DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0396.2007.00724.

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Mineral balance in horses fed two supplemental silicon sources

C. I. OConnor, B. D. Nielsen, A. D. Woodward, H. S. Spooner, B. A. Ventura and K. K. Turner
Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA

Keywords
horse, silicon, mineral metabolism, aluminium,
sodium aluminium silicate
Correspondence
Cara OConnor, 1287 Anthony Hall, East
Lansing, MI 48824-1225, USA.
Tel: (517) 353-4866; Fax: (517) 353-1699;
E-mail: oconn107@msu.edu
Received: 1 December 2006;
accepted: 19 April 2007
First published online: 13 July 2007

Summary
Numerous studies suggest that silicon (Si) supplementation is beneficial
for mineral metabolism and bone health. Mineral balance studies have
not been performed in horses to determine how these supplements
affect absorption of other minerals. The purpose of these studies was to
investigate the effects of two different Si supplements on mineral
absorption and retention in horses. Eight geldings were randomly placed
in one of two groups: control (CO) or supplemental Si, which was provided by one of two supplements. The first, sodium aluminium silicate
(SA), contains a bioavailable form of Si and is high in aluminium (Al).
The second supplement contains oligomeric orthosilicic acid (OSA). All
horses received textured feed and ad libitum access to hay. Supplemented horses received either 200 g of SA or 28.6 ml of OSA per day. Following a 10-day adaptation period, the horses underwent a 3-day total
collection. Blood samples were taken on days 0 and 13. The two balance
studies were conducted 4 months apart to reduce carryover effects.
Intakes of Al and Si were greater with SA supplementation (p < 0.05).
Sodium aluminium silicate increased faecal and urinary Si excretion
(p < 0.05). Calcium retention and apparent digestion were increased by
SA (p < 0.05). It also maintained plasma Si compared with the CO
which tended to have a decrease in plasma Si (p 0.08). Supplemental
OSA increased retention of Ca and B (p < 0.05) and apparent digestion
of B (p < 0.01). Orthosilicic acid tended to increase Si retention (p
0.054), apparent digestion (p < 0.065), and also increased plasma Si.
Both supplements were able to alter Ca retention and B metabolism,
however, only OSA was able to alter Si retention, digestibility and
plasma concentration. Orthosilicic acid, an Si supplement without substantial Al, appears to be a viable option for Si supplementation as it
increased Si retention and digestibility.

Introduction
Silicon (Si) is found throughout the environment
though most forms are not readily absorbable in the
gastrointestinal tract. Studies in both growing rats
(Schwarz and Milne, 1972) and chicks (Carlisle,
1972) have shown that silicon is required for normal
growth and development. Two bioavailable forms of

Si are currently commercially available. The first,

sodium aluminium silicate (SA), is a zeolite that is
broken down in the digestive system into aluminium
(Al) and orthosilicic acid (OSA), an absorbable form
of Si (Thilsing-Hansen et al., 2002). Benefits such as
decreased skeletal injuries in race horses (Nielsen
et al., 1993), increased markers of bone formation
(Lang et al., 2001b) and decreased markers of bone

Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 92 (2008) 173181 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

173

Mineral balance in horses fed silicon

C. I. OConnor et al.

resorption (Lang et al., 2001c) have been reported

when horses were fed SA. The second is a liquid
supplement (OSA) containing oligomeric OSA.
Monomeric silica, also known as orthosilicic acid, is
the major form of Si in drinking water and other
liquid sources and has no known toxicity in animals
(Reffitt et al., 1999).
Sodium aluminium silicate has been used in both
ruminant (Johnson et al., 1988; Thilsing-Hansen
et al., 2002; Turner et al., 2006a,b) and equine studies (Frey et al., 1992; Nielsen et al., 1993; Lang
et al., 2001b,c). Dairy cows supplemented with
700 g of zeolite A 1 week before calving exhibited a
stabilizing effect on plasma calcium (Ca) and
decreased plasma phosphorus (P) concentrations
(Thilsing-Hansen et al., 2003).
There is considerably less research on supplementation with stabilized OSA. A study conducted
on calves demonstrated the high bioavailability of
silicon from OSA (Calomme and Van den Berghe,
1997). With just a 4.9% increase in dietary Si
intake from supplemental choline-stabilized OSA,
the treated group had a 70% higher serum Si concentration than control calves after 23 weeks.
Additionally, the supplemented calves had higher
concentrations of skin collagen, indicating that not
only was the Si absorbed, as indicated by the
increase in serum Si, but it also altered the extracellular matrix component formation. Several studies have suggested that Si is necessary for both
the formation of extracellular matrix components (Carlisle, 1970, 1980) and the association
between the components (Nielsen, 1991). Reffitt et
al. (2003) investigated the effects of OSA on bone
marrow cells in culture and demonstrated that Si
stimulated type 1 collagen synthesis and osteoblastic differentiation and may effect bone formation
in vivo.
While mineral metabolism studies have been conducted in cows supplemented with SA, no such
studies have been reported with SA or OSA in the
horse. Our objective was to determine the effects of
these two Si supplements on the retention and
digestibility of various minerals in horses. If SA and
OSA are able to alter mineral absorption in a positive manner, then they would be worth exploring as
bone health supplements for the horse. Our hypothesis was that feeding a Si supplement to horses
would result in increased Si retention and digestibility, but Ca and P retention and digestibility would
remain unchanged. The second hypothesis was that
Al metabolism would be affected by SA, but not by
OSA.
174

