Professional Documents
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Module Code
Module Name
Course
Department
ACD 510
Aircraft Conceptual Design
M.Sc in Aircraft Design
Automotive and Aeronautical Engg.
ACD FT-11
Batch
Module Leader
Dr. H K Narahari
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Student Name
ACD FT-11
Reg. No
Course
Batch
FT 11
Module Code
ACD 510
Module Title
Module Date
Module Leader
Dr. H K Narahari
1.09.2012
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plagiarism constitute a breach of University regulations and will be dealt with accordingly.
Date
ii
Aircraft Conceptual Design
Abstract
____________________________________________________________________________
Aircraft design mainly depends on the existing historical data. Drastic changes in design cannot
be made hence it is usually the up gradation or the enhancement of the existing design. This
report is such an effort to Design of a Passenger Aircraft with a Range of 3000 nautical miles
with a passenger Capacity of 80. This report is made by a group of five members working on
different areas of design.
The first Chapter deals with the initial weight estimation which is usually the first step in the
design process of any aircraft. This is only a rough estimate rather than detailed weight
estimation because the weights must be varied in order to meet various customer requirements
in the later part of the design phase. This is because the design is a compromise of several
parameters.
Chapter 2 deals with the design of wing and high lifting devices. Various parameters like Wing
area, aspect ratio, airfoil, geometry, sweep angle, taper ratio is actually assumed based on the
historical data available. This is a good starting point because a lot of time is saved and most
importantly near close or meaningful results can be obtained in first set of assumption itself.
CFD analysis is carried out with the final geometry to validate the results obtained. Similar
procedure is carried out with flaps deflected at a particular angle calculated using Javafoil in
order to obtain max Cl needed as per the requirement.
Chapter 3 deals with the fuselage design which includes the entire layout and seating
arrangement which usually depends on the number of passengers. Several considerations are
carried out in design process to meet all FAA regulation like vision of the pilot and space
between the seats and also the dimension of the seats.
Chapter 4 deals with the selection of a propulsion system and the integration of the same. This
process depends upon the gross weight and the thrust requirements.
Chapter 5 deals with the design of horizontal and vertical tail and various performance
parameters are calculated to check it meets with the customer requirement.
iii
Contents
____________________________________________________________________________
List of Figures
____________________________________________________________________________
Figure1. 1 Empty weight fraction Vs Wo[1] ............................................................................... 11
Figure1. 2 Mission Profile ........................................................................................................... 12
Figure1. 3 Aircraft type based on Range[2] ................................................................................ 13
Figure1. 4 Selection of SFC[1].................................................................................................... 13
Figure1. 5 Selection of L/D Ratio[1]........................................................................................... 13
Figure1. 6 Selection of L/D based on type of Aircraft[2] ........................................................... 14
Figure1. 7 No. of Passenger Vs MTOM[3] ................................................................................. 15
Figure1. 8 Range Vs MTOM/Passenger[3] ................................................................................. 16
vi
Figure 6. 1 Approximate empty weight build up and c.g. location [1] ....................................... 60
vii
List of Tables
____________________________________________________________________________
Table1. 1Iterations ....................................................................................................................... 16
Table1. 2 2D Cl increment for leading edge flaps[2] .................................................................. 31
Table2. 1 Different set of airfoils selected from the graph [5] .................................................... 25
Table2. 2 Geometric twist for different aircrafts ......................................................................... 27
Table3. 1 Typical seat width and pitch for different class of travel. [6] ..................................... 36
Table3. 2 Typical guidelines for fuselage front and aft closure ratio. [3] ................................... 37
Table3. 3 Emergence exits requirements. [6] .............................................................................. 40
Table3. 4 Dimensions for types of exits. [6] ............................................................................... 41
Table3. 5 Mass amended for different configuration. [6] ........................................................... 43
viii
List of Nomenclature
____________________________________________________________________________
Acronym
Expansion
Cl
Coefficient of lift
Cd
Coefficient of Drag
TWR
WL
Wing Loading
LDR
Ct
AR
Aspect ratio
Wf
Fuel Weight
MTOM
Cdo
DSL
ix
CHAPTER 1
Design of a Passenger Aircraft with a Range of 3000 nautical miles with a passenger
Capacity of 80
1.1 Introduction
This report deals with the conceptual design of an aircraft. Any type of aircraft has the same
parts like fuselage, wing, engine etc but analyzing it a bit deeper it is evident that they are only
same by parts not on the geometry or the size. Fighter planes are smaller but much faster when
compared to that of the commercial transport plane. The root cause for such a big difference in the
design of aircraft is mainly due to the change in the functionality that has to be met. So in order to
start the conceptual design, proper understanding of the purpose of the aircraft to be designed is
required. Design in any field is a compromise of various factors, especially in the field of aircraft
where changing one influencing parameter affects many other influencing parameters. Since there
is a correlation between various influencing parameters the final modified design cannot be
achieved by changing only one influencing parameter. It is usually a combination of various
parameters to meet the final customer requirements and moreover other performance parameter as
per FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) regulation has to be satisfied for the aircraft to be
certified.
