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Strength of materials
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed. (August 2010)

Internal force lines are denser near the hole, a common stress concentration
Mechanics of materials, also called strength of materials, is a subject which deals with the
behavior of solid objects subject to stresses and strains. The complete theory began with the
consideration of the behavior of one and two dimensional members of structures, whose
states of stress can be approximated as two dimensional, and was then generalized to three
dimensions to develop a more complete theory of the elastic and plastic behavior of
materials. An important founding pioneer in mechanics of materials was Stephen
Timoshenko.
The study of strength of materials often refers to various methods of calculating the stresses
and strains in structural members, such as beams, columns, and shafts. The methods
employed to predict the response of a structure under loading and its susceptibility to various

failure modes takes into account the properties of the materials such as its yield strength,
ultimate strength, Young's modulus, and Poisson's ratio; in addition the mechanical element's
macroscopic properties (geometric properties), such as it length, width, thickness, boundary
constraints and abrupt changes in geometry such as holes are considered.

Contents

1 Definition
o 1.1 Types of loadings
o

1.2 Stress terms

1.3 Strength terms

1.4 Strain (deformation) terms

1.5 Stressstrain relations

2 Design terms
o

2.1 Failure theories

3 Microstructure

4 See also

5 References

6 Further reading

7 External links

Definition
In materials science, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load
without failure. The field of strength of materials deals with forces and deformations that
result from their acting on a material. A load applied to a mechanical member will induce
internal forces within the member called stresses when those forces are expressed on a unit
basis. The stresses acting on the material cause deformation of the material in various
manner. Deformation of the material is called strain when those deformations too are placed
on a unit basis. The applied loads may be axial (tensile or compressive), or shear. The stresses
and strains that develop within a mechanical member must be calculated in order to assess the
load capacity of that member. This requires a complete description of the geometry of the
member, its constraints, the loads applied to the member and the properties of the material of
which the member is composed. With a complete description of the loading and the geometry
of the member, the state of stress and of state of strain at any point within the member can be
calculated. Once the state of stress and strain within the member is known, the strength (load
carrying capacity) of that member, its deformations (stiffness qualities), and its stability
(ability to maintain its original configuration) can be calculated. The calculated stresses may
then be compared to some measure of the strength of the member such as its material yield or
ultimate strength. The calculated deflection of the member may be compared to a deflection
criteria that is based on the member's use. The calculated buckling load of the member may

be compared to the applied load. The calculated stiffness and mass distribution of the member
may be used to calculate the member's dynamic response and then compared to the acoustic
environment in which it will be used.
Material strength refers to the point on the engineering stressstrain curve (yield stress)
beyond which the material experiences deformations that will not be completely reversed
upon removal of the loading and as a result the member will have a permanent deflection.
The ultimate strength refers to the point on the engineering stressstrain curve corresponding
to the stress that produces fracture.

Types of loadings

Transverse loading - Forces applied perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a


member. Transverse loading causes the member to bend and deflect from its original
position, with internal tensile and compressive strains accompanying the change in
curvature of the member.[1] Transverse loading also induces shear forces that cause
shear deformation of the material and increase the transverse deflection of the
member.
Axial loading - The applied forces are collinear with the longitudinal axis of the
member. The forces cause the member to either stretch or shorten.[2]
Torsional loading - Twisting action caused by a pair of externally applied equal and
oppositely directed force couples acting on parallel planes or by a single external
couple applied to a member that has one end fixed against rotation.

Stress terms

A material being loaded in a) compression, b) tension, c) shear.


Uniaxial stress is expressed by

where F is the force [N] acting on an area A [m2].[3] The area can be the undeformed area or
the deformed area, depending on whether engineering stress or true stress is of interest.

Compressive stress (or compression) is the stress state caused by an applied load that
acts to reduce the length of the material (compression member) along the axis of the
applied load, it is in other words a stress state that causes a squeezing of the material.
A simple case of compression is the uniaxial compression induced by the action of
opposite, pushing forces. Compressive strength for materials is generally higher than

their tensile strength. However, structures loaded in compression are subject to


additional failure modes, such as buckling, that are dependent on the member's
geometry.

Tensile stress is the stress state caused by an applied load that tends to elongate the
material along the axis of the applied load, in other words the stress caused by pulling
the material. The strength of structures of equal cross sectional area loaded in tension
is independent of shape of the cross section. Materials loaded in tension are
susceptible to stress concentrations such as material defects or abrupt changes in
geometry. However, materials exhibiting ductile behavior (most metals for example)
can tolerate some defects while brittle materials (such as ceramics) can fail well
below their ultimate material strength.

