1- The HarappanCivilisation

1.

WHAT ARE THE SOURCES AVAILABLE TO UNDERSTAND (OR) TO STUDY HARAPPAN

CIVILIZATION?

a) The Harappan seal is possibly the most distinctive artifact of the Harappans or Indus valley
civilisation. Harappan seals contain animal and plant motifs and signs from a script that
remains undeciphered.
b) We know a great deal of sources which were left by the people, such as their houses, pots,
ornaments, tools and seals in other words, archaeological evidence.
2.

*WHY WAS INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATIONALSO CALLED THE HARAPPAN CULTURE?

Archaeologists use the term culture for a group of objects,distinctive in style, that are usually
found together within a specific geographical area and period of time.
b. In the case of the Harappan culture, these distinctive objects include seals, beads, weights, stone
blades and baked bricks.
c. These objects were found from areas as far apart as Afghanistan, Jammu, Baluchistan (Pakistan) and
Gujarat .
d. Harappan civilisation is dated between c. 2600 and1900 BCE.
a.

3. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EARLY HARAPPAN CULTURES AND MATURE HARAPPAN
CULTURES.
A)

Early and later Harappan cultures were associated with distinctive pottery, evidence of
agriculture and pastoralism, and some crafts.
b) In Early Harappan cultures Settlements were generally small, and there were virtually no
large buildings. But in Mature Harappan culture settlements were large and buildings were
also large.
4.

SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES (DIETARY PRACTICES) OF HARAPPAN CULTURES AND MATURE

HARAPPAN CULTURES

a. The Harappans ate a wide range of plant products. Archaeologists have been able to
reconstruct dietary practices from finds of charred grains, seeds and bones.
b. These are studied by archaeo-botanists, who are specialists in ancient plant remains.
c. Food grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, sesame, Millets
and rice.
d. The Harappans ate a wide range of animal products.Archaeologists have been able to
reconstruct use of animals from finds of charred animal bones found at Harappan sites.
These include those of cattle, sheep,goat, buffalo and pig.
e. These are studied by Archaeo-zoologists or zoo-Archaeologists who are specialists in
ancient animal remains.
f. Bones of wild species such as boar, deer and gharial were also found. We do not know
whether the Harappans hunted these animals themselves orobtained meat from other
hunting (tribal) communities.

5. PREVALENCE OFAGRICULTURE IN HARAPPAN CIVILISATION

A. Representations on seals and terracotta sculptureindicate that the bull was known, and
oxen were used for ploughing.
B. Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali
(Haryana).
C. Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan
(Rajasthan).The field had two sets of furrows at right angles toeach other, suggesting that
two different cropswere grown together.
d. Archaeologists have also identified thetools used for harvesting. Harappans used stone
blades set in wooden handles and metal tools made of copper.
e. Most Harappan sites are located in semi-aridlands, where irrigation was probably required
foragriculture. Traces of canals, water reservoirs and wells have been found at the
Harappan sites indicate that agriculture was practiced.
f. Archaeologists have also found charred food grains which indicate prevalence of agriculture.
6.

UNIQUE FEATURES OF MOHENJODARO

A.DIVISIONS IN MOHENJODARO CITY

a. The settlement is divided into two sections, one smaller but higher called as the Citadel and
the other much larger butlower called the Lower Town.
b. The Citadel owesits height to the fact that buildings were constructedon mud brick
platforms. It was walled and physically separated from theLower Town. We find evidence of
structures that were probably used for special public purposes.
B.CITADEL

c. The warehouse, a massive structure of which the lower brick portions remain, while
theupper portions, probably of wood, decayed long ago.
d. The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all
four sides. There were two flights of steps on the north and south leading into the tank.
There were rooms on three sides, in one of which was a large well. Across a lane to the
north lay a smaller building with eight bathrooms, four on each side of a corridor.Scholars
suggest that it was meant for some kind of a special ritual bath.
C. LOWER TOWN

E. The Lower Town was also walled. Several buildingswere built on platforms, which served
as foundations.
F. Once the platforms were in place, all building activity within the city was restricted to a fixed
area on the platforms. So it seems that the settlement was first planned and then built
accordingly.
D.DRAINAGE SYSTEM

G. One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the carefully planned drainage
system. If you look at the plan of the Lower Town you will noticethat roads and streets were
laid out along an approximate grid pattern, intersecting at right angles.
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H. It seems that streets with drains were laidout first and then houses were built along them.
E.DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE

The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro provides examples of residential buildings. Many were
centred on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides. The courtyardwas probably the centre of
activities such as cooking and weaving, particularly during hot and dry weather. People
were more concern for privacy: there are no windows in thewalls along the ground level.
Besides, the mainentrance does not give a direct view of the interioror the courtyard.
J. Every house had its own bathroom paved withbricks, with drains connected through the
wall tothe street drains. Some houses have remains of stair cases to reach a second storey
or the roof. Many houses had wells, often in a room that could be reached from the outside
and perhaps used by passers-by.
I.

7. STRATEGIES TOFIND OUT WHETHER THERE WERE SOCIAL OR ECONOMICDIFFERENCES

AMONGST PEOPLE LIVING WITHIN HARAPPAN CULTURE.

a. At burials in Harappan sites the dead weregenerally laid in pits. Sometimes, there
weredifferences in the way the burial pit was made insome instances; the hollowed-out
spaces were linedwith bricks. These variations are an indicationof social differences.
b. Some graves contain pottery and ornaments,perhaps indicating a belief that these could be
used in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burialsof both men and women.
c. Inthe cemetery found in Harappa in the mid-1980s, a burial contained ornament consisting
of three shell rings, a jasper bead and hundreds of micro beads were found near the skull of
a male.In some instances the dead were buried with coppermirrors. But the Harappans did
not believe in burying precious thingswith the dead.
d. Another strategy to identify social differences is to study artefacts, which archaeologists
broadly classify as utilitarian and luxuries. The first categoryincludes objects of daily use
made of stone or clay such as querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers are usually found
distributed throughout settlements.
e. Archaeologists assume luxuries objects are rare and made from costly, non-local materials
or with complicated technologies such as little pots of faience, beads, micro beads etc were
probably consideredprecious because they were difficult to make.Rare objects made of
valuable materialsare generally concentrated in large settlements like Mohenjodaro and
Harappa
8.

CRAFTPRODUCTION IN INDUS VALLEY

a. Mohenjodaro almost exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead-making,shellcutting, metal-working, seal-making andweight-making.
b. The variety of raw materials used to make crafts such as stones (carnelian - red stone,
jasper-yellow stone, crystal- colourless stone, quartz and steatite) metals(copper, bronze
and gold) shell and clay.
c. The shapes of crafts were numerous discshaped,cylindrical, spherical, barrelshaped,segmented. Some were decorated by incising orpainting, and some had designs
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etched onto them. Some beads were made oftwo or more stones, cemented together, some
of stones were decorated with gold caps
d. Techniques for making beads differed according to the material Moulding,
chipping,Grinding, polishing and drilling are some of the techniques used for making crafts.
e. Chanhudaro, Lothal,Dholavira,Nageshwar and Balakot are some of the craft centres.
9. HOW DID ARCHAEOLOGISTS IDENTIFY CENTRESOF PRODUCTION?

a. In order to identify centres of craft production, archaeologists usually look for the following:
raw material such as stone nodules, whole shells, and copperore etc.
b. Archaeologists also lookfor tools which were used for making crafts.
c. Archaeologists lookfor unfinished objects, rejects and waste material. Waste isone of the
best indicatorsof craft work. Sometimes, larger waste pieces were used up tomake smaller
objects.
d. These traces suggestthat apart from small, specializedcenters, craftproduction was also
undertaken in large cities such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
10. STRATEGIES FOR PROCURING RAW MATERIALS WITH IN THE SUB-CONTINENT
Transportation:
a. Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest that this was one important means of
transporting goods and people across land routes.
b. Depictions of shipsand boats on seals suggest that Riverine routes along the Indus and its
tributaries, as well as coastal routes were also probably used for transporting goods and
people.
Strategies for ProcuringMaterials

a.