An aircraft with a range of 3000 (nautical miles) and a passenger capacity of 80 comes under
the small Jet transport category. Looking into the available statistical data of similar type of aircraft
is regarded as the good starting point for a new design. The design process begins with the rough
estimate of the maximum take off mass. In this process several decisions has to be made on initial
assumptions to be used for calculations. Since most of the processes in aircraft design are iterative
in nature it is important to start with a meaningful assumption. By doing so reasonable results can
be achieved in a shorter span. This is done with the help of available statistical data.
Where N is the number of passengers and the initial assumption for average weight of an
individual passenger is taken as 80 kg (173.36 pounds) and the permitted baggage as 40 kg (88.14
pounds). So
11
Since the aircraft to be designed comes under Jet transport appropriate values for A and C are
selected. Therefore
(We/Wo) = 1.02 Wo-0.06 *1.04
(We/Wo) = 1.0608 Wo-0.06
Where
1-2 Warm up and Takeoff
2-3 Climb
3-4 Cruise
4-5 Loiter and descent
5-6 Landing phase
Let W1, W2, W3, W4, W5 and W6 be the weights after respective phases of the mission profile.
1.2.4.1 Calculation
Amount of fuel utilized for warm up and takeoff phase is estimated as 0.97
(W1/W0) = 0.97
Amount of fuel utilized for climb phase with respect to the amount of fuel left over after the
takeoff phase is estimated as 0.985
12
(W2/W1) = 0.985
Fuel utilized for Cruise depends upon the range to be achieved and can be calculated using
Range equation
Where R is the Range, C is the specific Fuel Consumption, V is the velocity, L/D is the lift to
drag ratio
13
Where
E is the endurance in seconds. In this case it is 45 min (2700 sec)
But again the selection of specific fuel consumption and L/D ratio is based on statistical data
but it varies because it is a loitering phase. Specific fuel consumption for jet engines during
loiter phase is estimated as 0.4 1/ hr (0.0001111 1/s)
L/D for jet engines for loitering phase is the L/D max hence the value is 16 from statistical
data which says L/D selection can lie between (15 - 18.2).
Substituting all the values we get
(W4/W3) = e-0.01874 = 0.9814
14
W5/W0 = 0.7521
But the Total fuel fraction (Wf / Wo) is given by the formula
(Wf / Wo) = 1.06 * (1- W5/W0)
(Wf / Wo) = 1.06 * (1- 0.7521) = 0.2626
We know that
0 =
( +
)
1 ( / ) ( / )
=
22486.35
1 0.2626 1.0608 .
=
22486.35
0.7374 1.0608 .
It is an iterative process so the initial guess should be reasonable so that a lot of time can be saved.
15
From the Figure 1.3 a initial estimate of 40000 kg approximately 80000 pounds is taken
Table1. 1Iterations
No of
Initial Guess of
Obtained Value
80000
113148.2
107000
108075
Iteration
Wo
Wo
113150
108000
107922.4
107933
107932.6
3
5
6
107900
107162.1
107937
So the initial estimate of Maximum takeoff mass is 48957 kg (107933 pounds). The calculated
value can be cross checked with the range VS MTOM / passenger
So for a range of 3000 nm and a passenger capacity of 80 we have MTOM as 80*600 we get 48000
kg which is comparable to the estimated value.
16
17
the selection of particular aspect ratio is based on its effects on the various flight features such as
aircraft performance, stability, control, cost, and manufacturability.
The effects of aspect ratio are
As the aspect ratio increases, the aerodynamic features of the three-dimensional wing such
as CL, 0, CLmax, CDmin will get closer to the two-dimensional airfoil properties. This is
because of reduction of the influence of wing tip vortex, so it is desired have high AR.
As the AR increases, the maximum lift co-efficient for a particular angle of attack increases,
because the wing effective angle of attack increases, so it is desired to have a high aspect
ratio wing.
As the aspect ratio increases the weight of the wing increases, this needs more stiffer wing,
hence more stress on the root to hold the wing, hence it is desired to have a short wing to
reduce the weight of the wing.
From statistical data it is found that the aircraft that comes under the jet transport category has an
optimum Aspect ratio which lies between (7 - 9.5) hence a approximated value of aspect ratio 9 is
assumed. It is denoted by A.R and is a dimensionless quantity.