Materials and methods

Horses

Eight mature Arabian geldings with an average age

of 10  1 years and an average body weight of
488  8 kg were used to study mineral balance. In
order to ensure complete clearance of the supplement, a wash-out period of 4 months elapsed
between experiments. Each experiment included a
10-day adaptation period followed by a 3-day total
collection. Prior to the 10-day adaptation period, six
horses were maintained on grass pasture and two in
stalls with daily turnout because they were currently
in training as English pleasure horses and being
shown competitively. This protocol was approved by
the Michigan State University Institutional Animal
Care and Use Committee.
Adaptation period

During the 10-day adaptation period, six of the

horses were maintained in 13 13 m dry lots while
the other two horses (show horses) were maintained
in 3.4 3.4 m box stalls. All horses had free-choice
access to Timothy hay and water. Hay was placed in
metal feeders twice per day and it was checked and
filled as needed. Body weights were measured on
days 0, 10 and 13. On day 0, horses were pairmatched by body weight and housing location, and
randomly allocated to one of two treatments: Si
supplement or control (CO). Horses retained treatment allocations for both balance experiments.
Sodium aluminium silicate (EQUI-SiTM; MexAmerican Trading Corp., Delta, BC, Canada) was tested
during the first experiment in May while oligomeric
OSA (Siliforce Horses; Agro-Solutions, Valkenburgerweg the Netherlands) was tested during the
second experiment in September.
Experiment 1 treatments

In the first experiment, supplemented horses received

200 g SA/day divided into equal portions and topdressed onto 0.75 kg textured feed (Meco 15; 15%
crude protein (CP), 3% fat, 5.5% fibre; Mason Elevator Company, Mason, MI, USA), which was fed twice
daily for a total of 1.5 kg of grain per day for 13 days.
In order to ensure complete consumption of the SA,
water was added and the mixture was stirred thoroughly to mix the SA with the textured feed. Control
horses received the same amount of textured feed, but
no supplement. Dry matter intake as well as average
faecal and urinary outputs can be found in Table 1.

Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Mineral balance in horses fed silicon

C. I. OConnor et al.

Table 1 Average intakes and outputs

Sweet feed Hay intake Si supplement Faeces
(kg DM)
(kg DM)
(g DM or ml) (kg DM)

Urine
(l/day)

Table 3 Contribution of the various dietary constituents to the minerals consumed during the mineral balances on a mg mineral/kg body
weight basis
Feedstuff

Sodium aluminium silicate mineral balance trial

Control 1.3  0
7.3  0.8
0
SA
1.3  0
8.6  0.8 190  0 g
Orthosilicic acid mineral balance trial
Control 0.87  0
7.4  0.6
0
OSA
0.87  0
8.3  0.6 28.6  0 ml

3.8  0.5 6.9  1.4

4.2  0.9 8.7  1.6
3.8  1.0 4.2  0.8
4.1  1.0 5.4  2.3

Ca

Sodium aluminium silicate mineral balance

Sweet feed
16
14
Hay
160
56
SA
0.053
0.016
Orthosilicic acid mineral balance trial
Sweet feed
8.5
7.1
Hay
43
24
OSA
0.009
0.014

Si

Al

trial
0.20
1.2
0.27

0.27
1.9
53

0.022
0.40
0.001

0.11
1.8
0.28

0.06
4.0
0.05

0.01
0.07
0.047

Experiment 2 treatments

In the second experiment, supplemented horses

received 28.6 ml of OSA top-dressed onto 1.0 kg textured feed (Meco 15; 15% CP, 3% fat, 5.5% fibre)
once daily at 08:00 hours for a total of 13 days. Control horses received 1.0 kg of textured feed once
daily.
Total collection

On day 10, all horses were moved into stalls. Each

stall was bedded with wood shavings and both the
hay and grain feeders were thoroughly cleaned. During collection, horses were fed hay approximately
every 12 h at 08:00 and 18:00 hours. At each feeding, hay orts were collected from the stall, weighed
and recorded. Horses were fed at least 5% more hay
than was consumed during the previous feeding to
ensure ad libitum intake. Textured feed continued to
be fed at designated times with the supplement topdressed on the feed. Samples of the hay, textured
feed, SA and OSA were reserved for mineral analysis
(Tables 2 and 3).
Each horse was weighed and then fitted with a
total collection device (TCD; Equisan, South
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia). Every 8 h for
3 days, the TCD was removed from the horse, urine
and faecal matter emptied out, and the TCD
Table 2 Mineral concentrations (mg/kg on a dry matter basis or mg/l
for OSA) of the feedstuffs for the mineral balances
Feedstuff