The Harappans procured materials for craftproduction in various ways. For instance,
theyestablished settlements where raw material was available.(Nageshwar andBalakotshell, Shortughai- lapis lazuli, a blue stone, Lothal- carnelian, steatite and metal-Rajasthan
and Gujarat)
b. Another strategy for procuring raw materials mayhave been to send expeditions to areas
such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and southIndia (for gold). These
expeditions establishedcommunication with local communities.
c. Occasional finds of Harappan artefacts such as steatite micro beads in the Khetri area
indicates that the inhabitants of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture supplied copper to the
Harappans according to the aggrement.
(What is Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture?-In the Khetri area archaeologists found a new
culture and call it as the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture. Here they found distinctive nonHarappan pottery and an unusual wealth of copper objects. It is possiblethat the inhabitants
of this region supplied copper to the Harappans).
STRATEGIES FOR PROCURINGMATERIALS FROM DISTANT LANDS

a. Recent archaeological finds suggest that copper wasalso probably brought from Oman, on
the southeasterntip of the Arabian Peninsula. Chemicalanalyses have shown that both the
Omani copper and Harappan copper artifacts have traces of nickel.
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b. A distinctive type of vessel, a large Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of blackclay has
been found at Omani sites. Itis possible that the Harappans exchanged the contents of
these vessels for Omani copper.
c. Mesopotamian texts datable to the thirdmillennium BCE refer to copper coming from a region
called Magan, perhaps a name forOman, and interestingly enough copper found
Mesopotamian sites alsocontains traces of nickel.
d. It is worth notingthat Mesopotamian textsmention contact with regions named
Dilmun(Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha (the Harappan region).They mention the products
from Meluhha: carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood.
e. A Mesopotamian myth says of Meluhha: May your bird be the haja-bird, may its call be
heard inthe royal palace. Some archaeologists think the haja-bird was the peacock.
f. Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha (the Harappan region) as aland of seafarers.
Besides,we find depictions of shipsand boats on seals.
HARAPPAN SEALS

a. Seals and sealings were used to facilitate longdistancecommunication. Imagine a bag of

goodsbeing sent from one place to another. Its mouth wastied with rope and on the knot
was affixed some wetclay on which one or more seals were pressed,leaving an impression.
b. If the bag reached withits sealing intact, it meant that it had not beentampered with. The
sealing also conveyed the identityof the sender.
c. Harappan seals usually have a line of writing and animal midifs. Scholars have also
suggested that the motif(generally an animal) conveyed a meaning to thosewho could not
read.
HARAPPANSCRIPT

a. Harappan seals usually have a line of writing. Most inscriptions are short, the longest
containing about 26 signs. Although the script remains undeciphered to date, it was
evidently notalphabetical but syllable.It has just too many signs somewhere between 375
and 400.
b. It is apparent that the script was written from right to left as some seals show a wider
spacing on the right and crampingon the left, as if the engraver began working fromthe right
and then ran out of space.
c. A variety of objects on which writinghas been found: seals, copper tools, rims of jars,copper
and terracotta tablets, jewellery, bone rods, even an ancient signboard. Remember, there
mayhave been writing on perishable materials too such as cloth, animal skin etc.
HARAPPANWEIGHTS

a. Exchanges were regulated by a precise system ofweights, usually made of a stone called
chert and generally cubical with no markings.
b. Thelower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4,8, 16, 32, etc). while the
higherdenominations followed the decimal system. Thesmaller weights were probably used
for weighing jewellery and beads and bigger weights were used for food grains.
c. Metal scale-pans have alsobeen found. These were probably used for measuring cloth and
other materials.
Ruling Authority in indus valley civilisation

(What are indications prove that complex decisions were taken and implemented in
Harappan society by the ruler?)
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a. The extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery, seals and weights.
b. Bricks, thoughobviously not produced in any single centre, were ofa uniform ratio throughout
the region, from Jammuto Gujarat.
c. We have also seen that settlements werestrategically set up in specific locations for
variousreasons.
d. Labour was mobilised for makingbricks and for the construction of massive wallsand
platforms.
e. Who organised these activities? Most probably the king.
RULING AUTHORITY OR CENTRE OF POWER

a. A large building found at Mohenjodaro was labelled as a palace byarchaeologists but no

spectacular finds wereassociated with it.
b. A stone statue was labelled and continues to be known as the priest-king. This isbecause
archaeologists were familiar withMesopotamian history and its priest-kings
c. Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, and that
everybody enjoyed equal status( Democracy)
d. Other archaeologistsfeel thatthere was no singleruler but several, that Mohenjodaro had a
separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth.
e. Yet other archaeologistsargue that there was a single state and single ruler because of the
similarity in artefacts, the evidence for plannedsettlements, the standardized ratio of brick
size, andthe establishment of settlements near sources of rawmaterial.
The End of the Civilisation

a. There is evidence that by c. 1800 BCE most of the Mature Harappan sites had been
abandoned. Simultaneously, there wasan expansion of population into newsettlements in
Gujarat, Haryana andwestern Uttar Pradesh.
b. Distinctive artefacts of the civilisation- weights, seals, special beads, Writing, long-distance
trade, andcraft specialization disappeared after 1800 BCE.Houseconstruction techniques
deterioratedand large public structures were nolonger produced.
c. Overall disappearence of artefacts and settlements indicates a rural wayof life in what is
called Vedic culture or vedic civilisation began.
d. Several explanations havebeen put forward. These range fromclimatic change,
deforestation,excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up ofrivers, to overuse of the
landscape.
e. Some of thesecauses may hold for certain settlements, but theydo not explain the
collapse of the entire civilisation.It appears that a strong unifying element, perhaps the
Harappan state, came to an end.
Evidence of an invasionin Indus valley civilisation

a.

Deadman Lane is a narrow valley wherepart of a skull, the bones of the thorax andupper arm of an adult were
discovered.Allwerein very friable condition, at a depth of4 ft 2 in. The body lay on its back diagonally across
the lane. Fifteen inches to thewest were a few fragments of a tiny skull. It is to these remains that the lane
owesits name.
b. Sixteen skeletons of people with the ornaments that they were wearing when theydied were found from the
same part of Mohenjodaro in 1925.

c.

R.E.M. Wheeler, then Director-General of the ASI, tried tocorrelate this archaeological evidence with that of
the Rigveda, the earliest known text in the subcontinent.
d. There is no destruction level covering the latest period of the city Mohenjodaro, no sign of extensive burning,
no bodies of warriors clad in armour and surrounded by the weapons of war. The citadel, the only fortified part
of the city,yielded no evidence of a final defence.

Discovering the HarappanCivilisation

(How have archaeologistsused evidence from material remains topiece together
parts of a fascinating harappan history?) OR (Howdid archaeologists discover the
Harappan civilization?)
a. Cunninghams confusion
Cunningham, the first Director-General of theASI, began archaeological excavations in the
midnineteenthcentury. Cunninghams maininterest was in the archaeology of the Early
Historic(c. sixth century BCE-fourth century CE) and laterperiods. He used the accounts left by
ChineseBuddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinentbetween the fourth and seventh
centuries CE to locateearly settlements.
Harappan artefacts were found fairly often duringthe nineteenth century and some of these
reachedCunningham, he did not realise how old these were. A Harappan seal was given to
Cunningham by anEnglishman. He noted the object, but unsuccessfullytried to place it
within the time-frame of c. sixth century BCE-fourth century CE.It is not surprising that he
missedthe significance of Harappa.
b. John Marshall`s Ignorance
John Marshall , the Director-General of the marked a major change in Indianarchaeology.
He was the first professionalarchaeologist to work in India, and brought hisexperience of
working in Greece and Crete to thefield. He was interested in spectacular finds and patterns
of everyday life.
Marshall tended to excavate along regularhorizontal units, measured uniformly throughout
themound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. Thismeant that all the artefacts recovered
from the sameunit were grouped together, even if they were foundat different stratigraphic
layers. As a result, valuable information about Harappan civilisation was irretrievably lost.
c. R.E.M. Wheeler`s problems
R.E.M. Wheeler, took over as Director-General of the ASI in 1944, who rectified many
problems. Wheeler recognised that it was necessaryto follow the stratigraphy of the mound
ratherthan dig mechanically along uniform horizontallines. Moreover, as an ex-army
brigadier, he broughtwith him a military precision to the practiceof archaeology.
However, with the partition of thesubcontinent and the creation of Pakistan, the majorsites
are now in Pakistani territory. This has spurredIndian archaeologists to try and locate sites
in India.