Shear stress is the stress state caused by the combined energy of a pair of opposing
forces acting along parallel lines of action through the material, in other words the
stress caused by faces of the material sliding relative to one another. An example is
cutting paper with scissors[4] or stresses due to torsional loading.

Strength terms

Yield strength its the lowest stress that produces a permanent deformation in a
material. In some materials, like aluminium alloys, the point of yielding is difficult to
identify, thus it is usually defined as the stress required to cause 0.2% plastic strain.
This is called a 0.2% proof stress.[5]

Compressive strength is a limit state of compressive stress that leads to failure in a


material in the manner of ductile failure (infinite theoretical yield) or brittle failure
(rupture as the result of crack propagation, or sliding along a weak plane - see shear
strength).

Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength is a limit state of tensile stress that leads to
tensile failure in the manner of ductile failure (yield as the first stage of that failure,
some hardening in the second stage and breakage after a possible "neck" formation) or
brittle failure (sudden breaking in two or more pieces at a low stress state). Tensile
strength can be quoted as either true stress or engineering stress, but engineering
stress is the most commonly used.

Fatigue strength is a measure of the strength of a material or a component under


cyclic loading,[6] and is usually more difficult to assess than the static strength
measures. Fatigue strength is quoted as stress amplitude or stress range (
), usually at zero mean stress, along with the number of cycles
to failure under that condition of stress.

Impact strength, is the capability of the material to withstand a suddenly applied load
and is expressed in terms of energy. Often measured with the Izod impact strength test
or Charpy impact test, both of which measure the impact energy required to fracture a
sample. Volume, modulus of elasticity, distribution of forces, and yield strength affect
the impact strength of a material. In order for a material or object to have a high
impact strength the stresses must be distributed evenly throughout the object. It also

must have a large volume with a low modulus of elasticity and a high material yield
strength.[7]

Strain (deformation) terms

Deformation of the material is the change in geometry created when stress is applied
(as a result of applied forces, gravitational fields, accelerations, thermal expansion,
etc.). Deformation is expressed by the displacement field of the material.[8]
Strain or reduced deformation is a mathematical term that expresses the trend of the
deformation change among the material field. Strain is the deformation per unit
length.[9] In the case of uniaxial loading the displacements of a specimen (for example
a bar element)lead to a calculation of strain expressed as the quotient of the
displacement and the original length of the specimen. For 3D displacement fields it is
expressed as derivatives of displacement functions in terms of a second order tensor
(with 6 independent elements).
Deflection is a term to describe the magnitude to which a structural element is
displaced when subject to an applied load.[10]

Stressstrain relations

Basic static response of a specimen under tension


Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its previous shape after stress is
released. In many materials, the relation between applied stress is directly
proportional to the resulting strain (up to a certain limit), and a graph representing
those two quantities is a straight line.
The slope of this line is known as Young's modulus, or the "modulus of elasticity." The
modulus of elasticity can be used to determine the stressstrain relationship in the linearelastic portion of the stressstrain curve. The linear-elastic region is either below the yield
point, or if a yield point is not easily identified on the stressstrain plot it is defined to be
between 0 and 0.2% strain, and is defined as the region of strain in which no yielding
(permanent deformation) occurs.[11]

Plasticity or plastic deformation is the opposite of elastic deformation and is defined


as unrecoverable strain. Plastic deformation is retained after the release of the applied
stress. Most materials in the linear-elastic category are usually capable of plastic

deformation. Brittle materials, like ceramics, do not experience any plastic


deformation and will fracture under relatively low stress. Materials such as metals
usually experience a small amount of plastic deformation before failure while ductile
metals such as copper and lead or polymers will plasticly deform much more.
Consider the difference between a carrot and chewed bubble gum. The carrot will stretch very
little before breaking. The chewed bubble gum, on the other hand, will plastically deform
enormously before finally breaking.

