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LESSON I, PART Acreate welding difficulties.1.7.

3Manganese Manganese in contents up to 1% is usually present in all low alloysteels as


a deoxidizer and desulphurizer. That is to say, it readily combines with
oxygenand sulphur to help negate the undesirable effect these elements
have when in their natu-ral state. Manganese also increases the tensile
strength and hardenability of steel.1.7.4Chromium - Chromium, in
combination with carbon, is a powerful hardeningalloying element. In
addition to its hardening properties, chromium increases
corrosionresistance and the strength of steel at high temperatures.
Chromium is the primary alloyingelement in stainless steel.1.7.5Nickel The greatest single property of steel that is improved by the presence
ofnickel is its ductility or notch toughness. In this respect, it is the most
effective of all alloy-ing elements in improving a steel's resistance to impact
at low temperatures. Electrodeswith high nickel content are used to weld
cast iron materials. Nickel is also used in combi-nation with chromium to
form a group known as austenitic stainless steel.1.7.6Molybdenum Molybdenum strongly increases the depth of the hardeningcharacteristic of
steel. It is quite often used in combination with chromium to improve
thestrength of the steel at high temperatures. This group of steels is
usually referred to aschrome-moly steels.1.7.7Silicon - Silicon is usually
contained in steel as a deoxidizer. Silicon will addstrength to steel but
excessive amounts can reduce the ductility. Additional amounts ofsilicon
are sometimes added to welding electrodes to increase the fluid flow of
weld metal.1.7.8Phosphorus - Phosphorus is considered a harmful
residual element in steelbecause it greatly reduces ductility and toughness.
Efforts are made to reduce it to its verylowest levels; however, phosphorus
is added in very small amounts to some steels toincrease
strength.1.7.9Aluminum - Aluminum is primarily used as a deoxidizer in
steel. It may also beused in very small amounts to control the size of the
grains.1.7.10Copper - Copper contributes greatly to the corrosion
resistance of carbon steelby retarding the rate of rusting at room
temperature, but high levels of copper can causewelding difficulties.
1.7.11Columbium - Columbium is used in austenitic stainless steel to act as a stabi-lizer. Since the carbon in the stainless steel decreases
the corrosion resistance, a meansof making carbon ineffective must be found. Columbium has a greater affinity for carbonthan chromium,
leaving the chromium free for corrosion protection.1.7.12Tungsten - Tungsten is used in steel to given strength at high
temperatures.Tungsten also joins with carbon to form carbides that are exceptionally hard, and thereforehave exceptional resistance to
wear.1.7.13Vanadium - Vanadium helps keep steel in the desirable fine grain condition afterheat treatment. It also helps increase the depth
of hardening and resists softening of thesteel during tempering treatments.1.7.14Nitrogen - Usually, efforts are made to eliminate hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogenfrom steel because their presence can cause brittleness. Nitrogen has the ability to formaustenitic structures; therefore,
it is sometimes added to austenitic stainless steel to reducethe amount of nickel needed, and therefore, the production costs of that
steel.1.7.15Alloying Elements Summary - It should be understood that the addition ofelements to a pure metal may influence the crystalline
form of the resultant alloy. If a puremetal has allotropic characteristics (the ability of a metal to change its crystal structure) at aspecific
temperature, then that characteristic will occur over a range of temperatures withthe alloyed metal. The range in which the change takes
place may be wide or narrow,depending on the alloys and the quantities in which they are added. The alloying elementmay also effect the
crystalline changes by either suppressing the appearance of certaincrystalline forms or even by creating entirely new forms. All these

transformations inducedby alloying elements are dependent on heat input and cooling rates. These factors areclosely controlled at the steel
mill, but since the welding operation involves a nonuniformheating and cooling of metal, special care is often needed in the welding of low
and highalloy steel.