d. Daya Ram Sahni

Seals were discovered at Harappa by archaeologists such as Daya Ram Sahni in the early
decades of the twentieth century, in layers that weredefinitely much older than Early Historic
levels. Itwas then that their significance began to be realised.
e. Rakhal Das Banerji
Another archaeologist, Rakhal Das Banerji found similar seals at Mohenjodaro, leading to
the
conjecture that these sites were part of a single archaeological culture. Based on these
finds, in 1924,John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI,announced the discovery of a new
civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.
f. S.N. Roy
As S.N. Roy noted inThe Story of Indian Archaeology, Marshall left Indiathree thousand
years older than he had found her.This was because similar, till-then-unidentifiedseals
were found at excavations at Mesopotamiansites. It was then that the world knew not only
of anewcivilisation, but also of one contemporaneouswith Mesopotamia.
Since the 1980s, there has also been growing international interest in Harappan
archaeology.
Specialists from the subcontinent and abroad havebeen jointly working at both Harappa and
Mohenjodaro. They are using modern scientifictechniques including surface exploration to
recovertraces of clay, stone, metal and plant and animalremains as well as to minutely
analyse every scrap of available evidence. These explorations promise toyield interesting
results in the future.
How does material evidence allow the archaeologiststobetter reconstruct Harappan
life?.
1. Recovering artefacts is just the beginning of the archaeological enterprise. Archaeologists
thenclassify their finds. One simple principle ofclassification is in terms of material, such as
stone,clay, metal, bone, ivory, etc.
2. The second, and morecomplicated, is in terms of function: archaeologistshave to decide
whether, for instance, an artefact is a tool or an ornament, or both, or something meantfor
ritual use.
3. An understanding of the function of an artifact is often shaped by its resemblance with
present-daythings beads, querns, stone blades and pots are obvious examples.
4. Archaeologists also try to identifythe function of an artefact by investigating the context in
which it was found: was it found in ahouse, in a drain, in a grave, in a kiln?
5. Sometimes, archaeologists have to take recourseto indirect evidence. For instance, though
there aretraces of cotton at some Harappan sites, to find outabout clothing we have to
depend on indirectevidence including depictions in sculpture.
What were the problems of archaeological interpretation to reconstruct religious
practices of the Harappans?
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a. Early archaeologists thought thatcertain objects which seemed unusual or unfamiliarmay

have had a religious significance. These includedterracotta figurines of women, heavily
jewelled, some with elaborate head-dresses. These were regardedas mother goddesses.
b. Rare stone statuary of men in an almost standardised posture, seated with onehand on the
knee such as the priest-king wasalso similarly classified.
c. In other instances, structures have been assigned ritual significance.These include theGreat
Bath and fire altars found at Kalibangan and Lothal.
d. Attempts have also been made to reconstructreligious beliefs and practices by examining
seals,some of which seem to depict ritual scenes. Others,with plant motifs, are thought
toindicate nature worship. Some animals such as the one-hornedanimal, often called the
unicorn depicted on sealsseem to be mythical, composite creatures.
e. In someseals, a figure shown seated cross-legged in a yogicposture, sometimes
surrounded by animals, hasbeen regarded as a depiction of proto-Shiva, thatis, an early
form of one of the major deities ofHinduism. Besides, conical stone objects have been
classified as lingas.
f. Many reconstructions of Harappan religion are made on the assumption that later traditions
provideparallels with earlier ones.

2- Kings, Farmers and Towns (Early States and Economies)

Developments between 1900 BCE and 600BCE
1.
During the period between 1900 BCE and 600BCE the Rigveda was composed by
people living along the Indus and its tributaries.
2.
During this period Agricultural settlements emerged in many parts of the
subcontinent, including north India, the Deccan Plateau, and parts of Karnataka.
3.
Besides, there is evidence of pastoral populations in the Deccan and further south.
4.
During this period new modes of disposal of the dead, including the making of
elaborate stone structures known as megaliths, emerged in central and south India from
the first millennium BCE.
5.
In many cases, the dead were buried with a rich range of iron tools and weapons.

Sources to understand early Indian history(600 BCE to 600 BCE)

a.
Historians attempt to understand early Indian history (600 BCE to 600 BCE) by
drawing on a range of sources inscriptions, texts, coins and visual material.
b.
These include fine pottery bowls and dishes, with a glossy finish, known as
Northern Black Polished Ware, probably used by rich people, and ornaments, tools,
weapons, vessels, figurines, made of a wide range of materials gold, silver, copper,
bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.

The sixth century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history
1.

It is an era associated with early states, cities.

9

2.
It is an era associated with the growing use of iron.
3.
It is an era associated with the development of coinage.
4.
It is witnessed the growth of diverse systems of thought (Religions) including
Buddhism and Jainism.
5.
It is also associated with emergence of Sixteen Mahajanapadas.

What were the important Mahajanapadas?

Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti were amongst the most
important mahajanapadas.
Explain the main features of sixteen mahajanapadas
1.
While most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings some were oligarchies which
were known as ganas or sanghas, where power was shared by a number of men, often
collectively called rajas.
2.
Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified.
3.
Each mahajanapada had a well maintained standing army and regular
bureaucracies for administration.
4.
Dharmasutras, written by Brahmans laid down norms for rulers. Rulers were
ideally expected to be Kshatriyas.
5.
Rulers were advised to collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, traders and
artisans. They were allowed to raid on neighbouring states which were recognised as a
legitimate means of acquiring wealth.

How did Magadha become the most powerful mahajanapada?OR (What are the different
explanations offered by early writers and present-day historians for the growth of
Magadhan power?)
1.
Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
2.
In Magadha iron mines were accessible and provided resources for tools and
weapons.
3.
Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests in the
region.
4.
The Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient
communication.
5.
Buddhist and Jaina writers who wrote about Magadha attributed its power to the
policies of individuals.
6.
The ambitious kings of whom Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda are
the best known, and their ministers, who helped implement their policies.
Sources to understand Mauryan Empire
1.
Historians have used a variety of sources to reconstruct the history of the
Mauryan Empire. These include archaeological finds, especially sculpture, buildings,
monasteries etc

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2.
Contemporary works, such as the account of Megasthenes- (a Greek ambassador
to the court of Chandragupta Maurya), called Indica , which survives in fragments.
3.
Another source that is often used is the Arthashastra, parts of which were
probably composed by Kautilya or Chanakya, traditionally believed to be the minister of
Chandragupta.
4.
Besides, the Mauryas are mentioned in later Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic
literature, as well as in Sanskrit literary works.
5.
The inscriptions of Asoka (c. 272/268-231BCE) on rocks and pillars are often
regarded as amongst the most valuable sources.

What was the extend of Mauryan Empire?

Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the empire (c. 321 BCE), extended control as far northwest
as Afghanistan and Baluchistan, and his grandson Asoka, arguably the most famous ruler of
early India, conquered Kalinga (present-day coastal Orissa).
Explain Administration of Maurian Empire
1.
There were five major political centres in the empire the capital Pataliputra and
the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri, all mentioned in
Asokan inscriptions.
2.
It is likely that administrative control was strongest in areas around the capital and
the provincial centres. These centres were carefully chosen, both Taxila and Ujjayini
being situated on important long-distance trade routes.
3.
Communication along both land and riverine routes was vital for the existence of
the empire. Journeys from the centre to the provinces could have taken and arranging for
provisions as well as protection for those who were on the move by the army.
4.
Megasthenes mentions a committee with six subcommittees for coordinating
military activity. Of these, one subcommittee looked after the navy, the second managed
transport and provisions, the third was responsible for foot-soldiers, the fourth for horses,
the fifth for chariots and the sixth for elephants
5.
Asoka also tried to hold his empire together by propagating dhamma, the
principles which were simple and virtually universally applicable. This would ensure the
well-being of people in this world and the next. Special officers, known as the dhamma
mahamatta, were appointed to spread the message of dhamma.
6.
Dhamma Policy included included respect towards elders, generosity towards
Brahmanas and those who renounced worldly life, treating slaves and servants kindly,
and respect for religions and traditions other than ones own.

How important was the Mauriyan Empire? (OR) (The emergence of the Mauryan Empire
was regarded as a major landmark in early Indian history-Why?)
1.
When historians began reconstructing early Indian history in the nineteenth
century, the emergence of the Mauryan Empire was regarded as a major landmark.
Mauryan Empire ruled India for about 150 years. It extended control as far northwest as
Afghanistan and Baluchistan and in the south up to Andhra Pradesh.

11

2.
India was then under colonial rule, and was part of the British Empire.
Nineteenth and early twentieth century Indian historians found the emergence of the
Mauryan Empire in early India was both challenging and exciting.
3.
Some of the archaeological finds associated with the Mauryas, including stone
sculpture, were considered to be examples of the spectacular art typical of empires.
4.
Many of these historians found the message on Asokan inscriptions very different
from that of most other rulers, suggesting that Asoka was more powerful, industrious and
humble than later rulers who adopted grandiose titles.
5.
So the nationalist leaders in the twentieth century regarded Asoka as an inspiring
figure.

New Notions of Kingship in Early Indian History.