Design terms
Ultimate strength is an attribute related to a material, rather than just a specific specimen
made of the material, and as such it is quoted as the force per unit of cross section area
(N/m2). The ultimate strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand before it
breaks or weakens.[12] For example, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of AISI 1018 Steel is
440 MN/m2. In general, the SI unit of stress is the pascal, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. In Imperial
units, the unit of stress is given as lbf/in or pounds-force per square inch. This unit is often
abbreviated as psi. One thousand psi is abbreviated ksi.
A Factor of safety is a design criteria that an engineered component or structure must achieve.
, where FS: the factor of safety, R: The applied stress, and UTS: ultimate
stress (psi or N/m ) [13]
2

Margin of Safety is also sometimes used to as design criteria. It is defined MS = Failure


Load/(Factor of Safety * Predicted Load) - 1
For example to achieve a factor of safety of 4, the allowable stress in an AISI 1018 steel
component can be calculated to be
= 440/4 = 110 MPa, or = 110106
N/m2. Such allowable stresses are also known as "design stresses" or "working stresses."
Design stresses that have been determined from the ultimate or yield point values of the
materials give safe and reliable results only for the case of static loading. Many machine parts
fail when subjected to a non steady and continuously varying loads even though the
developed stresses are below the yield point. Such failures are called fatigue failure. The
failure is by a fracture that appears to be brittle with little or no visible evidence of yielding.
However, when the stress is kept below "fatigue stress" or "endurance limit stress", the part
will endure indefinitely. A purely reversing or cyclic stress is one that alternates between
equal positive and negative peak stresses during each cycle of operation. In a purely cyclic
stress, the average stress is zero. When a part is subjected to a cyclic stress, also known as
stress range (Sr), it has been observed that the failure of the part occurs after a number of
stress reversals (N) even if the magnitude of the stress range is below the materials yield
strength. Generally, higher the range stress, the fewer the number of reversals needed for
failure.

Failure theories
There are four important failure theories: maximum shear stress theory, maximum normal
stress theory, maximum strain energy theory, and maximum distortion energy theory. Out of
these four theories of failure, the maximum normal stress theory is only applicable for brittle

materials, and the remaining three theories are applicable for ductile materials. Of the latter
three, the distortion energy theory provides most accurate results in majority of the stress
conditions. The strain energy theory needs the value of Poissons ratio of the part material,
which is often not readily available. The maximum shear stress theory is conservative. For
simple unidirectional normal stresses all theories are equivalent, which means all theories
will give the same result.

Maximum Shear stress Theory- This theory postulates that failure will occur if the
magnitude of the maximum shear stress in the part exceeds the shear strength of the
material determined from uniaxial testing.

Maximum normal stress theory - This theory postulates that failure will occur if the
maximum normal stress in the part exceeds the ultimate tensile stress of the material
as determined from uniaxial testing. This theory deals with brittle materials only. The
maximum tensile stress should be less than or equal to ultimate tensile stress divided
by factor of safety. The magnitude of the maximum compressive stress should be less
than ultimate compressive stress divided by factor of safety.

Maximum strain energy theory - This theory postulates that failure will occur when
the strain energy per unit volume due to the applied stresses in a part equals the strain
energy per unit volume at the yield point in uniaxial testing.

Maximum distortion energy theory - This theory is also known as shear energy theory
or von Mises-Hencky theory. This theory postulates that failure will occur when the
distortion energy per unit volume due to the applied stresses in a part equals the
distortion energy per unit volume at the yield point in uniaxial testing. The total
elastic energy due to strain can be divided into two parts: one part causes change in
volume, and the other part causes change in shape. Distortion energy is the amount of
energy that is needed to change the shape.

Fracture mechanics was established by Alan Arnold Griffith and George Rankine
Irwin. This important theory is also known as numeric conversion of toughness of
material in the case of crack existence.

Fractology was proposed by Takeo Yokobori because each fracture laws including
creep rupture criterion must be combined nonlinially.

Microstructure
A material's strength is dependent on its microstructure. The engineering processes to which a
material is subjected can alter this microstructure. The variety of strengthening mechanisms
that alter the strength of a material includes work hardening, solid solution strengthening,
precipitation hardening and grain boundary strengthening and can be quantitatively and
qualitatively explained. Strengthening mechanisms are accompanied by the caveat that some
other mechanical properties of the material may degenerate in an attempt to make the
material stronger. For example, in grain boundary strengthening, although yield strength is
maximized with decreasing grain size, ultimately, very small grain sizes make the material
brittle. In general, the yield strength of a material is an adequate indicator of the material's
mechanical strength. Considered in tandem with the fact that the yield strength is the
parameter that predicts plastic deformation in the material, one can make informed decisions

on how to increase the strength of a material depending its microstructural properties and the
desired end effect. Strength is expressed in terms of the limiting values of the compressive
stress, tensile stress, and shear stresses that would cause failure. The effects of dynamic
loading are probably the most important practical consideration of the strength of materials,
especially the problem of fatigue. Repeated loading often initiates brittle cracks, which grow
until failure occurs. The cracks always start at stress concentrations, especially changes in
cross-section of the product, near holes and corners at nominal stress levels far lower than
those quoted for the strength of the material.

