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Strength of materials
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed. (August 2010)
Internal force lines are denser near the hole, a common stress concentration
Mechanics of materials, also called strength of materials, is a subject which deals with the
behavior of solid objects subject to stresses and strains. The complete theory began with the
consideration of the behavior of one and two dimensional members of structures, whose
states of stress can be approximated as two dimensional, and was then generalized to three
dimensions to develop a more complete theory of the elastic and plastic behavior of
materials. An important founding pioneer in mechanics of materials was Stephen
Timoshenko.
The study of strength of materials often refers to various methods of calculating the stresses
and strains in structural members, such as beams, columns, and shafts. The methods
employed to predict the response of a structure under loading and its susceptibility to various
failure modes takes into account the properties of the materials such as its yield strength,
ultimate strength, Young's modulus, and Poisson's ratio; in addition the mechanical element's
macroscopic properties (geometric properties), such as it length, width, thickness, boundary
constraints and abrupt changes in geometry such as holes are considered.
Contents
1 Definition
o 1.1 Types of loadings
o
2 Design terms
o
3 Microstructure
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Definition
In materials science, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load
without failure. The field of strength of materials deals with forces and deformations that
result from their acting on a material. A load applied to a mechanical member will induce
internal forces within the member called stresses when those forces are expressed on a unit
basis. The stresses acting on the material cause deformation of the material in various
manner. Deformation of the material is called strain when those deformations too are placed
on a unit basis. The applied loads may be axial (tensile or compressive), or shear. The stresses
and strains that develop within a mechanical member must be calculated in order to assess the
load capacity of that member. This requires a complete description of the geometry of the
member, its constraints, the loads applied to the member and the properties of the material of
which the member is composed. With a complete description of the loading and the geometry
of the member, the state of stress and of state of strain at any point within the member can be
calculated. Once the state of stress and strain within the member is known, the strength (load
carrying capacity) of that member, its deformations (stiffness qualities), and its stability
(ability to maintain its original configuration) can be calculated. The calculated stresses may
then be compared to some measure of the strength of the member such as its material yield or
ultimate strength. The calculated deflection of the member may be compared to a deflection
criteria that is based on the member's use. The calculated buckling load of the member may
be compared to the applied load. The calculated stiffness and mass distribution of the member
may be used to calculate the member's dynamic response and then compared to the acoustic
environment in which it will be used.
Material strength refers to the point on the engineering stressstrain curve (yield stress)
beyond which the material experiences deformations that will not be completely reversed
upon removal of the loading and as a result the member will have a permanent deflection.
The ultimate strength refers to the point on the engineering stressstrain curve corresponding
to the stress that produces fracture.
Types of loadings
Stress terms
where F is the force [N] acting on an area A [m2].[3] The area can be the undeformed area or
the deformed area, depending on whether engineering stress or true stress is of interest.
Compressive stress (or compression) is the stress state caused by an applied load that
acts to reduce the length of the material (compression member) along the axis of the
applied load, it is in other words a stress state that causes a squeezing of the material.
A simple case of compression is the uniaxial compression induced by the action of
opposite, pushing forces. Compressive strength for materials is generally higher than
Tensile stress is the stress state caused by an applied load that tends to elongate the
material along the axis of the applied load, in other words the stress caused by pulling
the material. The strength of structures of equal cross sectional area loaded in tension
is independent of shape of the cross section. Materials loaded in tension are
susceptible to stress concentrations such as material defects or abrupt changes in
geometry. However, materials exhibiting ductile behavior (most metals for example)
can tolerate some defects while brittle materials (such as ceramics) can fail well
below their ultimate material strength.
Shear stress is the stress state caused by the combined energy of a pair of opposing
forces acting along parallel lines of action through the material, in other words the
stress caused by faces of the material sliding relative to one another. An example is
cutting paper with scissors[4] or stresses due to torsional loading.