Aspect ratio = b2/S = 9
18
From Figure 1.6 for a design cruise Mach no of 0.85 the leading edge sweep angle is chosen as 30
degrees. Taper ratio is defined as the ratio of the tip chord to that of the root chord. Tapered wing is
used in order to reduce the lift induced drag. A commercial transport aircraft with swept back wings
has a taper ratio that lie between 0.2 - 0.3. The maximum permitted taper ratio (0.3) is taken in this
design. So
Sweep Angle = 30 degrees
Taper Ratio = 0.3
J K
LM (NOP)
JJQ.R
LM(NO.S)
UV
UV
=
U
4.864
19
20
High wing
The high wing has some advantages as well as some disadvantages for a particular mission, they are
Advantages
It eases the loading and unloading of cargo in to and out of the aircraft, and the trucks to
unload and load can move easily around the aircraft.
The clearance from the ground for this configuration is more compared to low wing, which
facilitates the installation of engine on the wing.
It facilitates the aircraft to take-off and land from the sea in case of amphibian aircrafts, thus
preventing the spilling of water in to the engine during take-off, which may shut down the
engine.
The wing will produce more lift compared to low wing and mid-wing, because part of the
fuselage near the connection between two parts of the wing also contributes for the lift
produced by the wing.
Since the CL produced by the wing the wing is high the aircraft can fly at a lower stall speed
compared to high and the low-wing.
Disadvantages
The aircraft in this configuration will have more frontal area, which increases the drag of the
aircraft.
The ground effect will be lower compared to low wing, this will influence on landing and
take-off distances.
Landing gear is longer if connected to the wing. This makes the landing gear heavier and
requires more space inside the wing for retraction system. This will further make the wing
structure heavier.
The wing will produce more induced drag (Di), due to higher lift coefficient.
A high will be structurally 20% more heavier than the low wing.
Low Wing
In this section, advantages and disadvantages of a low wing configuration are discussed
Advantages
The aircraft take off performance will be better compared with a high wing configuration
due to ground effect.
The pilot will have a better view above the horizon, since the wing the wing is below the
pilot
21
There will be option for the landing gear retracting system in the wing as well as fuselage.
Landing gear will be shorter; this makes the landing gear system lighter and requires less
space inside the wing for retracting system.
The aircraft is lighter compared to the high wing structure, aircraft frontal area in this case
is less. Since the frontal area is less, it has less induced drag.
Disadvantages
The wing generates less lift, compared with a high wing configuration since the wing has
two separate sections because of this the wing has less induced drag.
Because of the first reason the aircraft will have higher stall speed compared with a high
wing configuration due to a lower CLmax because of that the take-off run is longer.
The dihedral effect by the wing is less compared to the high wing, thus the aircraft is
laterally dynamically less stable.
The wing below the pilot will obstruct the view of the pilot below the horizon.
Mid Wing
In general, the features of the mid-wing configuration stand between features of high-wing
configuration and features of low-wing configuration. Some of the new features of a mid-wing
configuration are as follows:
The aircraft structure is heavier, due to the necessity of reinforcing wing root at the
intersection with the fuselage.
The mid wing is more expensive compared with high and low-wing configurations.
The mid wing is more attractive compared with two other configurations.
The mid wing is aerodynamically streamliner compared with two other configurations.
The strut is usually not used to reinforce the wing structure.
The pilot can get into the cockpit using the wing as a step in a small GA aircraft.
The mid-wing has less interference drag than low-wing and high-wing.
22
2.1.7 Steps for selection of the Airfoil for the wing [4]
The design of airfoil is time consuming as well more cost is involved, for a conceptual design it is
better to select the best available airfoil from the data base. The steps involved in selection of the
airfoil are as follows.
The cruise altitude considered is 12 km at which the air speed is given by, temperature at 12 km is
216
= WXFY
= 1.4 287 216
= 293.9 I/[
The cruise number given for the design is 0.85 mach at an altitude of 12 km, therefore the cruise
velocity is given by
\=
] = 0.85 293.9
Vcruise = 249.8 m/s
^_` = 42529 cd
Where Wi is the initial aircraft weight at the beginning of cruise and Wf is the final aircraft weight
at the end of cruise.
Calculation of aircraft ideal lift co-efficient (CLc).
In the cruising flight the aircraft weight is equal to the lift force.
23
CLc =
CLc =
2 ^_`
V J S
JRJgJhh.QN
.SNhRJRh.Qi h
CLc =
2 42529 9.81
= 0.465
0.3194 249.8J 90
Where V is the aircraft cruise speed, is the air density at cruising altitude, and S is the wing
planform area.
Calculate the wing cruise lift co-efficient (CLcw).
We consider that the wing the only component responsible for the generation of lift, but other
aircraft components such as tail, fuselage etcwill contribute to the total lift negatively or
positively. Thus the relation between aircraft cruise lift coefficient and wing cruise lift coefficient is
a function of aircraft configuration. The contribution of fuselage, tail and other components will
determine the wing contribution to the aircraft lift co-efficient. In the preliminary design phase
where the other components are been decided, then the following relation is used to calculate the
Wing cruise lift co-efficient.
m
no
Cjkl = .hg
Cjkl =
0.465
= 0.489
0.95
Later in the design process when the other components are decided, this should be validated by
CFD simulations.