See also

Creep of materials
Deformation-mechanism maps

Diffusion in materials

Dynamics

Fatigue of materials

Forensic engineering

Fracture mechanics

Fracture toughness

Material selection

Specific strength

Statics

Universal testing machine

References
1.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 210. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
2.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p. 7.
ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
3.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p. 5.
ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

4.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
pp. 910. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

5.

Beer & Johnston. Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p. 52.
ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

6.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 60. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

7.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
pp. 693696. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

8.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 47. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

9.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 49. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

10.

R. C. Hibbeler (2009). Structural Analysis (7 ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.


p. 305. ISBN 978-0-13-602060-8.

11.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
pp. 5356. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

12.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
pp. 2728. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

13.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 28. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

Further reading

Fa-Hwa Cheng, Initials. (1997). Strength of material. Ohio: McGraw-Hill


Mechanics of Materials, E.J. Hearn

Alfirevi, Ivo. Strength of Materials I. Tehnika knjiga, 1995. ISBN 953-172-010-X.

Alfirevi, Ivo. Strength of Materials II. Tehnika knjiga, 1999. ISBN 953-6168-85-5.

Ashby, M.F. Materials Selection in Design. Pergamon, 1992.

Beer, F.P., E.R. Johnston, et al. Mechanics of Materials, 3rd edition. McGraw-Hill,
2001. ISBN 0-07-248673-2

Cottrell, A.H. Mechanical Properties of Matter. Wiley, New York, 1964.

Den Hartog, Jacob P. Strength of Materials. Dover Publications, Inc., 1961, ISBN 0486-60755-0.

Drucker, D.C. Introduction to Mechanics of Deformable Solids. McGraw-Hill, 1967.

Gordon, J.E. The New Science of Strong Materials. Princeton, 1984.

Groover, Mikell P. Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 2nd edition. John Wiley


& Sons,Inc., 2002. ISBN 0-471-40051-3.

Hashemi, Javad and William F. Smith. Foundations of Materials Science and


Engineering, 4th edition. McGraw-Hill, 2006. ISBN 0-07-125690-3.

Hibbeler, R.C. Statics and Mechanics of Materials, SI Edition. Prentice-Hall, 2004.


ISBN 0-13-129011-8.

Lebedev, Leonid P. and Michael J. Cloud. Approximating Perfection: A


Mathematician's Journey into the World of Mechanics. Princeton University Press,
2004. ISBN 0-691-11726-8.

Chapter 10 Strength of Elastomers, A.N. Gent, W.V. Mars, In: James E. Mark,
Burak Erman and Mike Roland, Editor(s), The Science and Technology of Rubber
(Fourth Edition), Academic Press, Boston, 2013, Pages 473-516, ISBN
9780123945846, 10.1016/B978-0-12-394584-6.00010-8

Mott, Robert L. Applied Strength of Materials, 4th edition. Prentice-Hall, 2002. ISBN
0-13-088578-9.

Popov, Egor P. Engineering Mechanics of Solids. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.


J., 1990. ISBN 0-13-279258-3.

Ramamrutham, S. Strength of Materials.

Shames, I.H. and F.A. Cozzarelli. Elastic and inelastic stress analysis. Prentice-Hall,
1991. ISBN 1-56032-686-7.

Timoshenko S. Strength of Materials, 3rd edition. Krieger Publishing Company, 1976,


ISBN 0-88275-420-3.

Timoshenko, S.P. and D.H. Young. Elements of Strength of Materials, 5th edition.
(MKS System)

Davidge, R.W., Mechanical Behavior of Ceramics, Cambridge Solid State Science


Series, (1979)

Lawn, B.R., Fracture of Brittle Solids, Cambridge Solid State Science Series, 2nd
Edn. (1993)

Green, D., An Introduction to the Mechanical Properties of Ceramics, Cambridge


Solid State Science Series, Eds. Clarke, D.R., Suresh, S., Ward, I.M.Babu Tom.K
(1998)

External links

Failure theories
case studies in structural failure

Categories:
Solid mechanics
Materials science

Building engineering

Deformation (mechanics)

Condensed matter physics

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Bengali Wikipedia 10th Anniversary Celebration and International Conference, Kolkata


The conference will be held on 9th and 10th January 2015 at Jadavpur University
Registration for the conference is now open

