Env-107 - Lecture note

Prof. Dr. Md. Anisur Rahman Khan (ARK)

BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is a combination of two words 'biological' and 'diversity'. Biodiversity refers
to the number, variety and variability of all life forms on earth. These include millions of
plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain, and the intricate
ecosystems of which they are a part.
Why Is Biodiversity Important?
One important renewable resource is biological diversity, or biodiversity. Biodiversity
may sound like an abstract concept, but in reality it touches almost every aspect of our
life. The earth has an enormous variety of plants and animals, both domesticated and wild,
as also a wide array of habitats and ecosystems. This diversity meets the food,
medicinal, clothing, shelter, spiritual as well as the recreational needs of millions of
people around the world. It also ensures that ecological functions such as the supply of
clean water, nutrient cycling and soil protection are maintained. In fact, biodiversity loss
would mean a threat to the survival of the human race. These are some reasons why each
one of us should be concerned about biodiversity and its loss.
This rich variety of genes, species, biological communities, and life-sustaining biological
and chemical processes
Gives us food, wood, fibers, energy, raw materials, industrial chemicals, and
medicines, all of which pour hundreds of billions of dollars into the world economy each year.
Provides us with free recycling, purification, and natural pest control services.
Every species here today (1) contains genetic information that represents thousands to
millions of years of adaptation to the earth's changing environmental conditions and (2) is
the raw material for future adaptations.
Loss of biodiversity (1) reduces the availability of ecosystem services and (2) decreases
the ability of species, communities, and ecosystems to adapt to changing environmental
conditions. Biodiversity is nature's insurance policy against disasters.
Kinds of biodiversity include the following:
Genetic diversity (variety in the genetic makeup among individuals within a
species. It is the total number of genetic characteristics, sometimes of a specific
species, subspecies, or group of species It refers to the amount of variability or
heterogeneity that is available among the DNA of individuals within a population
or species. The diversity of genes within a species, passed down the generations
is known as genetic biodiversity. It is this type of diversity that gives rise to the
different varieties of rice, mangoes, etc).

Species diversity (variety among the species or distinct types of living organisms
found in different habitats of the planet). Species diversity in turn has three
qualities: a) Species richness: the total number of species; b) Species evenness:
the relative abundance of species and c) Species dominance: the most abundance
species.

Ecological diversity (variety of forests, deserts, grasslands, streams, lakes,

oceans, coral reefs, wetlands, and other biological communities))
Functional diversity (biological and chemical processes or functions such as
energy flow and matter cycling needed for the survival of species and biological
communities).
Microorganism diversity (Microbes include bacteria, viruses, protozoa, yeast,
fungus, etc., and form a vital part of life on earth)
Habitat diversity: Habitat diversity (the diversity of habitats in a given unit area)
or ecosystem diversity (Which refers to the variety of habitat types in an
ecosystem and the biologic richness of those habitats). Ecosystem diversity is,
therefore, the diversity of habitats which include the different life forms within.
The term also refers to the variety of ecosystems found within a biogeographical
or political boundary
Domesticated diversity (When we think of biodiversity, we tend to think only of
wild plants and animals. But there is also considerable diversity among
domesticated plants and animals. Domesticated biodiversity may be the result of
manipulation by humans, or of natural adaptations to different conditions over
a period of time)

Evolution And Biodiversity

We can summarize the biological history of the earth in one sentence:
Organisms convert solar energy to food, chemicals cycle, and a variety of species with
different biological roles (niches) has evolved in response to changing environmental
conditions.
Each species here today represents a long chain of evolution, and each of these
species plays a unique ecological role in the earth's communities and ecosystems. These
species, communities, and ecosystems also are essential for future evolution as the earth
continues its long history of environmental change.
How Do We Know What Organisms Lived in the Past? Most of what we know of the
earth's life history comes from fossils: mineralized or petrified replicas of skeletons,
bones, teeth, shells, leaves, and seeds, or impressions of such items. Such fossils (1) give
us physical evidence of organisms that lived long ago and (2) show us what their internal
structures looked like.
What Is Evolution?
Evolution (or more specifically biological or organic evolution) is the change over time
in one or more inherited traits found in populations of individuals. According to the
theory of evolution, all species descended from earlier, ancestral species. This widely
accepted scientific theory explains how life has changed over the past 3.7 billion years
and why life is so diverse today.
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Biologists use the term microevolution to describe the small genetic changes that occur
in a population. The term macroevolution is used to describe longterm, large-scale
evolutionary changes through which (1) new species are formed from ancestral species
and (2) other species are lost through extinction.
How Does Microevolution Work? The first step in evolution is the development of
genetic variability in a population. Recall that (1) genetic information in chromosomes is
contained in various sequences of chemical units (called nucleotides) in DNA molecules
and (2) genes found in chromosomes are segments of DNA coded for certain traits that
can be passed on to offspring.
A population's gene pool is the set of all genes in the individuals of the population of
a species. Microevolution is a change in a population's gene pool over time.
Genetic variability in a population originates through mutations: random changes in the
structure or number of DNA molecules in a cell.
The process of natural selection occurs when some individuals of a population have
genetically based traits that increase their chances of survival and their ability to produce
offspring.
Some biologists have proposed that interactions between species also can result in
microevolution in each of their populations. According to this hypothesis, when
populations of two different species interact over a long time, changes in the gene pool of
one species can lead to changes in the gene pool of the other species. This process is
called coevolution.
Suppose that certain individuals in a population of carnivores (such as owls) become
better at hunting prey (such as mice). Because of genetic variation, certain individuals of
the prey have traits that allow them to escape or hide from their predators, and they pass
these adaptive traits on to some of their offspring. However, a few individuals in the
predator population also may have traits (such as better eyesight or quicker reflexes) that
allow them to hunt the better-adapted prey successfully. They would then pass these traits
on to some of their offspring.
Similarly, individual plants in a population may evolve defenses, such as camouflage,
thorns, or poisons, against efficient herbivores. In turn, some herbivores in the population
may have genetic characteristics that enable them to overcome these defenses and
produce more offspring than those without such traits.