LESSON I, PART B

Lesson 1
The Basics of Arc Welding
Lesson 2
Common Electric
Arc Welding Processes
Lesson 3
Covered Electrodes for Welding
Mild Steels
Lesson 4
Covered Electrodes for Welding Low Alloy Steels
Lesson 5
Welding Filler Metals for Stainless Steels
Lesson 6
Carbon & Low Alloy
Steel Filler Metals GMAW,GTAW,SAW
Lesson 7
Flux Cored Arc Electrodes Carbon Low Alloy Steels
Lesson 8
Hardsurfacing Electrodes
Lesson 9
Estimating & Comparing Weld Metal Costs
Lesson 10
Reliability of Welding Filler Metals

1.8ELECTRICITY FOR WELDING1.8.1Principles of Electricity - Arc welding is a method of joining metals accomplished by applying sufficient electrical pressure to an electrode to maintain a current path(arc) between the electrode and the work piece. In
this process, electrical energy ischanged into heat energy, bringing the metals to a molten state; whereby they are joined.The electrode
(conductor) is either melted and added to the base metal or remains in itssolid state. All arc welding utilizes the transfer of electrical energy
to heat energy, and tounderstand this principle, a basic knowledge of electricity and welding power sources isnecessary.1.8.1.1The three
basis principles of static electricity are as follows:1. There are two kinds of electrical charges in existence - negative and positive.2. Unlike
charges attract and like charges repel.3. Charges can be transferred from one place to another.1.8.1.2Science has established that all
matter is made up of atoms and each atomcontains fundamental particles. One of these particles is the electron, which has the abilityto
move from one place to another. The electron is classified as a negative electricalcharge. Another particle, about 1800 times as heavy as
the electron, is the proton andunder normal conditions the proton will remain stationary.1.8.1.3Material is said to be in an electrically
uncharged state when its atoms contain anequal number of positive charges (protons) and negative charges (electrons). This balanceis
upset when pressure forces the electrons to move from atom to atom. This pressure,sometimes referred to as electromotive force, is
commonly known as voltage. It should benoted that voltage that does not move through a conductor, but without voltage, there wouldbe no
current flow. For our purposes, it is easiest to think of voltage as the electricalpressure that forces the electrons to move.1.8.1.4Since we
know that like charges repel and unlike charges attract, the tendency isfor the electrons to move from a position of over-supply (negative
charge) to an atom thatlacks electrons (positive charge). This tendency becomes reality when a suitable path isprovided for the movement
of the electrons. The transfer of electrons from a negative to apositive charge throughout the length of a conductor constitutes an electrical
current. Therate that current flows through a conductor is measured in amperes and the word ampereis often used synonymously with the
term current. To give an idea of the quantities ofelectrons that flow through a circuit, it has been theoretically established that one
ampereequals 6.3 quintillion (6,300,000,000,000,000,000) electrons flowing past a fixed point in aconductor every second.
1.8.1.5Different materials vary in their ability to transfer electrons. Substances, such aswood and rubber, have what is called a tight electron
bond and their atoms greatly resistthe free movement of electrons. Such materials are considered poor electrical conductors.Metals, on the
other hand, have large amounts of electrons that transfer freely. Theircomparatively low electrical resistance classifies them as good
electrical conductors.1.8.1.6Electrical resistance is primarily due to the reluctance of atoms to give up theirelectron particles. It may also be
thought of as the resistance to current flow.1.8.1.7To better understand the electrical terms discussed above, we might comparethe closed
water system with the electrical diagram shown in Figure 8. You can see that asthe pump is running, the water will move in the direction of
the arrows. It moves becausepressure has been produced and that pressure can be likened to voltage in an electricalcircuit. The pump can
be compared to a battery or a DC generator. The water flowsthrough the system at a certain rate. This flow rate in an electrical circuit is a

unit ofmeasure known as the ampere. The small pipe in the fluid circuit restricts the flow rate andcan be likened to a resistor. This unit
resistance is known as the ohm. If we close thevalve in the fluid circuit, we stop the flow, and this can be compared to opening a switch inan
electrical circuit.1.8.2Ohm's Law - Resistance is basic to electrical theory and to understand thisprinciple, we must know the Ohm's Law,
which is stated as follows: In any electrical circuit,the current flow in amperes is directly proportional to the circuit voltage applied and inversely proportional to the circuit resistance. Directly proportional means that even thoughthe voltage and amperage may change, the ratio
of their relationship will not. For example,if we have a circuit of one volt and three amps, we say the ratio is one to three. Now if weincrease
the volts to three, our amperage will increase proportionately to nine amps. Ascan be seen, even though the voltage and amperage changed
in numerical value, theirratio did not. The term "inversely proportional" simply means that if the resistance is