Strength of materials
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed. (August 2010)

Internal force lines are denser near the hole, a common stress concentration
Mechanics of materials, also called strength of materials, is a subject which deals with the
behavior of solid objects subject to stresses and strains. The complete theory began with the
consideration of the behavior of one and two dimensional members of structures, whose
states of stress can be approximated as two dimensional, and was then generalized to three
dimensions to develop a more complete theory of the elastic and plastic behavior of
materials. An important founding pioneer in mechanics of materials was Stephen
Timoshenko.
The study of strength of materials often refers to various methods of calculating the stresses
and strains in structural members, such as beams, columns, and shafts. The methods
employed to predict the response of a structure under loading and its susceptibility to various

failure modes takes into account the properties of the materials such as its yield strength,
ultimate strength, Young's modulus, and Poisson's ratio; in addition the mechanical element's
macroscopic properties (geometric properties), such as it length, width, thickness, boundary
constraints and abrupt changes in geometry such as holes are considered.

Contents

1 Definition
o 1.1 Types of loadings
o

1.2 Stress terms

1.3 Strength terms

1.4 Strain (deformation) terms

1.5 Stressstrain relations

2 Design terms
o

2.1 Failure theories

3 Microstructure

4 See also

5 References

6 Further reading

7 External links

Definition
In materials science, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load
without failure. The field of strength of materials deals with forces and deformations that
result from their acting on a material. A load applied to a mechanical member will induce
internal forces within the member called stresses when those forces are expressed on a unit
basis. The stresses acting on the material cause deformation of the material in various
manner. Deformation of the material is called strain when those deformations too are placed
on a unit basis. The applied loads may be axial (tensile or compressive), or shear. The stresses
and strains that develop within a mechanical member must be calculated in order to assess the
load capacity of that member. This requires a complete description of the geometry of the
member, its constraints, the loads applied to the member and the properties of the material of
which the member is composed. With a complete description of the loading and the geometry
of the member, the state of stress and of state of strain at any point within the member can be
calculated. Once the state of stress and strain within the member is known, the strength (load
carrying capacity) of that member, its deformations (stiffness qualities), and its stability
(ability to maintain its original configuration) can be calculated. The calculated stresses may
then be compared to some measure of the strength of the member such as its material yield or
ultimate strength. The calculated deflection of the member may be compared to a deflection
criteria that is based on the member's use. The calculated buckling load of the member may

be compared to the applied load. The calculated stiffness and mass distribution of the member
may be used to calculate the member's dynamic response and then compared to the acoustic
environment in which it will be used.
Material strength refers to the point on the engineering stressstrain curve (yield stress)
beyond which the material experiences deformations that will not be completely reversed
upon removal of the loading and as a result the member will have a permanent deflection.
The ultimate strength refers to the point on the engineering stressstrain curve corresponding
to the stress that produces fracture.

Types of loadings

Transverse loading - Forces applied perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a


member. Transverse loading causes the member to bend and deflect from its original
position, with internal tensile and compressive strains accompanying the change in
curvature of the member.[1] Transverse loading also induces shear forces that cause
shear deformation of the material and increase the transverse deflection of the
member.
Axial loading - The applied forces are collinear with the longitudinal axis of the
member. The forces cause the member to either stretch or shorten.[2]
Torsional loading - Twisting action caused by a pair of externally applied equal and
oppositely directed force couples acting on parallel planes or by a single external
couple applied to a member that has one end fixed against rotation.

Stress terms

A material being loaded in a) compression, b) tension, c) shear.


Uniaxial stress is expressed by

where F is the force [N] acting on an area A [m2].[3] The area can be the undeformed area or
the deformed area, depending on whether engineering stress or true stress is of interest.

Compressive stress (or compression) is the stress state caused by an applied load that
acts to reduce the length of the material (compression member) along the axis of the
applied load, it is in other words a stress state that causes a squeezing of the material.
A simple case of compression is the uniaxial compression induced by the action of
opposite, pushing forces. Compressive strength for materials is generally higher than

their tensile strength. However, structures loaded in compression are subject to


additional failure modes, such as buckling, that are dependent on the member's
geometry.

Tensile stress is the stress state caused by an applied load that tends to elongate the
material along the axis of the applied load, in other words the stress caused by pulling
the material. The strength of structures of equal cross sectional area loaded in tension
is independent of shape of the cross section. Materials loaded in tension are
susceptible to stress concentrations such as material defects or abrupt changes in
geometry. However, materials exhibiting ductile behavior (most metals for example)
can tolerate some defects while brittle materials (such as ceramics) can fail well
below their ultimate material strength.