Calculation of wing airfoil ideal lift coefficient (Cli).
The wing is a 3-dimensional body whereas the airfoil is 2-D section, therefore the airfoil ideal lift
coefficient is different from the 3-D wing because the wing has a finite span and different chord
lengths and sweep angle results in this variation from the airfoil lift co-efficient, this variation can
be approximated using the relation.
Cpq =
Cjkl
0.9
Cpq =
.RQh
.h
= 0.54
24
As per the statistical data the thickness to chord ratio generally used is 10-12%, but the cruise Cl
0.54 is not achieved in any of the airfoil with this thickness range with in the drag bucket. So the
wing area is modified to decrease the Cl cruise.
So the calculation are redone to adjust the Cl by considering wing area as 120 m2, then the values
lift co-efficient values are
rst = u. vw
rstx = u. vy
rz{ = u. |1
Later in the design process when the other components are decided, this should be validated by
CFD simulations
Table2. 1 Different set of airfoils selected from the graph [5]
No
NACA
Cdmin
Cmo
s
(deg)
o
(deg)
Stall
quality
1
2
3
4
5
631-412
641-412
651-412
652-415
642-415
0.006
0.004
0.004
0.0035
0.0045
-0.08
-0.040
-0.060
-0.028
-0.028
14
12
12
14
16
-1.5
-1.2
-1.5
-1.2
-1.3
moderate
Moderate
Sharp
Sharp
Moderate
25
From the ideal lift co-efficient and the maximum lift co-efficient values required, the airfoil
with corresponding values of lift co-efficient are selected from the figure, where the figure
represents the collection of airfoils with different lift co-efficient values. If there is no airfoil of
particular values then the airfoil that is nearest to the design point is selected.
If the wing is designed for a high subsonic passenger aircraft, select the thinnest airfoil (the
lowest (t/c max). The reason is to reduce the critical Mach number (Mcr) and drag-divergent9 Mach
number (Mdd). This allow the aircraft fly closer to Mach one before the drag rise is encountered. In
general, a thinner airfoil will have a higher Mcr than a thicker airfoil.
We can notice that the 631-412 is the airfoil which has the maximum Cl which is equal to the
calculated value and the cruise Cl of 0.41 according to the calculation, and the stall is moderate,
which is acceptable so 631-412 airfoil is chosen for the design.
Since the cruise Cl obtained is 0.41 to achieve that the angle of attack of 1.50 is required so the
wing is set at 1.50 angle for cruise. The result is validated using CFD
26
Aerodynamic twist
Geometric twist
If the different airfoil cross-section used in the root and tip, which will have different zero lift angle
of attack then, it s called as aerodynamic twist. If the tip and root have the same airfoil cross section
and if the incidence is not same then, it is referred to as Geometric twist.
In most of the cases aerodynamic twist is employed because it is easy to manufacture, where as
geometric twist is difficult to manufacture. The negative incidence of -1 to -4 is used in most of the
aircraft, because if the negative incidence is more then it decreases the overall lift produced by the
wing and the twist is also used to obtain the elliptical lift distribution on the wing.
In case of conceptual design phase, the twist is decided based on the historical data available and in
the later stage it can refined based on numerical calculations.
Table2. 2 Geometric twist for different aircrafts
No
Aircraft
MTOW
(lb)
Wing incidence at
root (iw) (deg)
Wing angle at
tip (deg)
Twist
(deg)
1
2
3
Fokker 50
Cessna 310
Cessna
Citation I
Beech King
Air
Beech T-1A
JawHawk
Beech T-34C
Cessna
StationAir 6
Gulfstream IV
NorthropGrumman E2C Hawkeye
Piper
20,800
4,600
11,850
+3.5
+2.5
+2.5
+1.5
-0.5
-0.5
-2
-3
-3
11,800
+4.8
-4.8
16,100
+3
-3.3
-6.3
4,300
3,600
+4
+1.5
+1
-1.5
-3
-3
73,000
55,000
+3.5
+4
-2
+1
-5.5
-3
11,200
+1.5
-1
-2.5
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
27
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Cheyenne
Beech Super
King
Beech starship
Cessna 208
Beech 1900D
Beechjet
400A
AVRO RJ100
Lockheed C130 Hercules
Pilatus PC-9
Piper PA-28161 Warrior
12,500
+ 3o 48'
-1o 7'
4.55'
14,900
+3
-5
-3.5
8000
16,950
16,100
+2o 37'
+3o 29'
+3
-3o 6'
-1o 4'
-3o 30'
-5o 31'
-4o 25'
-6o 30'
101,500
155,000
+3o 6'
+3
0
0
-3o 6'
-3
4,960
2,440
+1
+2
-1
-1
-2
-3
As seen from the table 2.2 for the design weight of 48900, the similar class of aircraft is NorthropGrumman E-2C Hawkeye, for which the twist angle of -30 is used, since the design weight is close
to it, for the initial design phase the twist angle of -30 is being used.