Strength terms
Yield strength its the lowest stress that produces a permanent deformation in a
material. In some materials, like aluminium alloys, the point of yielding is difficult to
identify, thus it is usually defined as the stress required to cause 0.2% plastic strain.
This is called a 0.2% proof stress.[5]
Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength is a limit state of tensile stress that leads to
tensile failure in the manner of ductile failure (yield as the first stage of that failure,
some hardening in the second stage and breakage after a possible "neck" formation) or
brittle failure (sudden breaking in two or more pieces at a low stress state). Tensile
strength can be quoted as either true stress or engineering stress, but engineering
stress is the most commonly used.
Impact strength, is the capability of the material to withstand a suddenly applied load
and is expressed in terms of energy. Often measured with the Izod impact strength test
or Charpy impact test, both of which measure the impact energy required to fracture a
sample. Volume, modulus of elasticity, distribution of forces, and yield strength affect
the impact strength of a material. In order for a material or object to have a high
impact strength the stresses must be distributed evenly throughout the object. It also
must have a large volume with a low modulus of elasticity and a high material yield
strength.[7]
Deformation of the material is the change in geometry created when stress is applied
(as a result of applied forces, gravitational fields, accelerations, thermal expansion,
etc.). Deformation is expressed by the displacement field of the material.[8]
Strain or reduced deformation is a mathematical term that expresses the trend of the
deformation change among the material field. Strain is the deformation per unit
length.[9] In the case of uniaxial loading the displacements of a specimen (for example
a bar element)lead to a calculation of strain expressed as the quotient of the
displacement and the original length of the specimen. For 3D displacement fields it is
expressed as derivatives of displacement functions in terms of a second order tensor
(with 6 independent elements).
Deflection is a term to describe the magnitude to which a structural element is
displaced when subject to an applied load.[10]
Stressstrain relations
Design terms
Ultimate strength is an attribute related to a material, rather than just a specific specimen
made of the material, and as such it is quoted as the force per unit of cross section area
(N/m2). The ultimate strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand before it
breaks or weakens.[12] For example, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of AISI 1018 Steel is
440 MN/m2. In general, the SI unit of stress is the pascal, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. In Imperial
units, the unit of stress is given as lbf/in or pounds-force per square inch. This unit is often
abbreviated as psi. One thousand psi is abbreviated ksi.
A Factor of safety is a design criteria that an engineered component or structure must achieve.
, where FS: the factor of safety, R: The applied stress, and UTS: ultimate
stress (psi or N/m ) [13]
2
Failure theories
There are four important failure theories: maximum shear stress theory, maximum normal
stress theory, maximum strain energy theory, and maximum distortion energy theory. Out of
these four theories of failure, the maximum normal stress theory is only applicable for brittle
materials, and the remaining three theories are applicable for ductile materials. Of the latter
three, the distortion energy theory provides most accurate results in majority of the stress
conditions. The strain energy theory needs the value of Poissons ratio of the part material,
which is often not readily available. The maximum shear stress theory is conservative. For
simple unidirectional normal stresses all theories are equivalent, which means all theories
will give the same result.
Maximum Shear stress Theory- This theory postulates that failure will occur if the
magnitude of the maximum shear stress in the part exceeds the shear strength of the
material determined from uniaxial testing.
Maximum normal stress theory - This theory postulates that failure will occur if the
maximum normal stress in the part exceeds the ultimate tensile stress of the material
as determined from uniaxial testing. This theory deals with brittle materials only. The
maximum tensile stress should be less than or equal to ultimate tensile stress divided
by factor of safety. The magnitude of the maximum compressive stress should be less
than ultimate compressive stress divided by factor of safety.
Maximum strain energy theory - This theory postulates that failure will occur when
the strain energy per unit volume due to the applied stresses in a part equals the strain
energy per unit volume at the yield point in uniaxial testing.