1.
The new kingdoms that emerged in the south, including the chiefdoms of the
Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in Tamilakam proved to be stable and prosperous under the
control of chiefs, who performed special rituals, leadership in warfare, and arbitrating
disputes.
2.
Many chiefs and kings, including the Satavahanas who ruled over parts of western
and central India and the Shakas, a people of Central Asian origin who established
kingdoms in the north-western and western parts of the subcontinent claimed social status
in a variety of ways such as religious rituals and marriage alliances.
3.
The Kushanas who ruled over a vast kingdom extending from Central Asia to
northwest India. Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found installed in a shrine
at Mat near Mathura. Some historians feel this indicates that the Kushanas considered
themselves godlike. Many Kushana rulers also adopted the titledevaputra, or son of
god.
4.
Rulers of the Gupta Empire depended on samantas, men who maintained land
and army and they offered homage and provided military support to rulers.
5.
Gupta encouraged poets to compose poems in praise of them. While historians
often attempt to draw factual information from such compositions, they found that rulers
were compared as equal to Gods.In the Allahabad Pillar inscription ( composed in
Sanskrit by Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta) Samudragupta was compared
with Gods.

Changing Countryside or condition of villages in the Early Historic period

1. Popular perceptions of kings
a) Historians have tried to reconstruct life in the country side with the help of the Jatakas and
the Panchatantra. Many of these stories probably originated as popular oral tales that were later
committed to writing. One story known as the Gandatindu Jataka describes the plight of the
subjects of a wicked king.
b) When the king went in disguise to find out what his subjects thought about him, each one of
them cursed him for their miseries, complaining that they were attacked by robbers at night and

12

c)

a)

b)
c)
d)

e)

by tax collectors during the day. To escape from this situation, people abandoned their village
and went to live in the forest.
As this story indicates the relationship between a king and his subjects, especially the
rural population, could often be strained kings frequently tried to fill their coffers by
demanding high taxes, and peasants particularly found such demands oppressive.
2. Strategies for increasing agricultural production
One such strategy to increase agricultural production was the shift to plough agriculture, which
spread in fertile alluvial river valleys such as those of the Ganga and the Kaveri from c. sixth
century BCE.
The iron-tipped ploughshare was used to turn the alluvial soil in areas which had high rainfall.
In some parts of the Ganga valley, production of paddy was dramatically increased by the
introduction of transplantation, although this meant back-breaking work for the producer.
Areas which were semi-arid, such as parts of Punjab and Rajasthan and those living in hilly
tracts in the northeastern and central parts of the subcontinent practiced hoe agriculture, which
was much better suited to the terrain.
Another strategy adopted to increase agricultural production was the use of irrigation,
through wells and tanks, and less commonly, canals, which were constructed by kings and
communities.
.
3. Differences in rural society

a) There was a growing differentiation amongst people engaged in agriculture were based on
differential access to land, labour and some of the new technologies.
b) In the country side of Northern India people were divided into three groups - landless
agricultural labourers, small peasants, as well as large landholders.
c) The term gahapati was often used in Pali texts to designate the second and third categories.
d) Early Sangam texts also mention different categories of people engaged in agriculture were
based on differential access to land, labour and some of the new technologies.
e) In south India people who were divided into three groups large landowners orvellalar,
ploughmen or uzhavar and slaves or adimai.
4. Land grants and new rural elites
a.
The land grants were made to religious institutions, Brahmanas, samantas and
landless peasants.
b.
Prabhavati Gupta was the daughter of Chandragupta II, one of the most important
rulers in early Indian history,According to Sanskrit legal texts, women were not supposed
to have independent access to resources such as land.
c.
However, the inscription indicates that Prabhavati had access to land, which she
then granted. This may have been because she was a queen and her situation was
therefore exceptional.
d.
There were regional variations in the sizes of land donated ranging from small
plots to vast stretches of uncultivated land to donees (the recipients of the grant).
e.
Some Historians feel that land grants were part of a strategy adopted by ruling
lineages to extend agriculture to new areas. Others suggest that when kings were losing
control over their samantas, they tried to win allies by donating lands to people.
13

Towns and Trade in early Historic period

1. New cities
a.
Many urban centres emerged in several parts of the subcontinent from c. sixth
century BCE. As we have seen, many of these were capitals of mahajanapadas.
b.
Virtually many major towns were located along routes of trade and
communication.
c.
Some of the cities were located on riverine routes, others were along land routes
and yet others were near the coast.
d.
Many cities like Mathura were bustling centres of commercial, cultural and
political activities.

2. Urban populations
a.
Kings and ruling elites lived in fortified cities. People who lived in towns were
washing folk, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials,
religious teachers, merchants etc.
b.
Inscriptions mention about guilds or shrenis, organisations of craft producers and
merchants. These guilds probably procured raw materials, regulated production, and
marketed the finished products.
2. Trade in the subcontinent and beyond
a.
From the sixth century BCE, land and riverine routes extended in various
directions which connected all the parts of India.
b.
Rulers often attempted to control these routes, possibly by offering protection for
a price
(by collecting tax). Those who used these routes included peddlers who
probably travelled on foot and merchants who travelled with caravans of bullock carts
and pack-animals.
c.
Sea routes connected across the Arabian Sea to Central Asia, North Africa, West
Asia and beyond. Sea routes also connected Southeast Asia and China through the Bay of
Bengal.
d.
Also, there were seafarers, whose ventures were risky but highly profitable.
Successful merchants of south India, designated as masattuvan in Tamil
and setthisand satthavahas in Prakrit, could become enormously rich(some times more
richer than kings)
e.
A wide range of goods were carried from one place to another salt, grain, cloth,
metal ores, finished products, stone, timber, medicinal plants, spices, especially pepper,
etc.

4. Coins and kings

14

a.
Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of coinage. Punch-marked coins
made of silver and copper (c. sixth century BCE onwards) were amongst the earliest to be
minted and used by many dynasties including the Mauryas.
b.
The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the IndoGreeks, who established control over the north-western part of the subcontinent c.second
century BCE.
c.
The first gold coins were issued in the first century CE by the Kushanas. These
were virtually identical in weight with those issued by Roman emperors and the Parthian
rulers of Iran.
d.
Coins were also issued by tribal republics of Punjab and Haryana called the
Yaudheyas. Archaeologists have unearthed several thousand copper coins issued by the
Yaudheyas.
e.
Some of the most spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers. The
earliest coins issued by Guptas were remarkable for their purity. These coins facilitated
long-distance transactions from which kings also benefited.

From c. sixth century CE onwards, finds of gold coins taper off. Does this indicate that
there was some kind of an economic crisis?
a.
Historians are divided into two groups on this issue. Some suggest that with the
collapse of the Western Roman Empire long-distance trade between India and Rome
declined, and this affected the prosperity of India and trading communities.
b.
Others argue that new towns and networks of trade started emerging around this
time with in India.
c.
Some scholars point out that though finds of coins of were few but coins continue
to be mentioned in inscriptions and texts.
d.
Some historians suggest that people might have recycled the old coins for other
purposes.

How were Brahmi and Kharosthi Inscriptions Deciphered?

a.
James Prinsep, an officer in the mint of the East India Company, deciphered
Brahmi and Kharosthi, two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions and coins. This gave a
new direction to investigations into early Indian political history.
b.
From the late eighteenth century, European scholars aided by Indian pundits
worked backwards from contemporary Bengali and Devanagari manuscripts, comparing
their letters with older specimens. James Princep was able to decipher Asokan Brahmi in
1838.
c.
Kharosthi, the script used in inscriptions and coins in the northwestern part of
India by Indo-Greek kings. Indo-Greek coins contain the names of kings written in Greek
and Kharosthi scripts. European scholars who could read the Greek script compared the
letters. Prinsep identified the language of the Kharosthi inscriptions as Prakrit and it
became possible to read longer inscriptions.
d.
James Princep found that Brahmi script is older form of Devanagari script. James
Princep matched the inscriptions in terms of content, style, language and paleography.
15

e.
He also discovered that Asoka is the name of the ruler
and devanampiya andpiyadassi are titles used for Asoka in many
inscriptions. Epigraphists and historians studied Asokan inscriptions more closely. They
noted Asoka, devanampiya andpiyadassi are different names of the same ruler.

The Limitations of Inscriptional Evidence OR problems faced by Epigraphists

a.
There are technical limitations in studying the Inscriptions. In some inscriptions
letters are very faintly engraved.
b.
Some inscriptions are damaged and in some inscriptions letters are missing. So
reconstructions are uncertain.
c.
Besides, it is not always easy to be sure about the exact meaning of the words
used in inscriptions, some of which may be specific to a particular place or time. This has
to be done carefully, to ensure that the intended meaning of the author is not changed.
d.
Several thousand inscriptions were made but only some hundreds have been
discovered in which all are not deciphered, published and translated.
e.
There is another more fundamental problem. Politically and economically
significant matters are recorded in inscriptions but routine agricultural practices and the
joys and sorrows of daily existence are not found in inscriptions.
f.
Historians and Epigraphists have to constantly assess statements made in
inscriptions to judge whether they are true, plausible or exaggerations.
Discuss the evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities. In what ways is this
different from the evidence from Harappan cities?(Text book question)
a.