28
29
30
higher deflection of the trailing edge but whereas in case of fowler flaps the flow separation does
not occur even at a higher angle of deflection because the effective chord length is also increased.
. Delta Clmax values for different type of leading edge flaps are
Table1. 2 2D Cl increment for leading edge flaps[2]
S.No
Type
Cl max
Fixed Slot
0.2
0.3
Kruger Flap
0.3
Slats
0.4
The design cruise Cl is 0.44 and if the leading edge slats are used the Cl max value will be 0.8
which will also be not sufficient for takeoff and landing purpose. It is roughly estimated that the Cl
max
required for takeoff and landing should be somewhere around 1.6 to 2.2 for long/ medium
range aircraft. Hence the desired Cl cannot be achieved just by using only one high lift device but
is usually a combination of both the leading edge slats and the trailing edge flaps. It is roughly
estimated that the leading edge flap deflection is usually 30 to 40 degrees. Since it is only a
conceptual design phase the normal split flap is only considered for initial computation rather than a
slotted flap. The most common flap chord length is 0.25 C from the trailing edge where C is the
airfoil chord.
Sg =
N.JN(/)
` L
Considering the design cruise Cl of 0.44 (i.e.) without using high lift devices.
Sg
N.JNNN
SJ.J .SQJL
Sg = 12,726 ft (3,878 m)
So it is clearly evident that the takeoff distance is too large approximately 4 km. The airports cannot
afford to such a big runway. Moreover the takeoff and landing distance comes under customer
specifications and in most cases short take off and landing distance is preferred. The aircraft may
not be certified by FAA if the design does not meet the FAA regulations for takeoff and landing. As
31
previously stated the Cl max required to meet takeoff and landing should be somewhere around 1.6
to 2.2 for long/ medium range aircraft. So assuming the required Cl max of 2.1, the landing distance
obtained will be 2666.42 fts (812.72 m) which is acceptable. So the takeoff distance with the
implementation of high lift devices is
Sg = 812.72 m
The rough estimate for landing distance for initial calculation is given by the formula [2]
LP =
N
L
Substituting the known values in the formula the landing distance is calculated as
SL = 29,900 ft (9113.52 m) for Cl of 0.44 without using high lift devices.
SL =6530 ft (2005.58 m) for Cl of 0.44 with the implementation of high lift devices.
These calculations clearly reveal the importance of lifting devices.
2.2.2 Javafoil
32
Javafoil is an applet which is available in public domain that can be used to come up with new
airfoil geometry as per the customer requirement. This applet is widely utilised not only to create
the required airfoil co-ordinates but it also provides options to vary the flap deflection angle and
also the location of percentage of flap with respect to the airfoil chord.
The smooth option can be used to smoothen the curve when the flap is deflected.
Figure2. 14 Computation of Cl
It is found that the created airfoil generates a Cl of 0.464 at zero degree angle of attack which is
bit higher than the design Cl of 0.44 but taking the 3 D effects into consideration the wing is
attached to the fuselage at an minimum angle not more than 2 degrees because the CL for wing
33
will be less than 2D airfoil. It is also found that the desired flap deflection angle of 25.5 degrees is
required to achieve the Cl max value of (2.1). This is just an approximation of flap deflection
angle because the results may not be the same in case of a 3D wing hence a bit more deflection of
flap angle of 5 degree may be required to attain the Cl max
34
35
Class
Charter
400-420
700-775
Economy
475-525
775-850
Business
575-625
900-950
First class
625-700
950-1050+
The seat width considered for the design is 500mm the seat pitch is 800mm and the aisle width as
500mm. the length of the fuselage for passenger seating is 800x20=16000mm. Fuselage consists of
a nose section, midsection barrel with constant cross section and aft-end closure.
36
Seating abreast
Front fuselage
Aft fuselage
(deg)
1.7-2
2.6-3.5
5-10
4-6
1.5-1.75
2.5-3.75
8-14
1.5
2.5-3.75
10-15
37
38
The pilot seat is standardized to have stress free condition for the pilot during takeoff and landing
with ample space to reduce fatigue to the pilot. The wind screen is designed to allow adequate
vision to the pilot for flight maneuver.
39
As per the FAR rules there should be one galley for 10-60 passengers and one toilet for 15-40
passenger. Since the design is for 80 passengers there are two galley and toilets provided at each
end of the midsection of the fuselage. The sizes considered for the galley is 762 mm x 914 mm and
for the toilet is 914mm x 914mm.
Seats
Less than
Type I
Type II
Type III
Type IV
10
20
40
80
110
140
180
40
Type
Dimension (mm)
Type I
610 x 1219
Type II
508 x 1118
Type III
508 x 914
Type IV
483 x 660
1067 x 1829
In consideration to the FAR rules two doors are provided at each end of the fuselage with Type-A
and two emergency exits one with Type I and one with Type III provided at each end of the
fuselage.