Ecological Niche
If asked what role a certain species such as an alligator plays in an ecosystem, an
ecologist would describe its ecological niche, or simply niche (pronounced "nitch"), the
species' way of life or functional role in an ecosystem.
A species' niche involves everything that affects its survival and reproduction. This
includes (1) its range of tolerance for various physical and chemical conditions, such as
temperature or water availability (2) the types and amounts of resources it uses, such as
food or nutrients and space, (3) how it interacts with other living and nonliving
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components of the ecosystems in which it is found, and (4) the role it plays in the energy
flow and matter cycling in an ecosystem.
The ecological niche of a species is different from its habitat, or physical location, where
it lives. Ecologists often say that a niche is like a species' occupation, whereas habitat is
like its address.
A species' ecological niche represents the adaptations or adaptive traits that its members
have acquired through evolution. These traits enable its members to survive and
reproduce more effectively under a given set of environmental conditions.
Understanding a species' niche is important because it can help us (1) prevent it from
becoming prematurely extinct and (2) assess the environmental changes we make in
terrestrial and aquatic systems. For example, how will the niches of various species be
changed by clearing a forest, plowing up a grassland, filling in a wetland, or dumping
pollutants into a lake or stream?
A species' fundamental niche is the full potential range of physical, chemical, and
biological conditions and resources it could theoretically use if there were no direct
competition from other species. But in a particular ecosystem, species often compete with
one another for one or more of the same resources. This means the niches of competing
species overlap.
To survive and avoid competition for the same resources, a species usually occupies only
part of its fundamental niche in a particular community or ecosystem-what ecologists call
its realized niche. By analogy, you may be capable of being president of a particular
company (your fundamental professional niche), but competition from others may mean
you may become only a vice president (your realized professional niche).
The niches of species can be used to broadly classify them as generalists or specialists.
Generalist species have broad niches. They can (1) live in many different places, (2) eat
a variety of foods, and (3) tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions. Flies,
cockroaches, mice, rats, whitetailed deer, raccoons, coyotes, copperheads, channel
catfish, and humans are generalist species.
Specialist species have narrow niches. They may be able to (1) live in only one type of
habitat, (2) use only one or a few types of food, or (3) tolerate only a narrow range of
climatic and other environmental conditions. This makes them more prone to extinction
when environmental conditions change. Examples of specialists are (1) tiger salamanders, which can breed only in fishless ponds so their larvae will not be eaten, (2) redcockaded woodpeckers, which carve nest holes almost exclusively in old (at least 75
years) longleaf pines, (3) spotted owls, which need old-growth forests in the Pacific
Northwest for food and shelter, and (4) China's highly endangered giant pandas, which
feed almost exclusively on various types of bamboo.
Is it better to be a generalist than a specialist? It depends. When environmental
conditions are fairly constant, as in a tropical rain forest, specialists have an advantage
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because they have fewer competitors. But under rapidly changing environmental
conditions, the generalist usually is better off than the specialist.