Maximum distortion energy theory - This theory is also known as shear energy theory
or von Mises-Hencky theory. This theory postulates that failure will occur when the
distortion energy per unit volume due to the applied stresses in a part equals the
distortion energy per unit volume at the yield point in uniaxial testing. The total
elastic energy due to strain can be divided into two parts: one part causes change in
volume, and the other part causes change in shape. Distortion energy is the amount of
energy that is needed to change the shape.
Fracture mechanics was established by Alan Arnold Griffith and George Rankine
Irwin. This important theory is also known as numeric conversion of toughness of
material in the case of crack existence.
Fractology was proposed by Takeo Yokobori because each fracture laws including
creep rupture criterion must be combined nonlinially.
Microstructure
A material's strength is dependent on its microstructure. The engineering processes to which a
material is subjected can alter this microstructure. The variety of strengthening mechanisms
that alter the strength of a material includes work hardening, solid solution strengthening,
precipitation hardening and grain boundary strengthening and can be quantitatively and
qualitatively explained. Strengthening mechanisms are accompanied by the caveat that some
other mechanical properties of the material may degenerate in an attempt to make the
material stronger. For example, in grain boundary strengthening, although yield strength is
maximized with decreasing grain size, ultimately, very small grain sizes make the material
brittle. In general, the yield strength of a material is an adequate indicator of the material's
mechanical strength. Considered in tandem with the fact that the yield strength is the
parameter that predicts plastic deformation in the material, one can make informed decisions
on how to increase the strength of a material depending its microstructural properties and the
desired end effect. Strength is expressed in terms of the limiting values of the compressive
stress, tensile stress, and shear stresses that would cause failure. The effects of dynamic
loading are probably the most important practical consideration of the strength of materials,
especially the problem of fatigue. Repeated loading often initiates brittle cracks, which grow
until failure occurs. The cracks always start at stress concentrations, especially changes in
cross-section of the product, near holes and corners at nominal stress levels far lower than
those quoted for the strength of the material.
See also
Creep of materials
Deformation-mechanism maps
Diffusion in materials
Dynamics
Fatigue of materials
Forensic engineering
Fracture mechanics
Fracture toughness
Material selection
Specific strength
Statics
References
1.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 210. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
2.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p. 7.
ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
3.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p. 5.
ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
4.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
pp. 910. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
5.
Beer & Johnston. Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p. 52.
ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
6.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 60. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
7.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
pp. 693696. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
8.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 47. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
9.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 49. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
10.
11.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
pp. 5356. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
12.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
pp. 2728. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
13.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 28. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
Further reading
Alfirevi, Ivo. Strength of Materials II. Tehnika knjiga, 1999. ISBN 953-6168-85-5.
Beer, F.P., E.R. Johnston, et al. Mechanics of Materials, 3rd edition. McGraw-Hill,
2001. ISBN 0-07-248673-2
Den Hartog, Jacob P. Strength of Materials. Dover Publications, Inc., 1961, ISBN 0486-60755-0.
Chapter 10 Strength of Elastomers, A.N. Gent, W.V. Mars, In: James E. Mark,
Burak Erman and Mike Roland, Editor(s), The Science and Technology of Rubber
(Fourth Edition), Academic Press, Boston, 2013, Pages 473-516, ISBN
9780123945846, 10.1016/B978-0-12-394584-6.00010-8
Mott, Robert L. Applied Strength of Materials, 4th edition. Prentice-Hall, 2002. ISBN
0-13-088578-9.
Shames, I.H. and F.A. Cozzarelli. Elastic and inelastic stress analysis. Prentice-Hall,
1991. ISBN 1-56032-686-7.
Timoshenko, S.P. and D.H. Young. Elements of Strength of Materials, 5th edition.