In Harappa almost all the cities were abandoned so that we have discovered enough
evidences to understand craft production but it is difficult to conduct extensive excavations
at most sites of Early Historic cities because people live in these areas even today (unlike
the Harappan cities)
b. A wide range of artefacts have been recovered from the people of early historic cities such
as fine pottery bowls and dishes, with a glossy finish, known as Northern Black Polished
Ware, ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines, made of a wide range of materials
gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta tostudy craft production inEarly
Historic cities

3-Kinship, Caste and Class

Textual sources to understand social behavior of early historic period

16

1. Historians often use textual traditions to understand Social history. Some texts lay down norms
of social behavior. Others describe and occasionally comment on a wide range of social
situations and practices.
2. Texts like Mahabharata allow us to piece together attitudes and practices that shaped social
histories.
3. In focusing on the Mahabharata, a colossal epic running in its present form into over100,000
verses with depictions of a wide range of social categories and situations.
4. It is one of the richest texts of the subcontinent. It was composed over a period of about1,000
years (c. 500 BCE onwards), and some of the stories it contains may have been in circulation
even earlier.
5. The central story is about two sets of warring cousins. The text also contains sections laying
down norms of behavior for various social groups. Occasionally the principal characters seem to
follow these norms.
The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata
1. In 1919, under the leadership of a noted Indian Sanskritist, V.S. Sukthankar, a team of scholars
initiated the task of preparing a critical edition of the Mahabharata.
2. Initially they collected Sanskrit manuscripts of the text, written in a variety of languages, from
different parts of the country. The team compared verses from each manuscript.
3. Ultimately, they selected the verses that appeared common to most versions andpublished these
in several volumes, running into over 13,000 pages. The project took 47years to complete.
4. There were several common elements in the Sanskrit versions of the story, evident in
manuscripts found all over the subcontinent, from Kashmir to Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the
south.
5. Also evident were enormous regional variations in the ways in which the text had been
transmitted over the centuries. These variations were documented in footnotes and appendices to
the main text.
Rules and Varied Practices in the early society
a. Rules about families(Kinship)
1. Families are usually parts of larger networks of people defined as relatives, or to use a more
technical term, kinfolk.
2. We noticed that not all families are identical: they vary in terms of number of members, their
relationship with one another as well as the kinds of activities they share.
3. Often people belonging to the same family share food and other resources, and live, workand
perform rituals together.
4. While familial ties are often regarded as natural and based on blood, they are defined in many
different ways. For instance, some societies regard cousins as being blood relations, whereas
others do not.
5. For early societies, historians can retrieve information about elite families fairly easily; it is,
however, far more difficult to reconstruct the familial relationships of ordinary people.
b. Rules about patriliny
17

1. Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son, grandson and so on. Matriliny is the term
used when descent is traced through the mother. At one level, the Mahabharata is a story about
patriliny.
2. It describes a feud over land and power between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the
Pandavas, who belonged to a single ruling family, that of the Kurus, a lineage dominating one of
the janapadas.
3. Under patriliny, sons could claim the resources (including the throne in the case of kings) of
their fathers when the father died.
4. Most ruling dynasties (c. sixth century BCE onwards) claimed to follow this system, although
there were variations in practice: sometimes there were no sons, brotherssucceeded one another,
and sometimes other kinsmen claimed the throne.
5. In very exceptional circumstances, women such as Prabhavati Gupta exercised power. The
concern with patriliny was not unique to ruling families but also in ordinary families.
c.

Rules of marriage

1. There were two systems of marriage- Endogamy and Exogamy. Marriage within the kin is
called Endogamy. Marriage outside the kin is called Exogamy.
2. The lives of young girls and women belonging to elite families were often carefully regulated to
ensure that they were married at the right time and to the right person. This gave rise to the
belief that kanyadana or the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the
father.
3. There are three types of marriage- Monogamy (It is the practice in which a man having one
wife), polygamy or Polygyny (It is the practice in which a man having several wives)
and Polyandry ( It is the practice in which a woman having several husbands)
4. From c. 500 BCE, marriage norms were compiled in Sanskrit texts known as the Dharmasutras,
Dharmashastras and Manusmriti. These texts recognised as many as eight forms of marriage.
5. Of these, the first four were considered as good (Which were arranged by the parents of either
the boy or girl) while the remaining four were condemned( Which were fixed by the boy or girl)
It is possible that last four forms of marriage were practised by those who did not accept
Brahmanical norms.
d. The Gotra rules for women
1. One Brahmanical practice was to classify people in terms of gotras. Each gotra wasnamed after
a Vedic seer, and all those who belonged to the same gotra were regarded as his descendants.
2. Two rules about gotra were particularly important: a) women were expected to give up their
fathers gotra and adopt that of their husband on marriage and b) members of the
same gotra could not marry.
3. One way to find out whether this was commonly followed is to consider the names of men and
women, which were sometimes derived from gotra names. Some of the Satavahana rulers were
polygynous. The Queens who married Satavahana rulers indicate that many of them had their
fathers gotras even after the marriage.
4. What is also apparent is that some of these Queens belonged to the same gotra. As is obvious,
this was opposite to the ideal of exogamy recommended in the Brahmanical texts.

18

5. In fact, it exemplified an alternative practice, that of endogamy or marriage within the kin group,
which is prevalent amongst several communities in south India. Satavahanas also had marriage
relations with Shakhas, Who were considered as out castes.

e.

Were mothers important in early societies?

1. We have seen that Satavahana rulers were identified through matronymics. It means their names
derived from that of the mother.
2. In the case of the Satavahanas we know that succession to the throne was generallypatrilineal. It
means sons succeeded to the throne after the death of father.
Social Differences: Within and Beyond the Framework of Caste
1. The right occupation
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras also contained rules about the ideal occupations of the
four categories or varnas.
Brahmanas were supposed to study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices and get sacrifices
performed, and give and receive gifts.
Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect people and administer justice, study the Vedas, get
sacrifices performed, and make gifts.
The Vaishyas were expected to engage in agriculture, pastoralism and trade.
Shudras were assigned only one occupation that of serving the three higher varnas.
The Brahmanas evolved many strategies for enforcing right occupation norms.

a.
b.
c.
d.

One was to assert that the varna order was of divine origin.
Second, they advised kings to ensure that these norms were followed within their kingdoms.
And third, they attempted to persuade people that their status was determined by birth.
They also reinforced these norms by stories told in the Mahabharata and other texts.
2. Non-Kshatriya kings

a.
b.
c.

d.
e.

According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings. However, several important ruling
lineages probably had different origins.
The social background of the Mauryas, who ruled over a large empire, has been hotly debated.
Brahmanical texts described that Mauryas were of low origin.
The Shungas and Kanvas, the immediate successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas. In fact,
political power was effectively open to anyone who could muster support and resources, and
rarely depended on birth as a Kshatriya.
Other rulers, such as the Shakas who came from Central Asia, were regarded asmlechchhas,
(barbarians) or outsiders by the Brahmanas. They ruled north western part of India.
It is also interesting that the best-known ruler of the Satavahana dynasty, Gotami-puta SiriSatakani, claimed to be both a unique Brahmana and a destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas.
3. Jatis and social mobility
19

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

In Brahmanical theory, jati, like varna, was based on birth. However, while the number
of varnas was fixed at four, there was no restriction on the number of jatis.
In fact, whenever Brahmanical authorities encountered new groups like nishadas or wanted to
assign a name to occupational categories like goldsmith used jati to classify them.
Jatis which shared a common occupation or profession were sometimes organised intoshrenis or
guilds.
One interesting stone inscription found in Madhya Pradesh records the history of a guild of silk
weavers who originally lived in Gujarat migrated to Madhya Pradesh were known as Dashapura.
The inscription provides a fascinating glimpse of complex social processes and provides insights
into the nature of guilds or shrenis. Although membership was based on a shared craft
specialisation, some members adopted other occupations.
4. Beyond the four varnas (Integration of varna practices)