What Are Two Common Misconceptions About Evolution? Two common

misconceptions about evolution are as follows:
"Survival of the fittest" means "survival of the strongest." To biologists, fitness is a
measure of reproductive success not strength. Thus the fittest individuals are those that
leave the most descendants.
Evolution involves some grand plan of nature in which species become progressively
more perfect. From a scientific standpoint, no plan or goal of perfection exists in the
evolutionary process. However, some people (creationists) believe there is a conflict
between the scientific theory of evolution and their religious beliefs about how life was
created on the earth.
Speciation, Extinction And Biodiversity
How Do New Species Evolve?
Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise. Under
certain circumstances, natural selection can lead to an entirely new species. In this
process, called speciation, two species arise from one. So, Speciation is the evolution of
two species from one species because of divergent natural selection in response to
changes in environmental conditions. It usually takes thousands of years to take place.
The most common mechanism of speciation (especially among animals) takes place in
two phases: geographic isolation and reproductive isolation.
Geographic isolation occurs when groups of the same population of a species become
physically separated for long periods. For example, part of a population may migrate in
search of food and then begin living in another area with different environmental
conditions. Populations also may become separated (1) by a physical barrier (such as a
mountain range, stream, lake, or road), (2) by a change such as a volcanic eruption or
earthquake, or (3) when a few individuals are carried to a new area by wind or water.
The second phase of speciation is reproductive isolation. Reproductive Isolation occurs
when two geographically isolated populations can no longer reproduce with one another.
This happens when mutations and natural selection act independently on the two
populations. This process as a whole is called divergence, or divergent Evolution.
If this process, called divergence, continues long enough, members of the geographically
and reproductively isolated populations may become so different in genetic makeup that
(1) they cannot interbreed, or (2) if they do, they cannot produce live, fertile offspring.
Then one species has become two, and speciation has occurred through divergent
evolution.

Fig: Speciation: Geographic isolation can lead to reproductive isolation, divergence

and speciation.
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How Do Species Become Extinct?

After speciation, the second process affecting the number and types of species on the
earth is extinction. In biology and ecology, extinction is the end of an organism or of a
group of organisms (taxon), normally a species. The moment of extinction is generally
considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to
breed and recover may have been lost before this point. Extinction is the ultimate fate of all
species, just as death is for all individual organisms. It occurs when the last individual member of
a species dies. Biologists estimate that 99.9% of all the species that have ever existed are

now extinct.
Local extinction occurs when a species disappears from a part of its range but persists elsewhere.
Global extinction means that a species becomes extinct everywhere.
Extinction is an irreversible loss: once a species is extinct it can never reappear. Although
extinction is the role of nature, the rate of extinctions has varied greatly over geologic time and
has increased rapidly since the industrial revolution. When environmental conditions change,

a species must (1) evolve (become better adapted), (2) move to a more favorable area (if
possible), or (3) cease to exist (become extinct).
The earth's long-term patterns of speciation and extinction have been affected by several
major factors: (1) large-scale movements of the continents (continental drift) over
millions of years, (2) gradual climate changes caused by continental drift and slight shifts
in the earth's orbit around the sun, and (3) rapid climate change caused by catastrophic
events (such as large volcanic eruptions, huge meteorites and asteroids crashing into the
earth, and release of large amounts of methane trapped beneath the ocean floor). Some of
these events create dust clouds that shut down or sharply reduce photosynthesis long
enough to eliminate huge numbers of producers and, soon thereafter, the consumers that
fed on them.
As local environmental conditions change, a certain number of species disappear at a
low rate, called background extinction. In contrast, mass extinction is a significant rise
in extinction rates above the background level.
Causes of Extinction
Causes of extinction are usually grouped into five categories: population risk, environmental
risk, natural catastrophe, genetic risk, and human actions.
Population Risk
Random variations in population rates can cause a species in low abundance to become extinct.
This is termed population risk. For example, blue whales swim over vast areas of ocean. Because
whaling once reduced the total population to only several hundred individuals, there were
probably year-to-year variations in the success of individual blue whales in finding mates. If in
one year most whales were unsuccessful in finding a mate, then births could be dangerously low.
Such random variation in populations, typical among many species, can occur without any
change in the environment. It is a risk especially to species that consist of only a single
population in one habitat.

Environmental Risk
Population size can be affected by changes in the environment that occur from day to day, month
to month, year to year, even though the changes are not severe enough to be considered
environmental catastrophes. Environmental risks involve variation in the physical or biological
environment, including variations in predator, prey, symbiotic, or competitor species.
In some cases, species are sufficiently rare and isolated that such normal variations (e.g. late snow
& freeze) can lead to their extinction. In other cases, species succumb to catastrophic variation in
the environment.
Natural Catastrophe
A sudden change in the environment not the result of human action is a natural catastrophe. Fires,
major storms, earthquakes, and floods are natural catastrophes on land; changes in currents and
upwellings are ocean catastrophes. The explosion of a volcano on the island of Krakatoa in
Indonesia in 1883 caused the island blown to bits bringing about local extinction of most life
forms there.
Genetic Risk
Detrimental change in genetic characteristics not caused by external environmental changes is
called genetic risk. Genetic changes can occur in small populations from reduced genetic
variation, genetic drift, and mutation. In a small population, only some of the possible inherited
characteristics will be found. The species is vulnerable to extinction because it lacks variety or
because a mutation can become fixed in the population.
Human Actions
Human actions cause extinction of species through (1) intentional hunting or harvesting (for
commercial purposes, for sport, etc); (2) disruption or elimination of habitats; (3) introduction of
new parasites (transported by introduced species), predators (e.g. introduction of exotic species
such as dogs on islands caused extinction of dodo birds, whose eggs, laid on ground, were easy
prey for dogs), or competitors of a species; and (4) pollution of the environment.