Shear stress is the stress state caused by the combined energy of a pair of opposing
forces acting along parallel lines of action through the material, in other words the
stress caused by faces of the material sliding relative to one another. An example is
cutting paper with scissors[4] or stresses due to torsional loading.

Strength terms

Yield strength its the lowest stress that produces a permanent deformation in a
material. In some materials, like aluminium alloys, the point of yielding is difficult to
identify, thus it is usually defined as the stress required to cause 0.2% plastic strain.
This is called a 0.2% proof stress.[5]

Compressive strength is a limit state of compressive stress that leads to failure in a


material in the manner of ductile failure (infinite theoretical yield) or brittle failure
(rupture as the result of crack propagation, or sliding along a weak plane - see shear
strength).

Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength is a limit state of tensile stress that leads to
tensile failure in the manner of ductile failure (yield as the first stage of that failure,
some hardening in the second stage and breakage after a possible "neck" formation) or
brittle failure (sudden breaking in two or more pieces at a low stress state). Tensile
strength can be quoted as either true stress or engineering stress, but engineering
stress is the most commonly used.

Fatigue strength is a measure of the strength of a material or a component under


cyclic loading,[6] and is usually more difficult to assess than the static strength
measures. Fatigue strength is quoted as stress amplitude or stress range (
), usually at zero mean stress, along with the number of cycles
to failure under that condition of stress.

Impact strength, is the capability of the material to withstand a suddenly applied load
and is expressed in terms of energy. Often measured with the Izod impact strength test
or Charpy impact test, both of which measure the impact energy required to fracture a
sample. Volume, modulus of elasticity, distribution of forces, and yield strength affect
the impact strength of a material. In order for a material or object to have a high
impact strength the stresses must be distributed evenly throughout the object. It also

must have a large volume with a low modulus of elasticity and a high material yield
strength.[7]

Strain (deformation) terms

Deformation of the material is the change in geometry created when stress is applied
(as a result of applied forces, gravitational fields, accelerations, thermal expansion,
etc.). Deformation is expressed by the displacement field of the material.[8]
Strain or reduced deformation is a mathematical term that expresses the trend of the
deformation change among the material field. Strain is the deformation per unit
length.[9] In the case of uniaxial loading the displacements of a specimen (for example
a bar element)lead to a calculation of strain expressed as the quotient of the
displacement and the original length of the specimen. For 3D displacement fields it is
expressed as derivatives of displacement functions in terms of a second order tensor
(with 6 independent elements).
Deflection is a term to describe the magnitude to which a structural element is
displaced when subject to an applied load.[10]

Stressstrain relations

Basic static response of a specimen under tension


Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its previous shape after stress is
released. In many materials, the relation between applied stress is directly
proportional to the resulting strain (up to a certain limit), and a graph representing
those two quantities is a straight line.
The slope of this line is known as Young's modulus, or the "modulus of elasticity." The
modulus of elasticity can be used to determine the stressstrain relationship in the linearelastic portion of the stressstrain curve. The linear-elastic region is either below the yield
point, or if a yield point is not easily identified on the stressstrain plot it is defined to be
between 0 and 0.2% strain, and is defined as the region of strain in which no yielding
(permanent deformation) occurs.[11]

Plasticity or plastic deformation is the opposite of elastic deformation and is defined


as unrecoverable strain. Plastic deformation is retained after the release of the applied
stress. Most materials in the linear-elastic category are usually capable of plastic

deformation. Brittle materials, like ceramics, do not experience any plastic


deformation and will fracture under relatively low stress. Materials such as metals
usually experience a small amount of plastic deformation before failure while ductile
metals such as copper and lead or polymers will plasticly deform much more.
Consider the difference between a carrot and chewed bubble gum. The carrot will stretch very
little before breaking. The chewed bubble gum, on the other hand, will plastically deform
enormously before finally breaking.

