void heapify();
void main()
{
int i;
clrscr();
printf("ENTER THE NO. OF ELEMENTS :");
scanf("%d",&n);
n1=n;
printf(ENTER THE ELEMENTS\n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
scanf("%d",&x[i]);
clrscr();
printf(" \n ARRAY BEFORE SORT :");
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
printf("%d\t",x[i]);
heapsort();
getch();
}
void heapsort()
{
int i,t,j;
heapify();
for(i=n;i>=2;i--)
{
t=x[i];
x[i]=x[1];
x[1]=t;
adjust(1,i-1);
printf("\npass %d \n",n-(i-1));
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for(j=1;j<=n1;j++)
printf(" %d\t",x[j]);
}
}
void adjust(int i,int n)
{
int j;
int t;
j=2*i;
t=x[i];
while(j<=n)
{
if(j<n && x[j] < x[j+1])
j++;
if(t>=x[j])
break;
x[j/2]=x[j];
j=2*j;
}
x[j/2]=t;
}
void heapify()
{
int i,j;
for(i=n/2;i>=1;i--)
adjust(i,n);
}
Ex. No. 10
Program:
10. Write a C program to implement the Depth First Search.
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
int graph[10][10];
int visited[10];
void Intilize_Graph(int no_v)
{
int i,j;
for(i=1;i<=no_v;i++) //Intialize the Graph
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{
visited[i]=0;
for(j=1;j<=no_v;j++)
graph[i][j]=0;
}
}
void print_graph(int no_v)
{
int i,j;
printf("\nThe Graph(Matrix Representation):\n");
for(i=1;i<=no_v;i++)
printf("\tV%d",i);
for(i=1;i<=no_v;i++)
{
printf("\nV%d",i);
for(j=1;j<=no_v;j++)
{
printf("\t%d",graph[i][j]);
}
}
}
void DFS(int start_v,int no_v)
{
int i;
visited[start_v]=1;
printf("%d-->",start_v);
for(i=1;i<=no_v;i++)
{
if(i!=start_v && visited[i]==0 && graph[start_v][i]==1)
{
DFS(i,no_v);
}
}
}
void main()
{
int no_v,no_e;
int s_v,e_v,start_v;
int i,j;
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter the No of Vertices in the Graph:");
scanf("%d",&no_v);
printf("Enter the no of Edges in the Graph:");
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scanf("%d",&no_e);
printf("\nEnter the Adjacent vertices of each edge");
for(i=1;i<=no_e;i++)
{
printf("\nEdge:%d-->Start_V & End_V:",i);
scanf("%d %d",&s_v,&e_v);
graph[s_v][e_v]=1;
graph[e_v][s_v]=1;
}
print_graph(no_v);
printf("\nDepth First Search:\nEnter the Starting Vertex for Searching:");
scanf("%d",&start_v);
printf("Depth First Search Tree:\n");
DFS(start_v,no_v);
getch();
}
Ex. No. 11
Program:
11. Write a C program to find the shortest path of a graph.
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
int start_V[20],end_V[20],weight[20];
int no_v,no_e;
struct VertexInfo
{
int known;
int distance;
int prev_vertex;
}vertex[20];
void Intilize_VertexInfo()
{
int i,j;
for(i=1;i<=no_v;i++) //Intialize the Graph
{
vertex[i].known=0;
89
vertex[i].distance=1000;
vertex[i].prev_vertex=0;
}
}
90
scanf("%d %d",&s_v,&e_v);
vertex[s_v].distance=0;
next_v=s_v;
while(next_v)
{
v=next_v;
vertex[v].known=1;
for(i=1;i<=no_e;i++)
{
if(start_V[i]==v)
{
w=end_V[i];
if(vertex[v].distance+weight[i] < vertex[w].distance)
{
vertex[w].distance=vertex[v].distance+weight[i];
vertex[w].prev_vertex=v;
}
}
}
min=1000;
for(j=1;j<=no_v;j++)
{
if(vertex[j].known==0 && min>vertex[j].distance)
{
min=vertex[j].distance;
next_v=j;
}
}
if(min==1000)
next_v=0;
}
print_Path(e_v);
while(1)
{
printf("\nDo you want shortest to one more destination:");
fflush(stdin);
ch=getchar();
if(ch=='y' | ch=='Y')
{
printf("\nEnter the Destination Vertex:");
scanf("%d",&e_v);
print_Path(e_v);
91
}
else
break;
}
getch();
}
1. Represent the given sparse matrix using one-dimensional array and linked list.
2. Create a Stack and do the following operations using arrays and linked lists
(i)Push (ii) Pop (iii) Peep
3. Create a Queue and do the following operations using arrays and linked lists
(i)Add (ii) Remove
4. Implement the operations on singly linked list, doubly linked list and circular
linked list.
5. Create a binary search tree and do the following traversals
(i)In-order (ii) Pre order (iii) Post order
6. Implement the following operations on a binary search tree.
(i) Insert a node (ii) Delete a node
7. Sort the given list of numbers using heap and quick sort.
8. Perform the following operations in a given graph
(i) Depth first search (ii) Breadth first search
9. Find the shortest path in a given graph using Dijkstra algorithm
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