Importance of the niches of species

Understanding a species' niche is important because it can help us (1) prevent it from
becoming prematurely extinct and (2) assess the environmental changes we make in
terrestrial and aquatic systems. For example, how will the niches of various species be
changed by clearing a forest, plowing up a grassland, filling in a wetland, or dumping
pollutants into a lake or stream. The various species may following types:
Native Species: Species that normally live and thrive in a particular ecosystem are
known as native species.
Ubiquitous species : Species that are found almost everywhere are ubiquitous species.
Humans are ubiquitous, some bacteria (E. coli) as well.
Endemic Species: A species that is native to a particular area and not native elsewhere is
called an endemic species. Monterey pine is endemic to a portion of California coast and
exotic in New Zealand.

Cosmopolitan species: A species with a broad distribution, occurring all over the world
wherever the environment is appropriate, is called cosmopolitan species. The moose is
found both in North America and Europe and is therefore a cosmopolitan species of
northern boreal forests.
Nonnative species, Exotic, or alien species: Species that migrate into an ecosystem or
are deliberately r accidentally introduced into an ecosystem by humans are called
nonnative species, exotic species, or alien species.

Fig: Exotic Species in Bangladesh a) Ipil Ipil b) Piranha

Indicator Species: Species that serve as early warnings that a community or an
ecosystem is being damaged are called indicator species.
Birds are excellent biological indicators because they are found almost everywhere and
respond quickly to environmental change.
Keystone Species: The roles of some species in an ecosystem are much more important
than their abundance. They are known as keystone species. In tropical forests, various
species of bees, bats, ants, and hummingbirds play keystone roles by pollinating
flowering plants, dispersing seed or both.

Interaction between species

There are three basic categories of interaction among species: competition, symbiosis,
and predation
Competition: in which outcome is negative for both groups.
Symbiosis: which benefits for both species.
Predation-parasitism: in which the outcome benefits one, and is detrimental to the
other.

Fig: Symbiosis between Clownfish and the Anemone in a coral reef (Sea anemones
are a group of water-dwelling animals; they are named after the anemone, a terrestrial
flower).

Fig: Predation

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Fig: Parasitism. A) Parasitism in Tomato plant B) Mosquito in human

The competitive exclusion principle
Competition is related to the principle of natural selection, which says that the organism
best adapted to a particular environment will survive and prevail. This can be restated as
the principle of competitive exclusion, which says that species in direct competition
cannot coexist-one of them will inevitably win out over the other
When competition occurs between two species, then the species that fit more will win out
and persist and the other one that fit less will lose or become extinct.
Example: Gray and Red Squirrels in Great Britain.
Coexistence of species : Species that require the same resources can coexist by utilizing
those resources under different environmental conditions. These species are said to have
different ecological niches. Example: Flour beetles that live on white flour.
Symbiosis: Species interact in ways that are beneficial to one or both; this is called
symbiosis (from the Greek words sum and biosis, meaning "life together"). Symbiosis is
very common; most organisms, even humans, participate in some form of symbiotic
relationship. Humans, for example, host a wide range of microorganisms (about a
hundred common ones). Some of them are of benefit to us, such as the organisms that
reside in our intestines and help us digest our food. Some of them are just along for the
ride, such as the mites that inhabit our eyelashes. And some of them can be annoying or
harmful if they grow out of control, such as the fungus that causes athlete's foot.

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Symbiosis affects biological diversity

Symbiotic microorganisms and the intestine of human body
~ 10% of a persons body weight is actually the weight of symbiotic microorganisms in
the intestines. The resident bacteria help us in our digestion. We provide habitats that
supply the needs of those microorganisms.
Rein deer and symbiotic bacteria
A reindeer on the northern tundra may appear to be alone but carries with it many
companions. The reindeer is a ruminant with a four chambered stomach teeming with
microbes. In order to save species from extinction, we must save its symbionts along with
its niche.
Predation: Predation can increase diversity of prey species by reducing the abundance of
the dominant prey. They can contribute to species evenness by keeping the dominant
species from overwhelming others via competitive exclusion.
The principle of competitive exclusion tells us that species compete against one another
for scarce resources, and no two species can occupy exactly the same niche within an
ecosystem. This might lead to the conclusion that a single species would eventually and
inevitably come to dominate a given ecosystem, to the exclusion of others. Instead,
competition, symbiosis, and predation, along with constant adaptations to changing
environmental conditions, have led to increasing richness and variety of species. This
variety of life-forms is called biodiversity.
Environmental factors influencing biodiversity

5.
6.
7.