Design terms
Ultimate strength is an attribute related to a material, rather than just a specific specimen
made of the material, and as such it is quoted as the force per unit of cross section area
(N/m2). The ultimate strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand before it
breaks or weakens.[12] For example, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of AISI 1018 Steel is
440 MN/m2. In general, the SI unit of stress is the pascal, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. In Imperial
units, the unit of stress is given as lbf/in or pounds-force per square inch. This unit is often
abbreviated as psi. One thousand psi is abbreviated ksi.
A Factor of safety is a design criteria that an engineered component or structure must achieve.
, where FS: the factor of safety, R: The applied stress, and UTS: ultimate
stress (psi or N/m ) [13]
2

Margin of Safety is also sometimes used to as design criteria. It is defined MS = Failure


Load/(Factor of Safety * Predicted Load) - 1
For example to achieve a factor of safety of 4, the allowable stress in an AISI 1018 steel
component can be calculated to be
= 440/4 = 110 MPa, or = 110106
N/m2. Such allowable stresses are also known as "design stresses" or "working stresses."
Design stresses that have been determined from the ultimate or yield point values of the
materials give safe and reliable results only for the case of static loading. Many machine parts
fail when subjected to a non steady and continuously varying loads even though the
developed stresses are below the yield point. Such failures are called fatigue failure. The
failure is by a fracture that appears to be brittle with little or no visible evidence of yielding.
However, when the stress is kept below "fatigue stress" or "endurance limit stress", the part
will endure indefinitely. A purely reversing or cyclic stress is one that alternates between
equal positive and negative peak stresses during each cycle of operation. In a purely cyclic
stress, the average stress is zero. When a part is subjected to a cyclic stress, also known as
stress range (Sr), it has been observed that the failure of the part occurs after a number of
stress reversals (N) even if the magnitude of the stress range is below the materials yield
strength. Generally, higher the range stress, the fewer the number of reversals needed for
failure.

Failure theories
There are four important failure theories: maximum shear stress theory, maximum normal
stress theory, maximum strain energy theory, and maximum distortion energy theory. Out of
these four theories of failure, the maximum normal stress theory is only applicable for brittle

materials, and the remaining three theories are applicable for ductile materials. Of the latter
three, the distortion energy theory provides most accurate results in majority of the stress
conditions. The strain energy theory needs the value of Poissons ratio of the part material,
which is often not readily available. The maximum shear stress theory is conservative. For
simple unidirectional normal stresses all theories are equivalent, which means all theories
will give the same result.

Maximum Shear stress Theory- This theory postulates that failure will occur if the
magnitude of the maximum shear stress in the part exceeds the shear strength of the
material determined from uniaxial testing.

Maximum normal stress theory - This theory postulates that failure will occur if the
maximum normal stress in the part exceeds the ultimate tensile stress of the material
as determined from uniaxial testing. This theory deals with brittle materials only. The
maximum tensile stress should be less than or equal to ultimate tensile stress divided
by factor of safety. The magnitude of the maximum compressive stress should be less
than ultimate compressive stress divided by factor of safety.

Maximum strain energy theory - This theory postulates that failure will occur when
the strain energy per unit volume due to the applied stresses in a part equals the strain
energy per unit volume at the yield point in uniaxial testing.

Maximum distortion energy theory - This theory is also known as shear energy theory
or von Mises-Hencky theory. This theory postulates that failure will occur when the
distortion energy per unit volume due to the applied stresses in a part equals the
distortion energy per unit volume at the yield point in uniaxial testing. The total
elastic energy due to strain can be divided into two parts: one part causes change in
volume, and the other part causes change in shape. Distortion energy is the amount of
energy that is needed to change the shape.

Fracture mechanics was established by Alan Arnold Griffith and George Rankine
Irwin. This important theory is also known as numeric conversion of toughness of
material in the case of crack existence.

Fractology was proposed by Takeo Yokobori because each fracture laws including
creep rupture criterion must be combined nonlinially.

Microstructure
A material's strength is dependent on its microstructure. The engineering processes to which a
material is subjected can alter this microstructure. The variety of strengthening mechanisms
that alter the strength of a material includes work hardening, solid solution strengthening,
precipitation hardening and grain boundary strengthening and can be quantitatively and
qualitatively explained. Strengthening mechanisms are accompanied by the caveat that some
other mechanical properties of the material may degenerate in an attempt to make the
material stronger. For example, in grain boundary strengthening, although yield strength is
maximized with decreasing grain size, ultimately, very small grain sizes make the material
brittle. In general, the yield strength of a material is an adequate indicator of the material's
mechanical strength. Considered in tandem with the fact that the yield strength is the
parameter that predicts plastic deformation in the material, one can make informed decisions

on how to increase the strength of a material depending its microstructural properties and the
desired end effect. Strength is expressed in terms of the limiting values of the compressive
stress, tensile stress, and shear stresses that would cause failure. The effects of dynamic
loading are probably the most important practical consideration of the strength of materials,
especially the problem of fatigue. Repeated loading often initiates brittle cracks, which grow
until failure occurs. The cracks always start at stress concentrations, especially changes in
cross-section of the product, near holes and corners at nominal stress levels far lower than
those quoted for the strength of the material.