41
42
Configuration
Mass to be amended
amen
Increase by 8%.
Increase by 4%.
Increase by 7%.
Increase by 10%.
Reduce by 4%.
4
For the design considered the flight Mach # 0.85, hence the flight speed is at 340.3 x 0.85 = 289
m/s. the fuselage overall length is 35898 mm, fuselage diameter is 3500 mm.
The fuselage body mass can be estimated by the Howes formula as
Rapid mass estimation method can also be used to arrive at initial estimate for fuselage weight.
43
Roskams [7] suggest few different ways of estimating the fuselage weight,
The general dynamic method,
.JQS
.hg
.N
100
\Y1000 }
44
a_a
] }
= 0.021b ( + )
.g
N.J
Hb_`M_^M^
45
= W (F-L)/F
= W (F-N)/F
46
From figure 3.17 the landing gear configuration used is a tri cycle type with two wheel per struts
with tire size 40 x 14 with 155 psi T type.
4.1Propulsion System
The turbofan is a type of air breathing jet engine that is widely used for aircraft propulsion. A
ducted fan which uses the mechanical energy from the gas turbine to accelerate air rearwards. The
ratio of the mass-flow of air bypassing the engine core compared to the mass-flow of air passing
through the core is referred to as the bypass ratio. Current high bypass ratio turbofan engines are
thermodynamically much more efficient than the early turbojet and low bypass types. This has been
largely brought about by the introduction of advanced technologies which have enabled turbine
blades to withstand high centrifugal loads whilst operating in gas temperatures considerably higher
than the melting point of the unprotected blade material. Most commercial aviation jet engines in
use today are of the high-bypass type, and most modern military fighter engines are low-bypass.
In passenger aircraft, efficiency is the main factor rather than performance, large aircraft the fuel
price accounts for some 30% of the aircraft direct operating costs. [3] By increasing the fuel
efficiency the amount of fuel carried will be lesser there by reducing the total weight. A more fuel
efficient engine will require less fuel to fly a given range and hence will lead to a lower take-off
weight.
We are designing 80 seater passenger aircraft having maximum takeoff mass is 48957 kg and range
of 3000 nm keeping this in mind we have to select the appropriate engine which suits the
requirements, the engine should weigh less weight so that maximum takeoff mass will not alter so
much and the engine should have better efficiency as the engine efficiency is one of the key factor
in passenger aircraft as efficiency decreases operating cost increases in order to decrease the
operating cost we need to choose the engine which is having better efficiency.
4.2Engine Selection
The weight estimation can be made by using the statically data of similar plane and plotting the
results of MTOW with number of passenger. Similar plots can also be made with range against
MTOW per passenger and using this number one can arrive at estimating the maximum take-off
weight (MTOW). Figure 1.1 and table 1.1 shows this relation and is used to arrive at first estimate
for the given design.
47
Above shows the difference between turboprop, turbofan and propfan engines, we can see from the
graph that Turboprop engines are having higher efficiency than Propfan and Turbofan engines but
Turboprop engine efficiency is high at lesser mach number (mach 0.5-0.6), but we need the cruise
speed of 0.85, for this cruise speed Turbofan engines are having higher efficiency than Propfan and
Turboprop, so it will be efficient if we install Turbofan engine to our design.
Figure 4. 2 Effect of Mach number and specific thrust on thrust lapse rate. [6]
Our aircraft design has total mass of 48957 kg and we know that thrust to weight ratio of passenger
aircraft is in between 0.3 to 0.4.
Y[V
Y[V
=
= 0.3
dV
48957 9.81
48
So we need to choose the engine which gives minimum thrust of 144.08kN. By considering
all above conditions one can go for Pratt & Whitney PW6000 series or CFM International
CFM56-5 series engine.
CFM International CFM56-5 series engine which gives the thrust of more than 100kN, in
our design the CFM56-5B3 engine can be used which gives thrust of 150kN, has bypass ratio of 5.4
and overall pressure ratio of 35.5, CFM56-5B3 is a dual rotor, axial flow turbofan engine, the
integrated fan and booster (low pressure turbine) is driven by a 4 stage low pressure turbine. A
single stage high pressure turbine drives the 9 stage high pressure compressor, the two rotors are
mechanically independent of each other. Air entering the engine is divided into a primary (inner)
airstream and a secondary (outer) airstream. After the primary airstream has been compressed by
the LPC and HPC, combustion of the fuel in the annular combustion chamber increases the HPC
discharge air velocity to drive the high and low pressure turbines. An accessory drive system off the
N2 rotor drives engine and airplane accessory components. [9]
CFM56-5B3 engines has higher bypass ratio than PW6000 series engines thus there is
increase in the efficiency.