doubled, the current will be reduced to one-half. Ohm's Law can be stated mathematicallywith this equation:I = E RorE = I RorR = E
I(E = Volts, I = Amperes, R = Resistance (Ohms))1.8.2.1The equation is easy to use as seen in the following problems:1)A 12 volt battery
has a built-in resistance of 10 ohms. What is the amperage?12 10 = 1.2 amps2)What voltage is required to pass 15 amps through a
resistor of 5 ohms?15 5 = 75 volts3)When the voltage is 80 and the circuit is limited to 250 amps, what is the valueof the resistor?80 250
= .32 ohms1.8.2.2The theory of electrical resistance is of great importance in the arc weldingprocess for it is this resistance in the air space
between the electrode and the base metalthat contributes to the transfer of electrical energy to heat energy. As voltage forces theelectrons
to move faster, the energy they generate is partially used to overcome theresistance created by the arc gap. This energy becomes evident
as heat. In the weldingprocess, the temperature increases to the point where it brings metals to a molten state. 1.8.3Electrical Power - The
word "watt" is another term frequently encountered inelectrical terminology. When we pay our electrical bills, we are actually paying for
thepower to run our electrical appliances, and the watt is a unit of power. It is defined as theamount of power required to maintain a current
of one ampere at a pressure of one volt.The circuit voltage that comes into your home is a constant factor, but the amperage drawnfrom the
utility company depends on the number of watts required to run the electricalappliance. The watt is figured as a product of volts times
amperes and is stated math-ematically with the following equation:W =E IE= W II= W E(W = Watts, E = Volts, I = Amperes)1.8.3.1The
amperage used by an electrical device can be calculated by dividing thewatts rating of the device by the primary voltage for which it is
designed.
1.8.3.2For example, if an appliance is designed for the common household primaryvoltage of 115 and the wattage stamped on the appliance
faceplate is 5, then theamperage drawn by the appliance when in operation is determined as shown:5 115 = .04 amperes1.8.3.3Kilowatt is
another term common in electrical usage. The preface "kilo" is ametric designation that means 1,000 units of something; therefore, one
kilowatt is 1,000watts of power.1.8.4Power Generation - Electrical energy is supplied either as direct current (DC) oralternating current (AC).
With direct current, the electron movement within the conductor isin one direction only. With alternating current, the electron flow reverses
periodically. Al-though some types of electrical generators will produce current directly (such as batteries,dry cells, or DC generators), most
direct current is developed from alternating current.1.8.4.1Through experimentation, it was discovered that when a wire is moved through
amagnetic field, an electrical current is induced into the wire, and the current is at itsmaximum when the motion of the conductor is at
rightangles to the magnetic lines of force. The sketchin Figure 9 will help to illustrate this principle.1.8.4.2If the conductor is moved upwards
inthe magnetic field between the N and S poles,the galvanometer needle will deflect plus (+).Likewise, if the conductor is moved
downwardsthe needle will deflect minus (-). With thisprinciple of converting mechanical energy intoelectrical energy understood, we can
apply it tothe workings of an AC generator.1.8.4.3Figure 10 is a simplified sketch of an ACgenerator. Starting at 0 rotation, the coil wire is
movingparallel to the magnetic lines of force and cutting none of them. Therefore, no current isbeing induced into the winding.1.8.4.4From 0
to 90 rotation, the coil wire cuts an increasing number of magnetic linesof force and reaches the maximum number at 90 rotation. The
current increases to themaximum because the wire is now at right angles to the lines of force.