1. In the subcontinent social practices of Tribal people were not influenced by Brahmanical ideas.
They were often described as odd, uncivilised, or even animal-like people such as forest
dwellers, pastoralists etc.
2. Those who could not be easily accommodated within the framework of settled agriculturists and
those who spoke non-Sanskritic languages were labeled as mlechchhas or out castes and looked
down upon.
3. There was a sharing of ideas and beliefs between higher varna people and forest dwellersand out
castes. The nature of relations between these people is evident in some stories in
the Mahabharata.
4. For example Eklavya, a forester who never goes to battle -wanted to learn archery from
Dronacharya.
5. Bhima, one of the five brothers of Pandava family married Hidimba, a Rhakshasi by birth and
they gave birth to a child.
5. Beyond the four varnas (Subordination of the lower varnas and conflict between higher and
lower varnas)
1. While the Brahmanas considered some people as being outside the system, they also developed a
sharper social divide by classifying certain social categories asuntouchable.
2. Those who considered themselves Pure (Brahmans, Kshatriyas and vaishyas) avoidedtaking
food and water from those they designated as untouchable (Shudhras).
3. Some of the activities of untouchables were regarded as polluting. These includedhandling
deadbodies and dead animals. Those who performed such tasks, designated aschandalas, were
placed at the very bottom of the hierarchy.
4. Their touch and, in some cases, even seeing them was regarded as polluting by those who
claimed to be at the top of the social order.
5. The Manusmriti laid down the duties of the chandalas. They were,
a. They had to live outside the village.
b. They had to use discarded utensils.
20

c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

They had to wear clothes of the dead

They had to wear only ornaments made of iron.
They could not walk about in villages and cities at night.
They had to dispose of the bodies of those who had no relatives and serve as executioners.
Chinese Buddhist monk Fa Xian wrote that untouchables had to sound a clapper in the streets
so that people could avoid seeing them.
h. Another Chinese pilgrim, Xuan Zang observed that executioners and scavengers were forced to
live outside the city.
Social implications of access to Resources and Status
a. Gendered access to property
1. According to the Manusmriti, Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras the paternal estate was to be
divided equally amongst sons after the death of the parents, with a special share for the eldest.
2. Women could not claim a share of these resources. However, women were allowed to retain the
gifts they received on the occasion of their marriage as stridhana (literally, a womans wealth).
This could be inherited by their children, without the husband having any claim on it.
3. At the same time, the Manusmriti warned women against hoarding family property, or even
their own valuables, without the husbands permission.
4. Wealthy women such as the Vakataka queen Prabhavati Gupta had property includingland.
However epigraphic and textual evidences suggest that upper-class women had access to
resources, land, cattle and money.
5. In other words, social differences between men and women were sharpened because of the
differences in access to resources.
b.Varna and access to property
1. According to the Brahmanical texts, another criterion for regulating access to wealth wasvarna.,
2. While a variety of occupations were listed for men of the first three varnas, the only
occupation prescribed for Shudras was servitude.
3. If these provisions were actually implemented, the wealthiest men would have been the
Brahmanas, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. The poorest men would have been shudhras.
4. The Buddhist texts recognised that there were differences in society, but did not regard these as
natural or inflexible. They also rejected the idea of claims to status on the basis of birth.
c. An alternative social scenario-Sharing wealthin ancient Tamil Nadu.
1. In ancient Tamilakam, where men who were generous were respected, while those who were
miserly or simply accumulated wealth for them were despised.
2. In Tamilakam, where, there were several chiefdoms around 2,000 years ago. The chiefswere
patrons of bards and poets who sang their praise.
3. Poems included in the Tamil Sangam anthologies often illuminate social and economic
relationships, suggesting that while there were differences between rich and poor, those who
controlled resources were also expected to share them.

21

A Social Contract (Social System) according to Buddhist theory

1. The Buddhists also developed an alternative understanding of social inequalities, and of the
institutions required to regulate social conflict. Sutta Pitaka suggested that originally human
beings lived in an idyllic state of peace, taking from nature only what they needed for each meal.
2. However, there was a gradual deterioration of this state as human beings became increasingly
greedy, vindictive and deceitful. This led to selecting a leader who should be wrathful when
indignation is right.
3. The leader who is selected should ensure protection to the people and should banish the
criminals who deserve to be banished?
4. For his service we will give him a proportion of the rice. The leader who is chosen by the whole
people would be known as mahasammata, the great elect.
5. This suggests that the institution of kingship was based on human choice, with taxes as a form of
payment for services rendered by the king. At the same time, it reveals recognition of human
agency in creating and institutionalizing economic and social relations.

1.
2.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Historians and the Mahabharata (assessments and understanding of historical significance

of Mahabharata)
a. Language
The version of the Mahabharata is in Sanskrit (although there are versions in other languages as
well).
However, the Sanskrit used in the Mahabharata is far simpler than that of the Vedas, or of
the inscriptions.
b. Content
Historians usually classify the contents of the present text under two broad heads
narrative and didactic.
Sections that contain stories are designated as the narrative.
Sections that contain prescriptions about social norms are designated as didactic.
This division is by no means watertight the didactic sections include some stories, and the
narrative often contains some social message.
c. Author (s)

1. The original story was probably composed by charioteer-bards known as sutas whogenerally
accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battlefield and composed poems celebrating their
victories and other achievements. These compositions circulated orally.
2. Then, from the fifth century BCE, Brahmanas took over the story and began to commit it to
writing. This was the time when chiefdoms such as those of the Kurus and Panchalas, around
whom the story of the epic revolves, were gradually becoming kingdoms.
3. Between c. 200 BCE and 200 CE when the worship of Vishnu was growing in importance,
and Krishna, one of the important figures of the epic, was coming to be identified as an
incarnation of Vishnu.
4. Between c. 200 and 400 CE, large didactic sections resembling the Manusmriti were added.

22

5. With these additions, a text which initially perhaps had less than 10,000 verses grew to comprise
about 100,000 verses. This enormous composition is traditionally attributed to asage named
Vyasa.
d.Dated of Mahabharata:
1. The original story was probably composed by charioteer-bards known as sutas and circulated
the story orally for many decades.
2. Then, from the fifth century BCE, Brahmanas took over the story and began to commit it to
writing. This was the time when chiefdoms such as those of the Kurus and Panchalas, around
whom the story of the epic revolves, were gradually becoming kingdoms.
3. Between c. 200 BCE and 200 CE when the worship of Vishnu was growing in importance, and
Krishna, one of the important figures of the epic, was coming to be identified as an incarnation
of Vishnu
4. Between c. 200 and 400 CE, large didactic sections resembling the Manusmriti were added in
Mahabharata.

The search for convergence or Finding historical truth from archaeology ( B.B.Lal`s
excavation and findings in Hastinapura)
1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

In 1951-52, the archaeologist B.B. Lal excavated a village named Hastinapura in Meerut (Uttar
Pradesh). We are not sure that this was the Hastinapura of the epic or the names are coincidental.
B.B. Lal found evidence of five occupational levels in Hastinapura, of which the second and
third are important.
B.B. Lal noted about the houses in the second phase (c. twelfth-seventh centuries BCE) a)
There were no definite plans of houses found. b) The walls were made of mud and mudbricks. c) The discovery of mud-plaster with prominent reed-marks suggested that some of
the houses had reed walls plastered over with mud.
In the third phase (c. sixth-third centuries BCE), B.B. Lal noted-a) Houses of this period were
built of mud-brick as well as burnt bricks. B) Soakage jars and brick drains were used for
draining out refuse water. C) Terracotta ring-wells may have been used both as wells and
drainage pits.
Weather the description of the city in the epic added after the main narrative had been composed
or it was a flight of poetic fancy, which cannot always be verified by comparisons with other
kinds of evidence.
One of the most challenging episodes in the Mahabharata is Draupadis marriage with the
Pandavas, an instance of polyandry that is central to the narrative.

1. Present-day historians suggest that polyandry may have been prevalent amongst ruling elites at
some point of time in Indian subcontinent.
2. Another fact suggests that polyandry gradually fell into disfavor amongst the Brahmanas, who
reworked and developed the text through the centuries.

23

3. Some historians note that while the practice of polyandry may have seemed unusual or even
undesirable from the Brahmanical point of view, it was (and is) prevalent in the Himalayan
region.
4. Others suggest that there may have been a shortage of women during times of warfare, and this
led to polyandry. In other words, it was attributed to a situation of crisis.
5. Some early sources suggest that polyandry was not the only or even the most prevalent form of
marriage. Why then did the author(s) choose to associate this practice with the central characters
of the Mahabharata? We need to remember that creative literature often has its own narrative
requirements and does not always literally reflect social realities but just used to create interest
for readers.
Mahabharata is a Dynamic Text
1. The growth of the Mahabharata did not stop with the Sanskrit version. Over the centuries,
versions of the epic were written in a variety of languages through an ongoing process of
dialogue between peoples, communities, and those who wrote the texts.
2. Several stories that originated in specific regions or circulated amongst certain people found
their way into the epic. At the same time, the central story of the epic was often retold in
different ways.
3. Episodes of Mahabharata were depicted in sculpture and painting.
4. They also provided themes for a wide range of performing arts plays, dance and other kinds of
narrations.