A new fan in a longer fan case, and a new low-pressure compressor with a fourth stage.
49
Engine Model
Takeoff
Conditions
(sea level)
Max. takeoff
(kN)
5B1
146.81
120.11
97.87
104.54
120.11
96.09
103.65
Airflow (N/sec)
3990
3638.6
3754.3
3990
3607.5
3741
5.7
5.9
5.7
5.9
Bypass ratio
5B2
133.46
5B3
137.91
5.5
5.5
5B4
5.4
5B5
5B6
5B7
5B8
5B9
Max climb
thrust (kN)
Overall
pressure ratio
28.56
28.56
28.56
25.05
25.05
25.05
28.56
25.05
25.05
35.4
35.4
35.5
32.6
32.6
32.6
35.5
32.6
32.6
25.98
25.98
25.98
22.33
22.33
22.33
25.98
22.33
22.33
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
1.734
1.734
1.734
1.734
1.734
1.734
1.734
1.734
1.734
At max. climb
Max. cruise
thrust (kN)
Engine
Characteristics
Length (m)
Fan diameter
(m)
Basic dry
weight (kN)
Applications:
23.36
23.36
23.36
23.36
23.36
23.36
23.36
23.36
23.36
A321
A321
A321
A320
A319
A319
A319
A319
A319
A319CJ
50
Engine location is influenced by many considerations including the interference between the
nacelle and the wing which increases drag. Consequently, nacelles must be sufficiently forward and
low to avoid drag increases. However, to minimize the weight of the landing gear and engine pylon,
a general rule is drawn, the nacelles are usually located as close to the wing lower surface as
possible, without causing undue heating of the wing by the engine exhaust.
From the literature survey, the engine can be placed below the wing as shown in the figure.
51
From the data of thrust to weight ratio, the minimum required thrust is found to be 144.08kN for
our design and CFM56-5B3 engine is selected for the aircraft and clarification for choosing this
engine is discussed.
5.1 Empennage
The function of an empennage is to stabilize the aircraft and provide control moments
needed for maneuver and trim. The empennage consists of a horizontal and a vertical tail. Together
they stabilize an aircrafts pitch and yaw moments. Trim for a horizontal tail refers to the balancing
of moment created by the wing. For a vertical tail, trim force generated by it is largely unexploited,
since most aircrafts are axis symmetrical. But in the case of an engine failure the vertical tail must
provide for enough trim to sustain the aircraft stable. Though it is possible to build a tailless
aircraft, it often comes with greater compromises in weight, wing area, airfoil selection and narrow
centre of gravity range. The other major function of the tail is to provide control. The tail must be
sized so as to provide adequate control at all critical conditions. For a horizontal tail, this includes
control during takeoff and landing, low speed flight and transonic maneuvering. For a vertical tail,
engine out flight, spin recovery and maximum roll rate are vital control conditions.
Each type of tail has its uniqueness owing to its functionality. Some of the designs are explained as
follows.
52
Conventional tail
About 70% of the aircrafts use a conventional tail. This is due to the fact that a conventional
tail will be able to produce the necessary stability and control at the lightest weight.
T tail
This design is very popular due to its high aerodynamic efficiency. Since the horizontal tail
is above, it avoids wing wake and propwash and also reduces fatigue in both structure and pilot. A
smaller area of the vertical and horizontal tails would suffice compared to a conventional tail to
produce the necessary moments. But it comes with a high weight penalty though.
Cruciform tail
The cruciform tail is a compromise between conventional tail and the T tail. It can function
even at high angles of attack like the T tail but with comparatively lesser weight penalty. However
no reduction in tail area can be made as in the case of a T tail.
H tail
In this design the vertical tail is positioned as such so as to have undisturbed flow of air at
high angles of attack. Also, in the case of twin engines the H tail is positioned as such to be in line
of propwash so as to have better control in the case of engine out.
V tail
The V tail is intended to reduce wetted area. With a V tail the horizontal and vertical tail
forces are the result of horizontal and vertical projection of forces exerted on the V surface. The
resulting wetted area of a V tail would be lesser than that of separate horizontal and vertical tails. V
tails offer reduced interference drag, but with some penalty in control surface actuation complexity
as the rudder and elevator controls must be blended to provide the proper movement of V tail
ruddervators. This also results in adverse roll-yaw coupling.
Hence for the purpose of commercial transport aircraft a conventional tail would be appropriate.
53
obtained through statistical data and can be adhered to at the initial stage of tail design. Statistically
obtained data of tail aspect ratio and taper ratio for various types of aircraft is as shown in figure
5.2.
Figure 5. 2 Tail aspect ratio and taper ratio for various types of aircraft [1]
Sweep angle
30
Ctip
(m)
1.69
Cmac
(m)
4.61
Fuselage
Overall length
(m)
35.898
sweep angle
35
AR
4
0.3
sweep angle
45
AR
1.5
0.3
54
And,
UV =
UV
}V HV
H
}V HV
U H
Where, L = moment arm measured from tail quarter chord to wing quarter chord
bw = wing span
Sw = wing area
Cw = wing mean chord
The Cvt and Cht values are obtained through historical data from various aircrafts and are as shown
in figure 5.3.