COPYRIGHT 1999 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.LESSON

I, PART B1.8.4.5From 90 to 180 rotation, the coil wire cuts a diminishing number of lines
offorce and at 180 again reaches zero.1.8.4.6From 180 to 270, the current begins to rise again but in the opposite directionbecause now
the wire is in closer proximity to the opposite pole.1.8.4.7One cycle is completed as the coil wire moves from 270 to 0 and the currentagain
drops to zero.1.8.4.8With the aid of a graph, we can visualize the rate at which the lines of force arecut throughout the cycle. If we plot the
current versus degree of rotation, we get thefamiliar sine wave as seen in Figure 11.1.8.4.9With this sine wave, we cansee that one complete
cycle ofalternating current comprises onepositive and one negative wave(negative and positive meaningelectron flow in opposing
directions).The frequency of alternating current isthe number of such complete cyclesper second. For most powerapplications, 60 cycles per
second (60Hertz) is the standard frequency inNorth America.FIGURE 10CONTACTSNNNNSSS
1.8.4.10 Some welders use a three-phase AC supply. Three-phase is simply threesources of AC power as identical voltages brought in by
three wires, the three voltages orphases being separated by 120 electrical degrees. Ifthe sine wave for the three phases are plotted on
oneline, they will appear as shown in Figure 12.1.8.4.11This illustrates that three-phase power issmoother than single-phase because the
overlappingthree phases prevent the current and voltage fromfalling to zero 120 times a second, thereby producing asmoother welding
arc.1.8.4.12 Since all shops do not have three-phase power, welding machines for bothsingle-phase and three-phase power are
available.1.8.5Transformers - The function of a transformer is to increase or decrease voltageto a safe value as the conditions demand.
Common household voltage is usually 115 or230 volts, whereas industrial power requirements may be 208, 230, 380, or 460
volts.Transmitting such relatively low voltages over long distances would require a conductor ofenormous and impractical size. Therefore,
power transmitted from a power plant must bestepped up for long distance transmission and then stepped down for final use1.8.5.1As can
be seen in Figure 13, the voltage is generated at the power plant at13,800 volts. It is increased, transmitted over long distances, and then
reduced in steps forthe end user. If power supplied to a transformer circuit is held steady, then secondarycurrent (amperes) decreases as
the primary voltage increases, and conversely, secondarycurrent increases as primary voltage decreases. Since the current flow
(amperes)determines the wire or conductor size, the high voltage line may be of a relatively smalldiameter.FIGURE 121201 CYCLETHREE PHASE
AC2400FIGURE 13POWER TRANSMISSION13,800 VPOWERPLANTSTEPUP287,000VHIGH VOLTAGE300 MILESSTEPDOWN132,000 V34,000 V4,600V208V230V460VFINALUSE

Lesson 1
The Basics of Arc Welding
Lesson 2
Common Electric
Arc Welding Processes
Lesson 3
Covered Electrodes for Welding
Mild Steels
Lesson 4
Covered Electrodes for Welding Low Alloy Steels
Lesson 5
Welding Filler Metals for Stainless Steels
Lesson 6
Carbon & Low Alloy
Steel Filler Metals GMAW,GTAW,SAW
Lesson 7
Flux Cored Arc Electrodes Carbon Low Alloy Steels
Lesson 8
Hardsurfacing Electrodes
Lesson 9
Estimating & Comparing Weld Metal Costs
Lesson 10
Reliability of Welding Filler Metals

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1.8.5.2The transformer in a welding machine performs much the same as a large powerplant transformer. The primary voltage coming into
the machine is too high for safewelding. Therefore, it is stepped down to a useable voltage. This is best illustrated with anexplanation of
how a single transformer works.1.8.5.3In the preceding paragraphs, we have found than an electrical current can beinduced into a conductor
when that conductor is moved through a magnetic field toproduce alternating current. If this alternating current is passed through a
conductor, apulsating magnetic field will surround the exterior of that conductor, that is the magneticfield will build in intensity through the first
90 electrical degrees, or the first cycle. From thatpoint, the magnetic field will decay during the next quarter cycle until the voltage or
currentreaches zero at 180 electrical degrees. Immediately, the current direction reverses and themagnetic field will begin to build again until
it reaches a maximum at 270 electrical degreesin the cycle. From that point the current and the magnetic field again begin to decay untilthey
reach zero at 360 electrical degrees, where the cycle begins again.1.8.5.4If that conductor is wound around a material with high magnetic
permeability(magnetic permeability is the ability to accept large amounts of magnetic lines of force)such as steel, the magnetic field
permeates that core. SeeFigure 14. This conductor is called the primary coil, and ifvoltage is applied to one of its terminals and the circuit
iscompleted, current will flow. When a second coil is woundaround that same steel core, the energy that is stored inthis fluctuating magnetic
field in the core is induced intothis secondary coil.1.8.5.5It is the build-up and collapse of this magneticfield that excite the electrons in the
secondary coil of thetransformer. This causes an electrical current of the same frequency as the primary coil toflow when the secondary
circuit is completed by striking the welding arc. Remember thatall transformers operate only on alternating current.1.8.5.6A simplified version
of a welding transformer is schematically shown in Figure 15.This welder would operate on 230 volts input power and the primary winding
has 230 turnsof wire on the core. We need 80 volts for initiating the arc in the secondary or weldingcircuit, thus we have 80 turns of wire in
the secondary winding of the core. Before the arcis struck, the voltage between the electrode and the work piece is 80 volts. Remember
thatno current (amperage) flows until the welding circuit is completed by striking the arc.