(MKS System)
Lawn, B.R., Fracture of Brittle Solids, Cambridge Solid State Science Series, 2nd
Edn. (1993)
External links
Failure theories
case studies in structural failure
Categories:
Solid mechanics
Materials science
Building engineering
Deformation (mechanics)
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Strength of materials
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed. (August 2010)
Internal force lines are denser near the hole, a common stress concentration
Mechanics of materials, also called strength of materials, is a subject which deals with the
behavior of solid objects subject to stresses and strains. The complete theory began with the
consideration of the behavior of one and two dimensional members of structures, whose
states of stress can be approximated as two dimensional, and was then generalized to three
dimensions to develop a more complete theory of the elastic and plastic behavior of
materials. An important founding pioneer in mechanics of materials was Stephen
Timoshenko.
The study of strength of materials often refers to various methods of calculating the stresses
and strains in structural members, such as beams, columns, and shafts. The methods
employed to predict the response of a structure under loading and its susceptibility to various
failure modes takes into account the properties of the materials such as its yield strength,
ultimate strength, Young's modulus, and Poisson's ratio; in addition the mechanical element's
macroscopic properties (geometric properties), such as it length, width, thickness, boundary
constraints and abrupt changes in geometry such as holes are considered.
Contents
1 Definition
o 1.1 Types of loadings
o
2 Design terms
o
3 Microstructure
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Definition
In materials science, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load
without failure. The field of strength of materials deals with forces and deformations that
result from their acting on a material. A load applied to a mechanical member will induce
internal forces within the member called stresses when those forces are expressed on a unit
basis. The stresses acting on the material cause deformation of the material in various
manner. Deformation of the material is called strain when those deformations too are placed
on a unit basis. The applied loads may be axial (tensile or compressive), or shear. The stresses
and strains that develop within a mechanical member must be calculated in order to assess the
load capacity of that member. This requires a complete description of the geometry of the
member, its constraints, the loads applied to the member and the properties of the material of
which the member is composed. With a complete description of the loading and the geometry
of the member, the state of stress and of state of strain at any point within the member can be
calculated. Once the state of stress and strain within the member is known, the strength (load
carrying capacity) of that member, its deformations (stiffness qualities), and its stability
(ability to maintain its original configuration) can be calculated. The calculated stresses may
then be compared to some measure of the strength of the member such as its material yield or
ultimate strength. The calculated deflection of the member may be compared to a deflection
criteria that is based on the member's use. The calculated buckling load of the member may
be compared to the applied load. The calculated stiffness and mass distribution of the member
may be used to calculate the member's dynamic response and then compared to the acoustic
environment in which it will be used.
Material strength refers to the point on the engineering stressstrain curve (yield stress)
beyond which the material experiences deformations that will not be completely reversed
upon removal of the loading and as a result the member will have a permanent deflection.
The ultimate strength refers to the point on the engineering stressstrain curve corresponding
to the stress that produces fracture.
Types of loadings
Stress terms
where F is the force [N] acting on an area A [m2].[3] The area can be the undeformed area or
the deformed area, depending on whether engineering stress or true stress is of interest.
Compressive stress (or compression) is the stress state caused by an applied load that
acts to reduce the length of the material (compression member) along the axis of the
applied load, it is in other words a stress state that causes a squeezing of the material.
A simple case of compression is the uniaxial compression induced by the action of
opposite, pushing forces. Compressive strength for materials is generally higher than
Tensile stress is the stress state caused by an applied load that tends to elongate the
material along the axis of the applied load, in other words the stress caused by pulling
the material. The strength of structures of equal cross sectional area loaded in tension
is independent of shape of the cross section. Materials loaded in tension are
susceptible to stress concentrations such as material defects or abrupt changes in
geometry. However, materials exhibiting ductile behavior (most metals for example)
can tolerate some defects while brittle materials (such as ceramics) can fail well
below their ultimate material strength.
Shear stress is the stress state caused by the combined energy of a pair of opposing
forces acting along parallel lines of action through the material, in other words the
stress caused by faces of the material sliding relative to one another. An example is
cutting paper with scissors[4] or stresses due to torsional loading.