Ca

Si

Sodium aluminium silicate mineral balance trial

Sweet feed
5900
5100
69
Hay
9600
3300
73
SA
130
39
650
Orthosilicic acid mineral balance trial
Sweet feed
4900
4100
66
Hay
3100
1700
130
OSA
160
240
4800

Al

replaced. This procedure was conducted as quickly

as possible. After all TCDs were emptied, faecal matter from each horse was thoroughly mixed, weighed
and a 10% sample saved. Urine volume was measured and a 10% sample was saved into an acidwashed, plastic screw-top bottle. Urine and faecal
samples were placed in a cooler on ice until transport to the laboratory. Upon completion of the 3-day
collection, TCDs were removed; horses were
weighed and then returned to normal management.
The saved urine and faecal samples were pooled and
a 10% composite urine sample and a 0.5 kg composite faecal sample were saved for each horse. The
composite samples were stored in a freezer at )20 C
until analysis. This protocol was approved by the
Institutions Animal Care and Use Committee.
Blood collection

Blood samples were taken on days 0 and 13 of each

experiment. As plasma was to be analysed for Si
concentration, special care was taken to reduce contamination from glass, as leaching of Si from glass
can occur (Lang et al., 2001a). Seven-millilitre plastic tubes were acid-washed and then 66 ll of 15%
K2EDTA was added, before the tubes were capped
and vacuumed. Blood was collected via jugular venipuncture into three 7-ml plastic tubes. The tubes
were centrifuged for 20 min at 1340 g. Plasma was
frozen at )20 C.

Mineral analysis
98
110
130 000

8.1
24
3.4

36
290
890

6.3
4.8
8200

The faecal samples were freeze-dried and ground,

while textured feed and hay were analysed as fed.
Subsamples of the faeces, hay, sweet feed and SA
were reserved to obtain dry matter data. Approximately 0.5 g of feed, SA, hay and faeces was placed
into 10-ml plastic digestion vials. Exactly 1 ml of

Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

175

Mineral balance in horses fed silicon

C. I. OConnor et al.

plasma, OSA (diluted 1:25) and 2 ml of urine were

poured into 5-ml plastic digestion vials. Then 5 ml of
nitric acid was added to feed and faecal samples,
while 2 ml of nitric acid was added to the plasma
and urine samples. Samples were digested overnight
in an oven at 90 C. The digested samples were
then poured into volumetric flasks (25 ml for hay,
feed, SA and faeces, 10 ml for plasma, OSA and
urine), brought up to volume with double-deionized
water, and poured off into plastic vials. The diluted
samples were then analysed with an inductively
coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometer (Vista
ICPAES; Varian, Palo Alto, CA, USA) at the MSU
Diagnostic Center for Population and Animal Health.
Samples were analysed in triplicate.
Calculations

Retention was calculated using the equation: g intake ) (g faecal and g urine) g retained. Apparent
digestibility was calculated using the equation: [(g
intake ) g faecal)/g intake] 100% % apparent
digestion.
Statistical analysis

Data were analysed using Proc MIXED of SAS 8.2

(Anon, 2002). Class variables included treatment

Ca

Si

Al

Sodium aluminium silicate mineral balance trial

Day 0
CO
118
94
0.82
0.20
SA
115
90
1.08
0.11
SEM
2.2
2.9
0.12
0.08
p-value
0.36
0.35
0.13
0.46
Day 13
CO
119
89
0.53
0.24
SA
119
87
1.0
0.23
SEM
2.2
2.9
0.12
0.08
p-value
0.94
0.55
0.01
0.95
Orthosilicic acid mineral balance trial
Day 0
CO
124
73.6
0.49
0.14
OSA
128
70.4
0.44
0.08
SEM
2.2
2.9
0.05
0.05
p-value
0.25
0.45
0.38
0.37
Day 13
CO
123
66
0.58
0.083
OSA
120*
65
0.64*
0.13
SEM
2.2
1.7
0.05
0.05
p-value
0.27
0.79
0.38
0.52

and day for the plasma data and treatment for the
digestibility data. Least squared mean values were
used to separate treatment mean values and to separate treatment-by-day interactions using the slice
option. Each experiment was analysed separately
and statistical comparisons were not made between
the experiments. Differences were considered significant at p < 0.05 and trends were discussed at
p < 0.10.
Results
SA mineral balance

The addition of SA to the horses diets did not alter

body weight (p 0.95) over the 13-day supplementation period. There was no difference (p 0.30) in
hay intake between SA horses (8.6  0.8 kg DM)
and CO horses (7.3  0.8 kg DM; Table 1). Sodium
aluminium silicate supplementation increased plasma
magnesium (Mg) and decreased plasma sodium (Na)
concentration (p < 0.05) over the 13-day trial, but
had no effect on other plasma mineral concentrations
(Table 4). While plasma Si did not change in the SA
horses over the course of the study, there was a trend
for plasma Si concentrations to decrease in the
control group from day 0 to 13 (p 0.08). Mineral
intake, absolute mineral amounts in faeces and
urine, retention, and apparent digestibility are