Factors that tend to increase diversity

A physically diverse habitat.
Moderate amounts of disturbance.
A small variation in environmental conditions.
High diversity at one trophic level, increasing the diversity at another trophic
level.
An environment highly modified by life.
Middle stages of succession.
Evolution.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Factors that tend to decrease diversity

Environmental stress.
Extreme environments.
A severe limitation in the supply of exotic species.
Extreme amounts of disturbance.
Recent introduction of exotic species.
Geographic isolation.

1.
2.
3.
4.

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Biogeography
Biogeography is the geographic distribution of living organisms and their communities.
The most important unit of biogeography is the biome, a large geographic area
characterized by its environmental attributes and by the plants and animals that inhabit
the area.
Wallaces Realms: Biotic Provinces
In 1876, the great British biologist Alfred Russell Wallace, suggested that the world could
be divided into six biogeographic regions on the basis of fundamental features of the
animals found in those areas. Wallace referred to these regions as realms and named
them:
1. Neartic (North America),
2. Neotropical (Central and South America),
3. Palaearctic (Europe, Northern Asia, and Northern Africa),
4. Ethiopian (Central and Southern Africa),
5. Oriental (The Indian Subcontinent and Malaysia), and
6. Australian.
These regions are referred to as Wallace realms.
All living organisms are classified into groups called taxa, usually on the basis of their
evolutionary relationships or similarity of characteristics. The hierarchy of these groups
(from largest to smallest) begins with a domain or kingdom. The plant kingdom is made
up of division. The animal kingdom is made up of phyla (singular phylum).
In each geographic realm certain families or orders of animals are dominant. Animals
filling the same ecological niches in each realm are of different genetic stock from those
in the other realms.
Bison and Pronghorn antelope are the larger mammalian herbivores in North America;
Rodents fill niches in South America;
Kangaroos fill them in Australia;
Giraffes and Antelopes fill the niches in Central and South Africa.
Biotic Province
It is a region inhabited by a characteristic set of Taxa, bound by barriers.
These barriers prevent the spread of the distinctive kinds of life to other regions and the
immigration of foreign species.
In a biotic province, organisms share a common genetic heritage but may live in a variety
of environments as long as they are genetically isolated from other regions.
The modern explanation of Wallaces realms is the continental drift, caused by plate
tectonics.

Biomes
A biome is a kind of ecosystem, such as a desert, tropical rain forest, or grassland.
Similar environments provide similar opportunities for life and similar constraints. As a
result, similar environments lead to the evolution of organisms similar in form and
function (but not necessarily in genetic heritage or internal makeup) and to similar
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ecosystems. This is known as the rule of climatic similarity and leads to the concept
of the biome. There is a strong relationship between climate and biome. So if we know
the climate of an area, then we can easily predictWhat biome will be found there,
What its approximate biomass,
What the production will be, and
What the dominant kinds of organisms will be.
A particular biome can occur in various geographic locations, but it will always display
similar characteristics. For example, a desert is basically a desert. There are many
variations and many deserts, but all desert biomes wherever they occur have certain
characteristics in common-notably, very low precipitation and organisms that are adapted
to dry conditions. Different biomes grade into one another; the boundaries are not sharp
or distinct, and there are many variations. There are two basic types of biomes:
terrestrial and aquatic.

The Major Terrestrial Biomes

Tundra : The word tundra derives from the Finnish word for barren or treeless land. The
tundra is the simplest biome in terms of species composition and food chains. Arctic
tundra, is a terrestrial biome that occurs in the north at high latitudes.
Arctic Tundra (arctic region) exhibits low productivity, diversity and resilience;
permafrost.The mountain equivalent, alpine tundra, occurs at high altitudes closer to the
equator.
Alpine Tundra (high elevations in the mountains of the northern hemisphere) receives
intense solar radiation, hot daytime summer ground temperatures, and potential droughts.
Tundra is characterized by treeless plains and by permafrost-soil that is perennially
frozen except for a thin surface layer that thaws in the summertime.

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Alpine Tundra

Arctic Tundra

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Forests
Forests are the most widely varied of the major biomes. They can be roughly categorized
into high-latitude, temperate (midlatitude), and tropical (equatorial) forests. We'll look at
the major forest types, moving roughly from high to low latitude.
The taiga is the northern boreal forest to the south of the tundra in North America and
Eurasia. The boreal forest of the taiga mainly consists of coniferous trees (evergreens
with cones), such as spruce, fir, and pine trees, as well as mosses and lichens.
The temperate rain forest is the coniferous forest typical of the northwest coast of North
America (Oregon, Washington, and British Colunibia) but also found in other locations
such as southeastern Australia.
The temperate deciduous forest occurs mainly in the northeastern United States,
Europe, and eastern China. The climate is characterized by seasonal changes from
summer to winter. The forests consist mainly of broad-leaved deciduous trees-trees that
shed their leaves each year, including maple, oak, birch etc.
The great tropical rain forests of the equatorial regions host an enornious diversity of
organisms. Both temperature and precipitation are high, and the growing season lasts all
year, so the vegetation is very tall and dense. These are closed forests; the canopy, or top
layer of vegetation, forms an almost continuous cover, so the forest floor can be quite
dark
Boreal or Taiga : mainly Conifer Forests