Strength terms
Yield strength its the lowest stress that produces a permanent deformation in a
material. In some materials, like aluminium alloys, the point of yielding is difficult to
identify, thus it is usually defined as the stress required to cause 0.2% plastic strain.
This is called a 0.2% proof stress.[5]
Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength is a limit state of tensile stress that leads to
tensile failure in the manner of ductile failure (yield as the first stage of that failure,
some hardening in the second stage and breakage after a possible "neck" formation) or
brittle failure (sudden breaking in two or more pieces at a low stress state). Tensile
strength can be quoted as either true stress or engineering stress, but engineering
stress is the most commonly used.
Impact strength, is the capability of the material to withstand a suddenly applied load
and is expressed in terms of energy. Often measured with the Izod impact strength test
or Charpy impact test, both of which measure the impact energy required to fracture a
sample. Volume, modulus of elasticity, distribution of forces, and yield strength affect
the impact strength of a material. In order for a material or object to have a high
impact strength the stresses must be distributed evenly throughout the object. It also
must have a large volume with a low modulus of elasticity and a high material yield
strength.[7]
Deformation of the material is the change in geometry created when stress is applied
(as a result of applied forces, gravitational fields, accelerations, thermal expansion,
etc.). Deformation is expressed by the displacement field of the material.[8]
Strain or reduced deformation is a mathematical term that expresses the trend of the
deformation change among the material field. Strain is the deformation per unit
length.[9] In the case of uniaxial loading the displacements of a specimen (for example
a bar element)lead to a calculation of strain expressed as the quotient of the
displacement and the original length of the specimen. For 3D displacement fields it is
expressed as derivatives of displacement functions in terms of a second order tensor
(with 6 independent elements).
Deflection is a term to describe the magnitude to which a structural element is
displaced when subject to an applied load.[10]
Stressstrain relations
Design terms
Ultimate strength is an attribute related to a material, rather than just a specific specimen
made of the material, and as such it is quoted as the force per unit of cross section area
(N/m2). The ultimate strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand before it
breaks or weakens.[12] For example, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of AISI 1018 Steel is
440 MN/m2. In general, the SI unit of stress is the pascal, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. In Imperial
units, the unit of stress is given as lbf/in or pounds-force per square inch. This unit is often
abbreviated as psi. One thousand psi is abbreviated ksi.
A Factor of safety is a design criteria that an engineered component or structure must achieve.
, where FS: the factor of safety, R: The applied stress, and UTS: ultimate
stress (psi or N/m ) [13]
2
Failure theories
There are four important failure theories: maximum shear stress theory, maximum normal
stress theory, maximum strain energy theory, and maximum distortion energy theory. Out of
these four theories of failure, the maximum normal stress theory is only applicable for brittle
materials, and the remaining three theories are applicable for ductile materials. Of the latter
three, the distortion energy theory provides most accurate results in majority of the stress
conditions. The strain energy theory needs the value of Poissons ratio of the part material,
which is often not readily available. The maximum shear stress theory is conservative. For
simple unidirectional normal stresses all theories are equivalent, which means all theories
will give the same result.
Maximum Shear stress Theory- This theory postulates that failure will occur if the
magnitude of the maximum shear stress in the part exceeds the shear strength of the
material determined from uniaxial testing.
Maximum normal stress theory - This theory postulates that failure will occur if the
maximum normal stress in the part exceeds the ultimate tensile stress of the material
as determined from uniaxial testing. This theory deals with brittle materials only. The
maximum tensile stress should be less than or equal to ultimate tensile stress divided
by factor of safety. The magnitude of the maximum compressive stress should be less
than ultimate compressive stress divided by factor of safety.
Maximum strain energy theory - This theory postulates that failure will occur when
the strain energy per unit volume due to the applied stresses in a part equals the strain
energy per unit volume at the yield point in uniaxial testing.