4-Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings

The sources to reconstruct Cultural Developments of this period (c. 600 BCE - 600 CE)
1. Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmanical texts written in various languages.
2. Large and impressive material remains including monuments and inscriptions.

The mid-first millennium BCE is often regarded as a turning point in world history:
1. This period saw the emergence of thinkers such as Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in China,
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in Greece, and Mahavira and Gautama Buddha, among many
others, in India.
2. They tried to understand the mysteries of existence and the relationship between human
beings and the cosmic order.
3. This was also the time when new kingdoms and cities were developing and social and
economic life was changing in a variety of ways in the Ganga valley

The sacrificial traditions (Vedic sacrifices)

24

1. The early Vedic tradition was one of the pre-existing traditions of thought.
2. The Rig-Veda consists of hymns in praise of a variety of deities, especially Agni, Indra and
Soma.
3. Many of these hymns were chanted when sacrifices were performed, where people prayed
for cattle, sons, good health, long life, etc.
4. At first, sacrifices were performed collectively. Later some sacrifices were performed by the
head of the family for the wellbeing of the domestic unit.
5. More elaborate sacrifices, such as the Rajasuya and Ashvamedha, were performed by
chiefs and kings who depended on Brahmana priests to conduct the ritual.
New questions in the early period
1. Many people were curious about the meaning of life, the possibility of life after death, karma
and rebirth.
2. Such issues were hotly debated. Thinkers were concerned with understanding and
expressing the nature of the ultimate reality.
Debates and discussions
1. There were as many as 64 sects or schools of thought. Lively discussions and debates took
place between the teachers of these schools of thought.
2. Teachers like Buddha and Mahavira travelled from place to place, trying to convince one
another as well as laypersons, about the validity of their philosophy or the way they
understood the world.
3. Debates took place in the kutagarashala (a hut with a pointed roof) and in groves where
travelling mendicants halted.
4. If a philosopher succeeded in convincing one of his rivals, the followers of the latter also
became his disciples. So support for any particular sect could grow and shrink over time.
5. Many of these teachers, including Mahavira and the Buddha, questioned the authority of the
Vedas. They also emphasised individuals to attain liberation from the trials and tribulations
of worldly existence.

Fatalists and materialists

1. Fatalists or Ajivikas those who believe that everything is predetermined.
2. Materialists or Lokayatas those who believe that everything is not predetermined.
3. Fatalist teacher, named Makkhali Gosala, says that the wise and the fool cannot come out of karma.
It can neither be lessened nor increased. So fool and wise alike will take their course and make an
end of sorrow.
4. Materialist teacher Ajita Kesakambalin says that a human being is made up of the four elements.
When he dies the earthy in him returns to the earth, the fluid to water, the heat to fire, the windy to
air, and his senses pass into space. The talk of gifts is a doctrine of fools, an empty lie. Fools and
wise alike are cut off and perish. They do not survive after death.

The Message of Mahavira or philosophy of Jainism.

1. The most important idea in Jainism is that the entire world is animated: even stones, rocks
and water have life.
25

2. Non-injury to living beings, especially to humans, animals, plants and insects, is central to
Jaina philosophy.
3. In fact the principle of ahimsa, emphasized within Jainism, has left its mark on Indian
thinking as a whole.
4. According to Jaina teachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma.
5. Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma. This can be
achieved only by renouncing the world.

Rules for Jain Monks

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Jain monks and nuns took five vows such as to abstain from killing.
To abstain from Stealing
To abstain from Lying
To observe celibacy
To abstain from possessing property.

Jain Literature and Spread of Jainism

1. The teachings of Mahavira were recorded by his disciples. These were often in the form of
stories, which could appeal to ordinary people.
2. Jaina scholars produced a wealth of literature in a variety of languages such as Prakrit,
Sanskrit and Tamil.
3. For many centuries, manuscripts of these texts were carefully preserved in libraries
attached to temples.
4. Gradually, Jainism spread to many parts of India such as Maharashtra, Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu.
5. Some of the earliest stone sculptures associated with religious traditions were produced by
devotees of the Jaina tirthankaras, and have been recovered from several sites throughout
the subcontinent.

Spread of Buddhism
1. Buddhism grew rapidly both during the lifetime of the Buddha and after his death, as it
appealed to many people dissatisfied with existing religious practices and confused by the
rapid social changes taking place around them.
2. Buddhas messages metta (fellow feeling) and karuna (compassion) spread across the
subcontinent and beyond through Central Asia to China, Korea and Japan, and through
Sri Lanka, across the seas to Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia.
3. Buddhas teachings have been reconstructed by carefully editing, translatingand analyzing
the Buddhist texts.
4. Historians have also tried to reconstruct details of his life from
hagiographies.(Hagiography is a biography of a saint or religious leader. Hagiographies often
praise the saints achievements, and may not always be literally accurate. They are important
because they tell us about the beliefs of the followers of that particular tradition)

5. Many of these were written down at least a century after the death of the Buddha, in an
attempt to preserve memories of the great teacher.

26

Life of Buddha (What were the traumatic incidents changed the life of the
Buddha?)
1. According to the traditions, Siddhartha was the son of a chief of the Sakya clan. He had a
sheltered upbringing within the palace, insulated from the harsh realities of life.
2. One day he persuaded his charioteer to take him into the city. His first journey into the world
outside was traumatic.
3. He was deeply anguished when he saw an old man, a sick man and a corpse (dead
body). He realized in that moment that the decay and destruction of the human body was
inevitable.
4. He also saw a homeless mendicant, who had come to terms with old age, disease and
death, and found peace. Siddhartha decided that he too would adopt the same path.
5. Soon after, he left the palace and set out in search of his own truth. Siddhartha explored
several paths including bodily mortification which led him to a situation of near death. He
meditated for several days and finally attained enlightenment. After this he came to be
known as the Buddha or the Enlightened One.

The Teachings of the Buddha

1. The Buddhas teachings have been reconstructed from stories, found mainly in the Sutta
Pitaka.
2. According to Buddhist philosophy, the world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing; it
is also soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it.
3. Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence. By following the
path of moderation between severe penance and self-indulgence that human beings can
come out of these worldly troubles.
4. The Buddha regarded the social world as the creation of humans rather than of divine origin.
Therefore, he advised kings and gahapatis to be humane and ethical towards common
people.
5. Individual effort was expected to transform social relations. The Buddha
emphasisedindividual agency and righteous action as the means to escape from the cycle
of rebirth and attain self-realisation.

Followers of the Buddha(monks and nuns)

1. According to Buddhist tradition, Buddhas last words to his followers were: Be lamps unto
yourselves as all of you must work out your own liberation.
2. The body of disciples of the Buddha or an organisation of monks is called Sangha. Buddha
founded a sangha. The monks too became teachers of dhamma.
3. These monks lived simple life by possessing only the essential requisites for survival, such
as a bowl to receive food once a day from the laity. As they lived on alms, they were known
as bhikkhus.
4. Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha, but later women also came to be
admitted.The Buddhas foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami was the first woman to be
ordained as a bhikkhuni. Many women who entered the sangha became teachers
of dhamma.

27

5. The Buddhas followers came from many social groups. They included kings, wealthy
men,gahapatis, workers, slaves and craftspeople.
6. Once persons get into the sangha, all were regarded as equal, having shed their earlier
social identities on becoming bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. The internal functioning of
thesangha was based on the traditions where decisions were taken through discussions
and voting.

Rules for monks and nuns

1. These are some of the rules laid down in the Vinaya Pitaka: When a new felt (blanket/rug)
has been made by a bhikkhu, it is to be kept for (at least) six years.
2. Before the completion of six years if a Bhikku wanted to use a new one he has to be
authorised by the other bhikkhus it is to be forfeited and confessed.
3. In case a bhikkhu may accept two or three bowls of cakes or cooked grain-meal from a
house if he so desires. If he should accept more than that, it is to be confessed.
4. Having accepted the two or three bowls and having taken them from there, he is to share
them among the bhikkhus.
5. Any bhikkhu, who is leaving the lodging which belongs to the sangha, must inform to other
Bhikkus.
Chaityas
1. From earliest times, people tended to regard certain places as sacred. These included sites
with special trees or unique rocks, or sites of awe-inspiring natural beauty. These sites, with
small shrines attached to them, were sometimes described as chaityas.
2. Buddhist literature mentions several chaityas. It also describes places associated with
theChaitya may also have been derived from the word chita, meaning a funeral pyre, and by
extension a funerary mound.