Mg

Na

0.13
0.15
0.02
0.47

734
864
67
0.20

17.1
16.5
0.46
0.36

3075
3137
30.1
0.17

0.20*
0.19
0.02
0.74

1082*
1002
67
0.42

18.7*
19.2*
0.46
0.61

3000
2990*
30.1
0.86

0.10
0.10
0.02
0.93

712
720
14
0.71

18.1
18.6
0.88
0.68

3120
3180
25.2
0.13

0.04*
0.04*
0.02
0.88

820*
750
14
0.003

19.0
17.8
0.88
0.34

3170
3180
25.2
0.73

Table 4 Plasma mineral concentrations (mg/l)

on days 0 and 13 for both the SA and OSA
mineral balances

*Treatment mean on day 13 within a given trial differs from treatment mean on day 0; p < 0.05.
Treatment mean on day 13 within a given trial differs from treatment mean on day 0; p < 0.10.

176

Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Mineral balance in horses fed silicon

C. I. OConnor et al.

Table 5 Retention and digestibility of minerals in control horses (CO)

and SA horses

Calcium
CO
SA
SEM
p-value
Phosphorus
CO
SA
SEM
p-value
Silicon
CO
SA
SEM
p-value
Aluminium
CO
SA
SEM
p-value
Boron
CO
SA
SEM
p-value
Potassium
CO
SA
SEM
p-value
Magnesium
CO
SA
SEM
p-value
Sodium
CO
SA
SEM
p-value

Intake
(g)

Faeces
(g)

Urine
(g)

Retained
(g)

77.6
90.2
7.9
0.30

36.5
33.0
2.9
0.42

16.7
16.2
4.5
0.93

24.4
41.0
4.8
0.05

52.9
62.9
1.9
0.01

30.8
35.1
2.7
0.30

23.1
23.4
1.6
0.92

0.05
0.04
0.01
0.61

7.7
11.7
1.8
0.15

24.1
33.1
3.78
0.14

0.62
0.84
0.06
0.04

0.27
0.40
0.03
0.02

0.19
0.40
0.04
0.01

0.95
27.0
0.09
<0.001

2.5
24.0
1.6
<0.001

0.001
0.002
0.001
0.28

0.19
0.22
0.02
0.29

0.10
0.08
0.01
0.13

0.07
0.09
0.01
0.17

0.02
0.05
0.01
0.04

45.5
65.5
2.42
0.001

82.7
96.3
8.5
0.30

33.3
28.6
3.7
0.40

16.9
21.0
1.9
0.18

32.4
46.7
4.10
0.05

59.6
70.6
1.8
0.005

18.5
21.3
1.7
0.30

10.9
9.1
1.1
0.29

4.6
5.9
0.70
0.25

3.0
6.3
0.71
0.02

41.8
60.0
2.2
0.003

4.9
38.5
0.31
<0.001

13.3
17.5
3.3
0.31

2.5
15.0
2.1
0.005

)9.9
5.9
4.7
0.054

0.15
0.029
0.06
0.22
)1.55
3.11
1.59
0.08

Digested
(%)

54.7
51.3
6.40
0.73
)171
11.7
71.6
0.12

)165
54.6
54.6
0.03

included in Table 5. Intakes of Si and Al were

greater in the SA horses (p < 0.05). There was
increased faecal Si and Al output and a greater urinary Si output from the SA horses (p < 0.03). Aluminium retention also tended to be greater in SA
horses than in CO horses (p 0.08). Calcium retention (p 0.05) and apparent digestion (p 0.01)
were increased by the SA supplementation. Apparent
digestibility and retention of B, potassium (K), Mg
and Na were also increased following SA supplementation (p < 0.05).