Maximum distortion energy theory - This theory is also known as shear energy theory
or von Mises-Hencky theory. This theory postulates that failure will occur when the
distortion energy per unit volume due to the applied stresses in a part equals the
distortion energy per unit volume at the yield point in uniaxial testing. The total
elastic energy due to strain can be divided into two parts: one part causes change in
volume, and the other part causes change in shape. Distortion energy is the amount of
energy that is needed to change the shape.
Fracture mechanics was established by Alan Arnold Griffith and George Rankine
Irwin. This important theory is also known as numeric conversion of toughness of
material in the case of crack existence.
Fractology was proposed by Takeo Yokobori because each fracture laws including
creep rupture criterion must be combined nonlinially.
Microstructure
A material's strength is dependent on its microstructure. The engineering processes to which a
material is subjected can alter this microstructure. The variety of strengthening mechanisms
that alter the strength of a material includes work hardening, solid solution strengthening,
precipitation hardening and grain boundary strengthening and can be quantitatively and
qualitatively explained. Strengthening mechanisms are accompanied by the caveat that some
other mechanical properties of the material may degenerate in an attempt to make the
material stronger. For example, in grain boundary strengthening, although yield strength is
maximized with decreasing grain size, ultimately, very small grain sizes make the material
brittle. In general, the yield strength of a material is an adequate indicator of the material's
mechanical strength. Considered in tandem with the fact that the yield strength is the
parameter that predicts plastic deformation in the material, one can make informed decisions
on how to increase the strength of a material depending its microstructural properties and the
desired end effect. Strength is expressed in terms of the limiting values of the compressive
stress, tensile stress, and shear stresses that would cause failure. The effects of dynamic
loading are probably the most important practical consideration of the strength of materials,
especially the problem of fatigue. Repeated loading often initiates brittle cracks, which grow
until failure occurs. The cracks always start at stress concentrations, especially changes in
cross-section of the product, near holes and corners at nominal stress levels far lower than
those quoted for the strength of the material.
See also
Creep of materials
Deformation-mechanism maps
Diffusion in materials
Dynamics
Fatigue of materials
Forensic engineering
Fracture mechanics
Fracture toughness
Material selection
Specific strength
Statics
References
14.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 210. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
15.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p. 7.
ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
16.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p. 5.
ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
17.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
pp. 910. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
18.
Beer & Johnston. Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p. 52.
ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
19.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 60. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
20.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
pp. 693696. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
21.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 47. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
22.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 49. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
23.
24.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
pp. 5356. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
25.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
pp. 2728. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
26.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 28. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
Further reading
Alfirevi, Ivo. Strength of Materials II. Tehnika knjiga, 1999. ISBN 953-6168-85-5.
Beer, F.P., E.R. Johnston, et al. Mechanics of Materials, 3rd edition. McGraw-Hill,
2001. ISBN 0-07-248673-2
Den Hartog, Jacob P. Strength of Materials. Dover Publications, Inc., 1961, ISBN 0486-60755-0.
Chapter 10 Strength of Elastomers, A.N. Gent, W.V. Mars, In: James E. Mark,
Burak Erman and Mike Roland, Editor(s), The Science and Technology of Rubber
(Fourth Edition), Academic Press, Boston, 2013, Pages 473-516, ISBN
9780123945846, 10.1016/B978-0-12-394584-6.00010-8
Mott, Robert L. Applied Strength of Materials, 4th edition. Prentice-Hall, 2002. ISBN
0-13-088578-9.
Shames, I.H. and F.A. Cozzarelli. Elastic and inelastic stress analysis. Prentice-Hall,
1991. ISBN 1-56032-686-7.
Timoshenko, S.P. and D.H. Young. Elements of Strength of Materials, 5th edition.
(MKS System)
Lawn, B.R., Fracture of Brittle Solids, Cambridge Solid State Science Series, 2nd
Edn. (1993)
External links
Failure theories
case studies in structural failure
Categories:
Solid mechanics
Materials science
Building engineering
Deformation (mechanics)
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