Broad Leaf Deciduous Forest

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Tropical rainforest

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The equatorial region also hosts large tropical deciduous forests, also called tropical
seasonal forests or monsoon forests, in which the trees shed their broad leaves during the
dry season. Tropical rain forests and tropical deciduous forests together are referred to as
the tropical moist forest system. The largest is Amazonia in South America; other major
tropical moist forests are in Southeast Asia (Indonesia) and equatorial Africa.
In addition to hosting much of the planet's biologic diversiry, the tropical moist forests
represent an enormous reservoir for carbon in the global carbon cycle.
In contrast to tropical rain forests, the tropical savanna is an open forest consisting of
broad, grassy plains with scattered trees and lacking a continuous canopy. Temperatures
are high, but rainfall is low, particularly during the long, dry season. The best-known
savanna is the African Sahel (is the Arabic word for "border") that lies along the southern
margin of the Sahara Desert.
The biome that is typical of a Mediterranean climate-hot, dry summers and cool, wet
winters-is the chaparral, which is characterized by low, scrubby evergreen bushes and
short, drought-resistant trees.

Temperate grasslands are the vast prairies typical of the midwestern United States and
Canada, as well as Ukraine. Grasses have extensive, interconnected root systems.
Grasslands are particularly well suited to agriculture because of the rich organic content
of the soils. There are two basic types of grasslands.
Temperate moist grasslands, also known as tallgrass prairies. Shortgrass prairies are
drier, and the grasses are shorter, more drought-resistant varieties. Typical animals in
shortgrass prairies include prairie dogs, snakes, and lizards.

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Grasslands

Desert
A desert is an area where evaporation exceeds precipitation. Deserts have sparse, widely
spaced, mostly low vegetation. Although we often think of deserts as being hot, lack of
precipitation is actually the main defining characteristic. The term desert refers to arid
lands, where annual precipitation is less than 250 mm (10 in). Four types of hot deserts
and one type of cold desert are recognized:
1. Subtropical deserts in the two subtropical dry belts; examples include the
Sahara, Kalahari, and Great Australian;
2. Continental interior deserts far from any source of moisture, such as the Gobi
and Takla Makan of central Asia;
3. Rain-shadow deserts, where a mountain range creates a barrier to the flow of
moist air, causing a zone of low precipitation; examples are the deserts to the east
of the Cascade Range and the Sierra Nevada in the western United States;
4. Coastal deserts, such as the western coastal deserts of Peru, Chile, and southwestern Africa; and
5. the vast, cold, Polar ice sheets, where precipitation is extremely low due to the
sinking of cold, dry air.

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In all deserts, plant cover is sparse. Some desert plants are uniquely adapted to the
lack of water, including the many varieties of cacti and succulents, which have few or no
leaves and are able to retain large quantities of water. Animals tend to adapt to the
extreme temperatures and dryness by storing water, remaining hidden during the day,
hunting or foraging at night, and even tunneling underground during extended dry
periods.
How can an ice sheet be a desert?
Answer: Although many deserts are hot, a desert is technically defined as a place with
extremely low precipitation. Ice sheets fit this definition even though they are cold.

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How do desert plants and animals survive?

Desert plants
Some desert plants are evergreens with wax-coated leaves that minimize transpiration.
Perennial shrubs such as mesquite and creosote plants grow deep roots to tap into ground
water, and they drop their leaves to survive in a dormant state during long dry spells.
Other perennial such as short and tall cacti widely spread shallow roots to collect water
after brief showers and store it in their spongy tissues.
Many desert plants are annual wildflowers and grasses that store much of their biomass in
seeds during dry periods and remain inactive until they receive enough water to
germinate. Shortly after a rain, the seeds germinate, grow, carpet the desert with a
dazzling array of colorful flowers, and produce new seed and die- all in only a few
weeks.
Desert Plants

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Desert animals
Most desert animals are small. They beat the heat and reduce water loss by evaporative
cooling. They hide in cool burrows or rocky crevices by day and come out at night or in
the early morning.
Some desert animals have physical adaptations for conserving water.
Insects and reptiles have thick outer coverings to minimize water loss through water
evaporation. They also reduce water loss by having dry feces and by excreting a dried
concentrate of urine.
Some of the smallest desert animals, such as spiders and insects, get their water only
from dew or from the food they eat.
Some desert animals become dormant during periods of extreme heat or drought and are
active only during the cooler months of the year.

Desert Animals

Some major humans impacts on desert ecosystem are as follows

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1.