OSA mineral balance

The addition of OSA to the horses diets did not alter

body weight (p 0.81) over the 13-day supplementation period. There was no difference (p 0.34) in
hay intake between OSA horses (8.3  0.6 kg DM)
and CO horses (7.4  0.6 kg DM; Table 1). Plasma
concentrations of Ca and Si exhibited a day effect
(p 0.05) with the OSA treated horses exhibiting a
decrease in plasma Ca and an increase in plasma Si
concentrations from day 0 to 13 (p < 0.05). There
were, however, no differences between treatments
on either day 0 or 13. Orthosilicic acid had no other
effect on plasma mineral concentrations (Table 4).
Mineral intake, absolute mineral amounts in faeces
and urine, retention, and apparent digestibility are
included in Table 6. Orthosilicic acid treatment
increased Ca retention (p < 0.01) and tended to
increase Si retention (p 0.054) and apparent
digestibility (p 0.065). Boron retention and apparent digestion were also greater in the OSA-treated
horses (p < 0.01) than in the CO horses.
Discussion
Sodium aluminium silicate is a crystalline zeolite
that is hydrolysed at low pH into silicic acid, amorphous Al silicates and Al (Thilsing-Hansen et al.,
2002). These zeolite molecules are capable of selectively binding and releasing molecules by adsorption
or ion exchange (Shurson et al., 1984). The high
amounts of Al in the SA when compared with Si
necessitate evaluating SA as a source of Al, as well
as bioavailable Si. On the other hand, OSA is an Si
and B supplement with Si in the form of stabilized
OSA, which should be digested similar to SA after
SA is broken down into silicic acid.
Decreases in feed intake have been reported in
SA-supplemented ruminants (Johnson et al., 1988;
Thilsing-Hansen et al., 2002; Turner et al., 2006a),
which may be a result of the binding of Al to P in
the digestive system. Thus the formation of unabsorbable complexes that essentially reduces dietary P
(Deobald and Elvehjem, 1935) can create a P deficiency. Characterized by low plasma P, the most common sign of P deficiency is a reduction in feed
intake (Call et al., 1987). A significant decrease in
plasma P in response to supplementation of Al was
seen in beef cows after 3 days of supplementation
(Allen et al., 1986), in chicks on day 21 (Hussein
et al., 1990) and in lactating Holsteins on day 30
(Turner et al., 2006a). Decreases in feed intake in
previous equine studies on SA supplementation have

Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

177

Mineral balance in horses fed silicon

C. I. OConnor et al.

Table 6 Retention and digestibility of minerals in control horses (CO)

and OSA horses

Calcium
CO
OSA
SEM
p-value
Phosphorus
CO
OSA
SEM
p-value
Silicon
CO
OSA
SEM
p-value
Aluminium
CO
OSA
SEM
p-value
Boron
CO
OSA
SEM
p-value
Potassium
CO
OSA
SEM
p-value
Magnesium
CO
OSA
SEM
p-value
Sodium
CO
OSA
SEM
p-value

Intake
(g)

Faeces
(g)

24.8
27.0
2.6
0.55

16.6
18.1
1.0
0.32

15.0
16.3
1.4
0.55

Urine
(g)

Retained
(g)

Digested
(%)

8.8
5.0
1.7
0.17

)0.6
4.0
0.7
0.003

31.5
32.6
4.2
0.86

12.3
14.0
0.83
0.21

0.08
0.027
0.04
0.33

2.7
2.3
0.8
0.77

17.5
13.9
3.7
0.52

0.91
1.14
0.11
0.18

0.80
0.65
0.09
0.27

0.094
0.120
0.02
0.31

0.02
0.37
0.10
0.054

10.5
41.6
9.8
0.065

1.93
2.16
0.24
0.51

1.00
1.30
0.15
0.22

0.0007
0.0005
0.0001
0.33

0.92
0.860
0.23
0.87

45.6
39.3
7.6
0.58

0.037
0.274
0.004
<0.001

0.019
0.028
0.006
0.29

0.016
0.018
0.002
0.60

0.018
0.228
0.005
<0.001

48.9
89.7
8.20
<0.001

55.4
61.1
6.4
0.55

19.4
18.9
2.3
0.88

11.5
13.5
1.9
0.47

24.5
28.7
3.5
0.42

64.6
69.5
1.9
0.11

14.3
15.6
1.54
0.56

8.6
10.3
0.76
0.15

4.8
3.8
0.75
0.40

0.91
1.5
0.78
0.62

38.9
33.4
3.7
0.33

4.6
5.0
0.43
0.55

3.8
2.6
0.91
0.38

0.31
0.61
0.15
0.20

0.51
1.82
0.83
0.31

20.6
49.1
16.5
0.27

not been reported (Nielsen et al., 1993; Lang et al.,

2001b,c). Neither SA nor OSA supplementation
affected hay intake in the current study. Plasma P
digestibility and retention were also not affected by
either supplement.
Neither SA nor OSA increased plasma Si concentrations in supplemented horses above the concentrations in control animals as has been shown by
other studies (Nielsen et al., 1993; Lang et al.,
2001b,c; Mazzella et al., 2005). However, while
plasma Si concentrations in control horses showed a
178