APPENDIX ALESSON I - GLOSSARY OF TERMSAISIAmerican Iron and Steel InstituteAllotropicA


material in which the atoms are capable of transforming into twoor more crystalline structures at different temperatures.AlternatingAn
electrical current which alternately travels in either direction in aCurrentconductor. In 60 cycles per second (60 Hz) AC, the frequencyused
in the U.S.A., the current direction reverses 120 times everysecond.AmpereUnit of electrical rate of flow. Amperage is commonly referred
to asthe current in an electrical circuit.ASMEAmerican Society of Mechanical EngineersASTMAmerican Society for Testing and
MaterialsAtomThe smallest particle of an element that posses all of thecharacteristics of that element. It consists of protons, neutrons,and
electrons.Carbon Steel(Sometimes referred to as mild steel.) An alloy of iron and carbon.Carbon content is usually below
0.3%.ConductorA material which has a relatively large number of loosely bondedelectrons which may move freely when voltage
(electrical pressure)is applied. Metals are good conductors.Constant Current (As applied to welding machines.) A welding power
source whichwill produce a relatively small change in amperage despitechanges in voltage caused by a varying arc length. Used mostlyfor
welding with coated electrodes.
Constant Voltage (As applied to welding machines.) A welding power source whichwill produce a relatively small change in voltage
when theamperage is changed substantially. Used mostly for welding withsolid or flux cored electrodes.Direct CurrentAn electrical
current which flows in only one direction in aconductor. Direction of current is dependent upon the electricalconnections to the battery or
other DC power source. Terminals onall DC devices are usually marked (+) or (-). Reversing the leadswill reverse the direction of current
flow.ElectronNegatively charged particles that revolve around the positivelycharged nucleus in an atom.FerrousContaining iron.
Example: carbon steel, low alloy steels, stainlesssteel.HertzHertz (Hz) is the symbol which has replaced the term cycles persecond.
Today, rather than saying 60 cycles per second or simply60 cycles, we say 60 Hertz or 60 Hz.High Alloy Steels Steels containing in
excess of 10% alloy content. Stainless steel isconsidered a high alloy because it contains in excess of 10%chromium.Induced Current
orInductionThe phenomena of causing an electrical current to flow through aconductor when that conductor is subjected to a varying
magneticfield.IngotCasting of steel (weighing up to 200 tons) formed at mill from meltof ore, scrap limestone, coke, etc.InsulatorA
material which has a tight electron bond, that is, relatively fewelectrons which will move when voltage (electrical pressure) isapplied. Wood,
glass, ceramics and most plastics are goodinsulators
Kilowatt1,000 wattsLow Alloy SteelsSteels containing small amounts of alloying elements (usually 1%to 5% total alloy content)
which drastically improves theirproperties.Non-FerrousContaining no iron. Example: Aluminum, copper, copper alloys.OhmUnit of

electrical resistance to current flow.PhaseTransformationThe changes in the crystalline structure of metals caused bytemperature and
time.ProtonPositively charged particles which are part of the nucleus of atoms.RectifierAn electrical device used to change alternating
current to directcurrent.SAESociety of Automotive EngineersTransformerAn electrical device used to raise or lower the voltage and
inverselychange the amperage.VoltUnit of electromotive force, or electrical pressure which causescurrent to flow in an electrical
circuit.WattA unit of electrical power. Watts = Volts x Amperes

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