See also

Creep of materials
Deformation-mechanism maps

Diffusion in materials

Dynamics

Fatigue of materials

Forensic engineering

Fracture mechanics

Fracture toughness

Material selection

Specific strength

Statics

Universal testing machine

References
14.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 210. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
15.
Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p. 7.
ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.
16.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p. 5.
ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

17.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
pp. 910. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

18.

Beer & Johnston. Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill. p. 52.
ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

19.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 60. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

20.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
pp. 693696. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

21.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 47. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

22.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 49. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

23.

R. C. Hibbeler (2009). Structural Analysis (7 ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.


p. 305. ISBN 978-0-13-602060-8.

24.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
pp. 5356. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

25.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
pp. 2728. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

26.

Beer & Johnston (2006). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed.). McGraw Hill.
p. 28. ISBN 978-0-07-352938-7.

Further reading

Fa-Hwa Cheng, Initials. (1997). Strength of material. Ohio: McGraw-Hill


Mechanics of Materials, E.J. Hearn

Alfirevi, Ivo. Strength of Materials I. Tehnika knjiga, 1995. ISBN 953-172-010-X.

Alfirevi, Ivo. Strength of Materials II. Tehnika knjiga, 1999. ISBN 953-6168-85-5.

Ashby, M.F. Materials Selection in Design. Pergamon, 1992.

Beer, F.P., E.R. Johnston, et al. Mechanics of Materials, 3rd edition. McGraw-Hill,
2001. ISBN 0-07-248673-2

Cottrell, A.H. Mechanical Properties of Matter. Wiley, New York, 1964.

Den Hartog, Jacob P. Strength of Materials. Dover Publications, Inc., 1961, ISBN 0486-60755-0.

Drucker, D.C. Introduction to Mechanics of Deformable Solids. McGraw-Hill, 1967.

Gordon, J.E. The New Science of Strong Materials. Princeton, 1984.

Groover, Mikell P. Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 2nd edition. John Wiley


& Sons,Inc., 2002. ISBN 0-471-40051-3.

Hashemi, Javad and William F. Smith. Foundations of Materials Science and


Engineering, 4th edition. McGraw-Hill, 2006. ISBN 0-07-125690-3.

Hibbeler, R.C. Statics and Mechanics of Materials, SI Edition. Prentice-Hall, 2004.


ISBN 0-13-129011-8.

Lebedev, Leonid P. and Michael J. Cloud. Approximating Perfection: A


Mathematician's Journey into the World of Mechanics. Princeton University Press,
2004. ISBN 0-691-11726-8.

Chapter 10 Strength of Elastomers, A.N. Gent, W.V. Mars, In: James E. Mark,
Burak Erman and Mike Roland, Editor(s), The Science and Technology of Rubber
(Fourth Edition), Academic Press, Boston, 2013, Pages 473-516, ISBN
9780123945846, 10.1016/B978-0-12-394584-6.00010-8

Mott, Robert L. Applied Strength of Materials, 4th edition. Prentice-Hall, 2002. ISBN
0-13-088578-9.

Popov, Egor P. Engineering Mechanics of Solids. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.


J., 1990. ISBN 0-13-279258-3.

Ramamrutham, S. Strength of Materials.

Shames, I.H. and F.A. Cozzarelli. Elastic and inelastic stress analysis. Prentice-Hall,
1991. ISBN 1-56032-686-7.

Timoshenko S. Strength of Materials, 3rd edition. Krieger Publishing Company, 1976,


ISBN 0-88275-420-3.

Timoshenko, S.P. and D.H. Young. Elements of Strength of Materials, 5th edition.
(MKS System)

Davidge, R.W., Mechanical Behavior of Ceramics, Cambridge Solid State Science


Series, (1979)

Lawn, B.R., Fracture of Brittle Solids, Cambridge Solid State Science Series, 2nd
Edn. (1993)

Green, D., An Introduction to the Mechanical Properties of Ceramics, Cambridge


Solid State Science Series, Eds. Clarke, D.R., Suresh, S., Ward, I.M.Babu Tom.K
(1998)

External links

Failure theories
case studies in structural failure

Categories:
Solid mechanics
Materials science

Building engineering

Deformation (mechanics)

Condensed matter physics

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