2.
3.
4.

The rapid growth of large desert cites. Examples are in Saudi Arabia and Egypt
and in the southwestern United States. Increasingly, people in such cities are
destroying fragile desert soil, plants and animal burrows with four-wheel-drive
vehicles and motorcycles.
Irrigation of desert areas to grow crops Such as parts of southern California.
When this is done, salts may accumulate in the soil as the water evaporates,
and crop productivity is limited.
Depletion of underground water as desert cities and irrigation expand.
Disruption and pollution by the extraction of soil and a variety of minerals and
building materials such as road stone and sand.

An Introduction to Aquatic Biomes

Aquatic biomes are distinguished primarily on the basis of differences in salinity. There
are three major groups-freshwater, marine, and transitional-with further subdivisions
based on temperature, depth, and distance from the shore. Saltwater (marine) and
freshwater biomes differ from each other in some fundamental ways besides salinity. For
example, the ocean is much more strongly affected by tides than even the largest lakes.
Waves and deep currents are generally stronger in the ocean than in lakes, and the depth
of the water is considerably greater.
Aquatic organisms generally fall into one of three categories: plankton, nekton, or
benthos. Plankton are extremely tiny, free-floating organistns. Of these, phytoplankton
are tiny, photosynthetic aquatic plants, including algae. Phytoplankton are important
because they form the base of the food chain in aquatic ecosystems. Zooplankton are
tiny, nonphotosynthetic aquatic animals, including the larvae of some larger organisms. In
aquatic ecosystems, zooplankton typically eat phytoplankton, which in turn are eaten by
larger organisms. Nekton are larger animals that are active swimmers, including fish,
whales, turtles, and dolphins. Benthos are bottomdwelling organisms, including those
that attach themselves to rocks, such as barnacles and mussels; plants that are rooted in
bottom sediments; organisms that burrow into bottom sediments, such as octopi; and
some that move along the bottom, such as crustaceans.
What are the main differences in the physical environments of freshwater and saltwater biomes?
Answer: Salinity; influence of tides; energy of waves and currents; depth and related
factors (low light levels, cold temperatures, high pressures).