55
We get,
HV = 24.58 m2
Similarly
}V HV
H
18 HV
0.07 =
32.86 120
UV =
We get,
HV = 15.33 m2
= E H
UV =
2H
(1 + T)
UV = T UV
\EU =
Therefore we get for horizontal tail,
2 UM (1 + T + TJ )
3
1+T
JJR.gQ
h.hN(NO.S)
= 3.815 m
\EU =
For vertical tail we get,
56
UV =
JNg.SS
R.h NO.S)
= 4.92 m
\EU =
Parameters
sweep angle
35
45
AR
1.5
0.3
0.3
Area (m )
24.58
15.33
Span (m)
10
4.8
Croot (m)
3.815
4.92
Ctip (m)
1.144
1.47
MAC (m)
2.72
3.5
The coordinates for the NACA 0012 airfoil with deflected control surface is taken from java flow
applet. The deflection of the control surface is at 25% of chord from trailing edge and deflected to
an angle of 35 as shown in figure 5.4.
The deflection gives a Cl value of -2.257 at zero angle of attack shown in figure 5.5.
57
The coordinates are taken as input and an airfoil is created in CATIA as shown in figure 5.6.
With calculated parameters the horizontal and vertical tail is modelled in CATIA as shown in figure
5.7 and figure 5.8.
58
59
etc. The next level in weight estimation involves estimating the weight for various components and
then sum for the total empty weight. The initial balance calculations for component weight build up
is based on planform areas, wetted areas and percents of gross weight. C.G. locations for each of
the components are found. As the design phase progresses more refined c.g locations are
determined. These are summed and divided by the total weight to determine the actual c.g. location.
At this stage of the design it is acceptable to do a rough estimate of the c.g. this can be done with a
statistical approach as shown in figure 6.1. Each of the components weight is determined from
historical values for weight per square foot of exposed planform area or wetted area or a fraction of
the takeoff gross weight. This technique also involves determining approximate locations of c.g. for
each of the component. These weights can be used as a check in more detailed weight estimations.
60
Component
Weight (kg)
C.G. position
Wing
1465
Horizontal tail
240
Vertical tail
150
Fuselage
6034
Landing gear
2790
Installed engine
3334
Others
4895
6.2 Performance
Having designed the conceptual aircraft for the given requirements, performance for the same can
be calculated. Necessary data, derived from the design, required for performance calculations is as
shown in table 6.2.
61
Parameters
TOGW (kg)
Fuel weight (kg)
Landing weight (kg)
Cl
Cd
Wing area (m2)
Wing loading (kg/m2)
V stall (m/s)
Take off thrust (KN)
SFC (N/N-s)
Thrust-weight ratio
Mu-Concrete
Value
48950
12854.27
36095.73
0.41
0.031
120
410
66
130
1.00034*10-4
0.3
0.04
The performance parameters for the designed aircraft are calculated as follows:
Range is given by the equation
F = 2
L i
L L
Waaa^ ba^
= YHU U V
1
U
Endurance E = 11 hours
Take off distance is given by
H =
=
ln
E = d
` N
i
~[U U +
J
H =
ln 1 ] J
62
i i
FU
= 1
^
S L
i i
J
Where,
= 1 + 1 +
i i
L i
Radius of turn
Radius of turn is given by:
F =
`i N
35.898
3.5
32.86
120
9
48950
36100
12850
18908
9600
4780
150
410
0.3
1556
63
1557
11
10.75
80
7.1 Assembly
.
Figure 7. 3 Side view
64
8.1 Conclusion
The aeroplane is designed to meet the requirements to fly at 0.85 Mach with a range of 3000 nm
flying at an altitude of 12-14 km. The layout and claculations used are for preliminary design and
further refinment needs to be done as and how finer details are established. Expecially when
accurate weight are established for all the components there will be changes in wing loading and
thrust loading which will effect the wing area and thrust required. Chages will also effect the range
and endurance and hence needs to be iterated for every changes and a compromise needs to be
reached to attain the mission requirements with minimum weight penality and cost to manufacture.
Weight will also effect with the advancment of material technology, control system will be effected
with the introduction of advanced control systems that will drastically effect the weight and hence
all the dependent parameters accociated to gross weight.
65
REFERENCES
________________________________________________________________________________
[1] Daniel P. Raymer, Aircraft design-A conceptual approach, Current Science, AIAA, 2nd
edition, 2004
[2] Thomas C. Corke., Design of Aircraft, second edition, Pearson Education, 2005.
[3] Ajoy Kundu, Aircraft Design, Cambridge University Press, 2010.
66