decreasing trend over the course of the study, the

plasma Si concentrations in horses supplemented
with SA remained unchanged. Similarly, though not
different at day 13, the plasma Si concentrations
increased in horses treated with OSA from day 0 to
13 while remaining unchanged in the control animals. In both studies, changes in plasma Si concentrations favoured the treated animals despite lack of
differences in concentrations at day 13. It could be
that the Si supplements need a longer supplementation time to show greater Si concentrations in
plasma or it may need to be supplemented using a
stronger dose. A study in calves showed increases in
serum Si following 23 weeks of OSA supplementation (Calomme and Van den Berghe, 1997). Positive
changes from baseline values that are favourable to
treated animals were not the only indicators that the
supplemental Si was capable of being absorbed.
OSA-supplemented horses tended to have an
increase in Si retention and had increased Si absorption. It is possible that, in this study, the additional
Si absorbed was rapidly transported to tissues
throughout the body. Within 1 h of an intracardiac
injection of a labelled silicic acid, rat kidney, liver,
bone, skin, spleen and lung were found to accumulate Si (Adler et al., 1986).
The horses receiving SA had greater amounts of Si
excreted in urine and faeces than did CO horses,
therefore no differences in retention or apparent
digestion were observed. The specific reason for the
lack of an increase in apparent Si absorption is
unknown though, if more mineral is present in the
diet and the percent digested remains unchanged, the
net result is more mineral being absorbed. While no
changes in Si retention or apparent digestibility were
observed with SA, OSA-supplemented horses tended
to retain and digest 31% more Si than CO horses.
The apparent digestibility of Si in the OSA horses was
42%, which is somewhat similar to the 53% absorption rate reported by Jugdaohsingh et al. (2000).
A number of studies have been performed to look
at factors affecting organic matter digestibility of forages. Plants uptake Si as monosilicic acid and while
some of this Si remains soluble, most is deposited in
cell walls as a support mechanism in the form of phytolyths (Blackman and Bailey, 1971; Jarvis, 1987). It
has been suggested that total silicon and soluble silicon content decreases digestibility of organic matter
from forages in vivo (Van Soest and Jones, 1968). In
the ruminant, it has been proposed that Si reduces
digestibility of forages by acting as a varnish on plant
cell walls, thereby reducing availability to rumen
microflora and by complexing with trace elements

Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Mineral balance in horses fed silicon

C. I. OConnor et al.

(such as Zn) also reducing availability (Shewmaker

et al., 1989). However, it is unclear as to what factors
may make Si more available for digestion in forages.
The control horses on the SA study absorbed and
retained a fairly large amount of Si, given the common belief that most Si in the environment is fairly
unabsorbable. The hay fed to the horses provided the
largest source of silicon in the diet. As the two studies
were completed months apart, different hay was fed
on each study. In the SA study, first-cutting hay from
the previous year was fed. In the OSA study, firstcutting hay from the current year was fed. In the
OSA study, the hay contained substantially more Si
than did the hay fed in the SA study. It is possible
that the lower silicon content of the hay in the SA
study allowed for greater availability and absorption
of Si in the control horses.
The Al intake was 27 times higher in the SA-supplemented horses, but plasma Al concentration was
unaffected by the increase. The SA horses also tended to retain more Al than the CO horses, although
there was no difference in digestibility. The Al
digestibility value for the CO horses was negative,
which reflects a greater faecal loss than what was
consumed. Plasma Al concentrations and apparent
digestibility did not increase, however, it cannot be
assumed that the ingested Al from SA does not
adversely affect the horse. Plasma Al concentrations
are not indicative of tissue storage (Krueger et al.,
1985), and increases in plasma Al are not always
seen following Al ingestion (Hussein et al., 1990).
No adverse effects were reported in horses supplemented with SA for 2 years, however no measurements of Al were taken (Nielsen et al., 1993). Dairy
calves supplemented with SA for 60 days had a
higher retention of Al and analysed tissues had a
higher concentration of Al than did control calves
(Turner et al., 2006b). As OSA does not contain substantial amounts of Al, Al balance was not altered in
those supplemented horses.
Calcium balance can be affected by high dietary
intakes of Al (Robinson et al., 1984). In this study,
the addition of SA increased retention and digestibility of Ca. This effect has been seen in ruminants.
Robinson et al. (1984) found an increase in Ca
retention and availability when non-lactating cows
were fed an additional 1000 mg Al/kg feed for
20 days. In horses, Al intakes below 1370 mg Al/kg
feed did not alter Ca or P metabolism (Schryver
et al., 1986; Roose et al., 2000) but 4500 mg Al/kg
feed decreased plasma P, and increased plasma and
urinary Ca concentration in ponies (Schryver et al.,
1986). In this study, horses on the SA treatment

received 2590 mg Al/kg of feed with no ill effects,

which falls within the concentrations studied by
Schryver et al. (1986).
The addition of SA increased retention and digestibility of Ca, while OSA only increased Ca retention.
There was no difference in Ca intake between the
OSA or SA horses and the CO treatments. There was
an increase in B retention and apparent digestibility
in both the SA- and OSA-supplemented horses. It is
possible that the combination Si and B produces a
beneficial effect on Ca metabolism. Nielsen et al.
(1988) found that B supplementation prevented Ca
loss and bone demineralization in postmenopausal
women. However, there was no effect on Ca or P
absorption or retention when growing barrows were
supplemented with B (Armstong and Spears, 2001).
Conclusions
In conclusion, supplemental SA did not alter Si
retention or digestibility, but it did maintain plasma
Si concentrations as opposed to the control animals
which showed a trend for decreased concentrations
from the start to the completion of the study. Phosphorus metabolism was also unaffected, specifically,
the drastic changes seen in ruminants particularly
that of blood P concentration did not occur in the
horses. However, there was an increase in Ca retention and digestion. Supplementation with OSA tended
to increase Si retention and apparent digestibility,
when compared with control horses, and increased
plasma Si from day 0 to 13 of the trial. Boron retention and digestibility was increased with both supplements. The relatively minor amount of Al in OSA,
the combination of Si and B, and the ease of feeding
it, may make it an appealing source of Si. It must be
cautioned, though, that the only study showing a
decrease in injury rates through the addition of a silicon supplement to equine diets is through the feeding
of SA. Additionally, it has not been sufficiently determined as to how this reduction in injuries occurred.
One potential is for enhanced bone turnover, which
would allow for more rapid repair of damaged bone.
Regardless, even though OSA supplementation has
some advantages over SA supplementation, the ultimate test of the product will be whether it can also
decrease injury rates.
References
Adler, A. J.; Etzion, Z.; Berlyne, G. M., 1986: Uptake, distribution, and excretion of 31silicon in normal rats.
American Journal of Physiology 251, E670E673.

Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

179

Mineral balance in horses fed silicon

C. I. OConnor et al.

Allen, V. G.; Horn, F. P.; Fontenot, J. P., 1986: Influence

of ingestion of aluminum, citric acid and soil on mineral metabolism of lactating beef cows. Journal of Animal Science 62, 13961403.
Anon 2002: SAS Users Guide: Statistics (Version 8.2). SAS
Institute. Inc., Cary, NC.
Armstong, T. A.; Spears, J. W., 2001: Effect of dietary
boron on growth performance, calcium and phosphorus metabolism, and bone mechanical properties in
growing barrows. Journal of Animal Science 79, 3120
3127.
Blackman, E.; Bailey, C. B., 1971: Dissolution of silica
from dried grass in nylon bags placed in the rumen of
a cow. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 51, 456463.
Call, J. W.; Butcher, J. E.; Shupe, J. L.; Lamb, R. C.;
Boman, R. L.; Olson, A. E., 1987: Clinical effects of
feeding low dietary phosphorus concentrations in feed
to lactating dairy cows. American Journal of Veterinary
Research 48, 133136.
Calomme, M. R.; Van den Berghe, D. A., 1997: Supplementation of calves with stabilized orthosilicic acid.
Effect on the silicon, Ca, Mg, and P concentrations in
serum and the collagen concentration in skin and cartilage. Biological Trace Elements Research 56, 153165.
Carlisle, E. M., 1970: Silicon: a possible factor in bone
calcification. Science 167, 279280.
Carlisle, E. M., 1972: Silicon as an essential element for
the chick. Science 178, 619621.
Carlisle, E. M., 1980: Biochemical and morphological
changes associated with long bone abnormalities in
silicon deficiency. Journal of Nutrition 110, 10461055.
Deobald, H. J.; Elvehjem, C. A., 1935: The effects of feeding high amounts of soluble iron and aluminum salts.
American Journal of Physiology 111, 118123.
Frey, K. S.; Potter, G. D.; Odom, T. W.; Senor, D. M.;
Reagan, V. D.; Weir, V. H.; Elslander, J.; Webb, S. P.;
Morris, E. L.; Smith, W. B.; Weigand, K. E., 1992:
Plasma silicon and radiographic bone density in weanling Quarter Horses fed sodium zeolite A. Journal of
Equine Veterinary Science 12, 292296.
Hussein, A. S.; Cantor, A. H.; Johnson, T. H.; Yokel, R. A.,
1990: Relationship of dietary aluminum, phosphorus,
and calcium to phosphorus and calcium metabolism
and growth performance of broiler chicks. Poultry Science
69, 966971.
Jarvis, S. C., 1987: The uptake and transport of silicon by
perennial ryegrass and wheat. Plant and Soil 97, 429
437.
Johnson, M. A.; Sweeney, T. F.; Muller, L. D., 1988:
Effects of feeding synthetic zeolite A and sodium bicarbonate on milk production, nutrient digestion, and rate
of digesta passage in dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science
71, 946953.
Jugdaohsingh, R.; Reffitt, D. M.; Oldham, C.; Day, J. P.;
Fifield, L. K.; Thompson, R. P. H.; Powell, J. J., 2000:

180

Oligomeric but not monomeric silica prevents aluminum absorption in humans. American Journal Clinical
Nutrition 71, 944949.
Krueger, G. L.; Morris, T. K.; Suskind, R. R.; Widner, E.
M., 1985: The health effects of aluminum compounds
in mammals. CRC Critical Reviews in Toxicology 13, 124.
Lang, K. J.; Nielsen, B. D.; OConnor, C. I.; Waite, K. L.,
2001a: Comparison of blood sample collection methods
and their effect on plasma silicon concentrations. Proceedings of the 17th Equine Nutrition and Physiology
Symposium, Lexington, KY, USA pp. 375376.
Lang, K. J.; Nielsen, B. D.; Waite, K. L.; Hill, G. M.; Orth,
M. W., 2001b: Supplemental silicon increases plasma
and milk silicon concentrations in horses. Journal of
Animal Science 79, 26272633.
Lang, K. J.; Nielsen, B. D.; Waite, K. L.; Link, J.; Hill, G. M.;
Orth, M. W., 2001c: Increased plasma silicon concentrations and altered bone resorption in response to sodium
zeolite A supplementation in yearling horses. Journal of
Equine Veteterinary Science 21, 550555.
Mazzella, G.; Godbee, R.; Schurg, W.; Arns, M., 2005:
Plasma silicon concentrations in weanling horses fed
sodium zeolite A or azomite A. Proceedings of the
Equine Science Society, 31 May to 2 June 2005, Tucson, AZ, USA, p. 353.
Nielsen, F. H., 1991: Nutritional requirements for boron,
silicon, vanadium, nickel, and arsenic: current knowledge and speculation. FASEB Journal 5, 26612667.
Nielsen, F. H.; Mullen, L. M.; Gallagher, S. K.; Hunt, J.
R.; Hunt, C. D.; Johnson, L. K., 1988: Effects of dieraty
boron, aluminum, and magnesium on serum alkaline
phosphatase, calcium and phosphorus, and plasma
cholesterol in postmenopausal women. In: Hurlet, L.
S., Keen, C. L., Lonnerdal, B.; Rucker, R. B. (eds),
Trace Elements in Man and Animals 6. Plenum, New
York, pp. 187188.
Nielsen, B. D.; Potter, G. D.; Morris, E. L.; Odom, T. W.;
Senor, D. M.; Reynolds, J. A.; Smith, W. B.; Martin,
M. T.; Bird, E. H., 1993: Training distance to failure in
young racing Quarter Horses fed sodium zeolite A.
Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 13, 562567.
Reffitt, D. M.; Jugdaohsingh, R.; Thompson, R. P. H.;
Powell, J. J., 1999: Silicic acid: its gastrointestinal
uptake and urinary excretion in man and effects on
aluminum excretion. Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry
76, 141147.
Reffitt, D. M.; Ogsten, N.; Jugdaohsingh, R.; Cheung,
H. F.; Evans, B. A.; Thompson, R. P.; Powell, J. J.;
Hampson, G. N., 2003: Orthosilicic acid stimulates
collagen type I synthesis and osteoblastic differentiation
in human osteoblast-like cells in vitro. Bone 32,
127135.
Robinson, D. L.; Hemkes, O. J.; Hemp, A., 1984: Relationships among forage aluminum levels, soil contamin-

Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Mineral balance in horses fed silicon

C. I. OConnor et al.

ation on forages, and availability of elements to dairy

cows. Netherland Journal of Agricultural Science 32, 7380.
Roose, K. A.; Hoekstra, K. E.; Pagan, J. D.; Geor, R. J.,
2000: Effect of an aluminum supplement on nutrient
digestibility and mineral metabolism in Thoroughbred
horses. Proceedings of the Equine Nutrition Conference, 45 May, Lexington, KY, USA, pp. 217224.
Schryver, H. F.; Millis, D. L.; Soderholm, L. V.; Williams,
J.; Hintz, H. F., 1986: Metabolism of some essential
minerals in ponies fed high levels of aluminum. Cornell
Veterinarian 76, 354360.
Schwarz, K.; Milne, D. B., 1972; Growth promoting
effects of silicon in rats. Nature 239, 333334.
Shewmaker, G. E.; Mayland, H. F.; Rosenau, R. C.; Asay,
K. H., 1989: Silicon in C-3 grasses: Effects on forage
quality and sheep preference. Journal of Range Management 42, 122127.
Shurson, G. C.; Ku, P. K.; Miller, E. R.; Yokoyama, M. T.,
1984: Effects of zeoite A or clinoptilolite in diets of
growing swine. Journal of Animal Science 59, 1536
1545.

Thilsing-Hansen, T.; Jorgensen, R. J.; Enemark, J. M.;

Larsen, T., 2002: The effect of zeolite A supplementation in the dry period on periparturient calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium homeostasis. Journal Dairy
Science 85, 18551862.
Thilsing-Hansen, T.; Jorgensen, R. J.; Enemark, J. M.;
Zelvyte, R.; Sederevicius, A., 2003: The effect of zeolite
A supplementation in the dry period on blood mineral
status around calving. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica Supplement 97, 8795.
Turner, K.; Nielsen, B.; OConnor, C., 2006a: Sodium
zeolite A supplementation to lactating Holsteins. Journal
of Animal Science 84 (Suppl. 1), 442443 (Abstract).
Turner, K.; Nielsen, B.; OConnor, C.; Rosenstein, D.;
Schott, H.; Womack, C.; Nielsen, F.; Orth, M., 2006b:
Sodium zeolite A supplementation to dairy calves.
Journal of Animal Science 84 (Suppl. 1), 436437
(Abstract).
Van Soest, P. J.; Jones, L. H. P., 1968: Effect of silica in
forages upon digestibility. Journal of Dairy Science 51,
16441648.

Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

181