The Major Aquatic Biomes: Freshwater and Transitional

Freshwater biomes can be divided into flowing-water and standing-water types.
Flowing-water biomes-rivers and streams-are dynamic environments. A river can vary
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dramatically from its source upstream where the river originates to its mouth
downstream where it empties into another body of water.
Standing -water environments include lakes, ponds, and wetlands. A lake is a standing
body of fresh water that occupies a large depression in the ground surface; ponds and
pools are smaller standing freshwater bodies. In general, lakes are large enough that
terrestrial plants cannot survive in their deepest parts. Lakes contain several zones
defined by a combination of depth, temperature, and distance from the shore.
The warm, shallow, near shore area is called the littoral zone. The littoral zone is the
most biologically productive part of a lake, with abundant plant life (cattails, sedge
grasses), as well as birds (ducks and other waterfowl), insects, reptiles, and amphibians.
The open-water environment is called the limnetic zone, which hosts zooplankton and
phytoplankton, as well as the larger organisms mainly fish-that eat them. The limnetic
zone extends as far down as light can penetrate. Underneath is the profundal zone,
which only occurs in the largest and deepest lakes. Organic material in the profundal zone
consists mainly of dead organisms that float down and are consumed by bacteria.
The temperature of the water in a large lake can vary greatly from the surface where
sunlight heats the water to deeper levels where the water is typically much colder. This is
called thermal stratification. Recall that water, like air, is denser when it is cool than
when it is warm. Cool water sinks to the bottom of a deep lake because it is dense. As
sunlight hits the lake, the surface waters become warmer and less dense. This is a stable
thermal stratification-cold, dense water at the bottom and warm, less dense water at the
top. The depth where the temperature changes very rapidly from warm to cold is called
the thermoclirie.
A freshwater wetland is an area that is either permanently or intermittently moist.
Wetlands, including swamps, marshes, and bogs, may or may not contain open, standing
water, although most wetlands are covered by shallow water for at least part of the year.
Wetlands tend to be highly biologically productive, with dense vegetation, migratory
birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Some wetlands represent a developmental stage in
the natural lifetime of a freshwater body. For example, a lake whose source of incoming
water has been cut off will become shallower over time, gradually filling with sediment
and organic material to become a peat bog or swamp. Wetlands were once considered to
be dirty, mosquito-infested quagmires-prime targets to be drained and developed. More
recently, wetlands have been recognized as natural storehouses for a great diversity of
plant and animal species. Wetlands also perform many important environmental services,
including storing groundwater and removing toxins from the soil.
Wetlands in coastal regions are transitional between freshwater and saltwater
environments. These transitional environments include estuaries, salt marshes, and
mangroves. An estuary is a body of water that is connected to the open ocean but has an
incoming supply of fresh water from a river. Salt water and fresh water mix in estuaries,
and water levels, salinity, and temperature fluctuate with the rise and fall of the tides.
Organisms that inhabit estuaries must be adapted to tolerate these variations. A common
feature of temperate estuaries is a salt marsh, a coastal wetland dominated by salttolerant grasses. Salt marshes typically host abundant shorebirds. The tropical equivalent
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is a mangrove forest, which hosts some of the most productive fisheries in the world.
Estuaries, salt marshes, and mangroves, like other wetlands, perform many important
ecologic functions, including cleansing the soil and providing homes for many different
species. Coastal wetlands also protect the shoreline against the battering energy of
oceanic storms. Unfortunately, coastal development is threatening mangrove forests and
other coastal wetlands in many localities.
What is the difference between a wetland, a salt marsh, and a mangrove?
Answer: A wetland is an area that is permanently or intermittently moist and may or may
not contain open, standing water. A salt marsh is a coastal wetland, in which salt water
and fresh water mix. A mangrove is the tropical equivalent of a salt marsh.
The Major Aquatic Biomes: Marine
Marine biomes are divided into several major zones on the basis of depth and distance
from the shore. The intertidal zone is transitional between the shore and the open ocean.
The pelagic zone is the open-water environment of the ocean. It consists of the neritic
province, which extends from the shore to where the water reaches a depth of 200 m
(650 ft), and the oceanic province, which encompasses the rest of the pelagic zone-that
is, most of the open ocean. Further subdivisions are based on the depth of the water. The
euphotic zone, or photic zone, is the top part of the pelagic zone, where photosynthesis
can occur. The euphotic zone extends from the surface down to the maximum depth of
sunlight penetration-about 150 m(490 ft). Below this level are the bathyal zone,
extending to a depth of 4,000 m(2.5 mi), and the abyssal zone, extending to a depth of
6,000 m(3.7 mi). The deepest part of the ocean, called the hadal zone, extends into the
deepest oceanic trenches 6,500 m (4 mi) below the surface.
What are the two provinces of the pelagic zone? Answer: Neritic and oceanic.
The benthic zone, or benthos, is the ocean floor environment. The benthos of the deep
parts of the ocean-the bathyal and abyssal zones-consists mainly of sediment, with some
burrowing marine animals and bacteria. In the deepest parts of the benthos-the deep
oceanic trenches-the geologic environment is dominated by hydrothermal vents.
Hydrothermal vents are volcanic openings through which hot, mineral-laden waters
flow. Unusual life forms inhabit the areas around hydrothermal vents. These organisms
are adapted to a completely dark environment; their primary biologic productivity comes
from chemosynthesis rather than photosynthesis. Thermophilic (heat-loving) bacteria
produce food energy using heat and hydrogen sulfide from the mineralladen waters of the
hydrothermal vents.
In contrast to the extreme environment of the deep benthos, the shallow-water benthic
zone is a warm, light, and highly productive environment. In water up to about 10 m(33
ft) deep, salt-tolerant sea grasses grow in bottom sediments. They provide food and
protection for a wide variety of fish, crustaceans, reptiles, and bottom-dwelling
detritivores such as mud shrimp. In deeper, cooler water (up to about 25 m, or 82 ft),
huge beds of kelp-brown algae-form the bottom of the marine food chain for many
organisms, including sponges, sea cucumbers, clams, crabs, fish, and mammals such as
sea otters.
A particularly productive benthic environment is the coral reef Coral reefs are worthy
of special mention not only because they are a biologically productive biome but also
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because they are sensitive indicators of environmental stress. Coral reefs are formed by
colonies of tiny coral animals that coexist with a photosynthetic bacterium called
zooxanthellae (pronounced zoh-zan-thell-ay). The zooxanthellae require sunlight for
photosynthesis, providing the corals with food energy. The corals in turn provide
nitrogen-a plant nutrient-to the zooxanthellae. Although corals can exist without
zooxanthellae, their presence stimulates the corals to build tiny calcareous shells, which
eventually accumulate into reefs; corals without zooxanthellae do not build reefs. Reefs
are highly productive ecosystems inhabited by a diversity of marine lifeforms. They also
perform an important role in the recycling of nutrients in shallow coastal environments.
They provide physical barriers that dissipate the force of waves, protecting the ports,
lagoons, and beaches that lie behind them, and they are an important esthetic and
economic resource. Corals require shallow, clear water in which the temperature remains
above 18C (65F). Because of their very specific light and temperature requirements,
coral reefs are highly susceptible to damage from human activities, as well as from
natural causes such as tropical storms. For example, industry and development in coastal
zones can lead to soil erosion; the soil clouds coastal waters, blocking the corals and
inhibiting photosynthesis by the zooxanthellae. When this happens, the corals die, and all
that remains is the white calcareous material of the reef. This process is called coral
bleaching, and it is an important indicator of many environmental problems.

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