Stupas
Where were stupas built?
Stupas were built in the places associated with Buddhas life
Lumbini-where he was born
Bodh Gaya -Where he attained enlightenment
Sarnath -Where he gave his first sermon( public speech) and
Kusinagara -Where he attained nibbana (Death) gradually, each of these places came to be
regarded as sacred.
5. By the second century BCE a number of stupas, including those at Bharhut, Sanchi and
Sarnath had been built.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Why were stupas built?

1. The tradition of erecting stupas may have been pre-Buddhist, but they came to be
associated with Buddhism.
2. Stupas were built because relics of the Buddha such as his bodily remains or objects used
by him were buried there.
28

3. According to a Buddhist text known as the Ashokavadana, Asoka distributed portions of the
Buddhas relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them.
How were stupas built?
1. Inscriptions found on the railings and pillars of stupas record donations made for building
and decorating them. Some donations were made by kings such as the Satavahanas;
others were made by guilds, such as that of the ivory workers.
2. Hundreds of donations were made by women and men who mention their names,
sometimes adding the name of the place from where they came, as well as their
occupations and names of their relatives.
3. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis also contributed towards building these monuments.
The structure of the stupa
1. The stupa originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth called anda. Gradually, it
evolved into a more complex structure, balancing round and square shapes.
2. Above the anda was the harmika, a balcony like structure that represented the abode of the
gods.
3. Arising from the harmika was a mast called the yashti, often surmounted by a chhatri or
umbrella. Around the mound was a railing, separating the sacred space from the secular
world.
4. The early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were plain except for the stone railings. Later
wooden fence and the gateways were richly carved and installed at the four cardinal points.
Worshippers entered through the eastern gateway and walked around the mound in a
clockwise direction keeping the mound on the right, imitating the suns course through the
sky.
5. Later, the mound of the stupas came to be elaborately carved with niches and sculptures
as at Amaravati, and Shahji- ki-Dheri in Pakistan.

Role of Begums in preserving the Stupa at Sanchi

1. Nineteenth-century Europeans like the French and English sought Shahjehan Begums
permission to take away the eastern gateway, which was the best preserved, to be
displayed in museums in France and England. But she refused.
2. The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum, provided
money for the preservation of the ancient site. That is why John Marshall dedicated his
important volumes on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan.
3. She funded the museum that was built there as well as the guesthouse where John
Marshall lived and wrote the volumes.
4. She also funded the publication of the volumes written by John Marshall.
5. So if the stupa complex has survived, it is in no small measure due to wise decisions, and to
good luck in escaping the eyes of railway contractors, builders, and those looking for finds
to carry away to the museums of Europe.

29

The Fate of Amaravati Stupa

1. In 1796, a local raja who wanted to build a temple stumbled upon the ruins of the stupa at
Amaravati. He decided to use the stone, and thought there might be some treasure buried
in what seemed to be a hill.
2. Some years later, a British official named Colin Mackenzie visited the site. He found several
pieces of sculpture and made detailed drawings of them, these reports were never
published to protect the Stupa.
3. In 1854, Walter Elliot, the commissioner Andhra Pradesh visited Amaravati and collected
several sculpture panels and took them away to Madras. These came to be called the Elliot
marbles after him.
4. By the 1850s, some of the slabs from Amaravati had begun to be taken to different places:
a) To the Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta b) To the India Office in Madras and some
even to London.
5. It was usual to find these sculptures adorning the gardens of British administrators. In fact,
any new official in the area continued to remove sculptures from the site on the grounds that
earlier officials had done the same.

View of H.H. Cole, about the preservation of ancient monuments:

1. He wrote: It seems to me a suicidal and indefensible policy to allow the country to be
looted of original works of ancient art.
2. He believed that museums should have plaster-cast facsimiles of sculpture, whereas the
originals should remain where they had been found.
3. Unfortunately, Cole did not succeed in convincing the authorities about Amaravati, although
his plea for in situ (in the original place) preservation was adopted in the case of Sanchi.

Why did Sanchi survive while Amaravati did not?

1. Perhaps Amaravati was discovered before scholars understood the value of the finds and
realised how critical it was to preserve things instead of removing them from the site.
2. When Sanchi was discovered in 1818, three of its four gateways were still standing, the
fourth was lying on the spot where it had fallen and the mound was in good condition.
3. Nineteenth-century Europeans like the French and English sought Shahjehan Begums
permission to take away the eastern gateway, which was the best preserved, to be
displayed in museums in France and England. But she refused.
4. The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum, provided
money for the preservation of the ancient site. That is why John Marshall dedicated his
important volumes on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan.
5. She funded the museum that was built there as well as the guesthouse where John
Marshall lived and wrote the volumes.
6. She also funded the publication of the volumes written by John Marshall. So if the stupa
complex has survived, it is in no small measure due to wise decisions, and to good luck in
escaping the eyes of railway contractors, builders, and those who were looking for finds to
carry away to the museums of Europe.
7. In 1796, a local raja who wanted to build a temple stumbled upon the ruins of the stupa at
Amaravati. He decided to use the stone, and thought there might be some treasure buried
in what seemed to be a hill.
30

8. In 1854, Walter Elliot, the commissioner Andhra Pradesh visited Amaravati and collected
several sculpture panels and took them away to Madras. These came to be called the Elliot
marbles after him.
9. By the 1850s, some of the slabs from Amaravati had begun to be taken to different
places:a) To the Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta b) To the India Office in Madras and
some even to London
10. Some years later, a British official named Colin Mackenzie visited the site. He found several
pieces of sculpture and made detailed drawings of them, these reports were never
published to protect the Stupa

Stories in stone
1. At first sight the sculpture (4.13) seems to depict a rural scene, with thatched huts and trees.
However, art historians who have carefully studied the sculpture at Sanchi identify it as a
scene from the Vessantara Jataka. This is a story about a generous prince who gave away
everything to a Brahmana, and went to live in the forest with his wife and children.
2. According to hagiographies, the Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating under a
tree. Many early sculptors did not show the Buddha in human form instead, they
showed his presence through symbols.
3. The empty seat was meant to indicate the meditation of the Buddha.
4. The Stupa was meant to represent the mahaparinibbana (death)
5. Another frequently used symbol was the wheel. This stood for the first sermon of the
Buddha, delivered at Sarnath.
6. A beautiful woman swinging from the edge of the gateway, holding onto a tree. After
examining other literary traditions, Scholars realized that it could be a representation of
ashalabhanjika. According to popular belief, this was a woman whose touch caused trees
to flower and bear fruit
7. Some of the finest depictions of animals are found in sanchi. These animals
includeelephants, horses, monkeys and cattle.
8. While the Jatakas contain several animal stories that are depicted at Sanchi, it is likely that
many of these animals were carved to create lively scenes to draw viewers. Elephantswere
depicted to signify strength and wisdom.
9. Another motif is a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants which are sprinkling water
on her as if performing an abhisheka or consecration. While some historians identify the
figure as Maya, the mother of the Buddha, others identify her with a popular
goddess,Gajalakshmi literally, the goddess of good fortune who is associated with
elephants.
10. The serpent motif, which is found on several pillars, seems to be derived from popular
traditions, which were not always recorded in texts. Interestingly, one of the earliest modern
art historians, James Fergusson, considered Sanchi to be a centre of serpent worship.
The Division of Buddhism into Mahayana and Hinayana
1. By the first century CE, there is evidence of changes in Buddhist ideas and practices.
2. Early Buddhist teachings had given great importance to self-effort in achieving nibbana.
Besides, the Buddha was regarded as a human being who attained enlightenment through
his own efforts. Those who adopted these beliefs were described as Hinayana or the
lesser vehicle.
31

3. However, gradually the idea of a saviour emerged. Buddha was regarded as a God the one
who could ensure salvation. Those who adopted these beliefs were described
asMahayana or the greater vehicle.
4. Simultaneously, the concept of the Bodhisatta (Buddha in the previous birth) also
developed. Bodhisattas were perceived as deeply compassionate beings they accumulated
merit through their efforts not to attain nibbana but to help others.
5. The worship of images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas became an important part of
Mahayana tradition.

The growth of Puranic Hinduism

1. Vaishnavism, a form of Hinduism within which Vishnu was worshipped as the principal
deity.
2. Shaivism, a tradition within which Shiva was regarded as the chief god.
3. In such worship the bond between the devotee and the god was visualized as one of love
and devotion, or bhakti.
4. Within the Vaishnavism many cults developed around the various avatars or
incarnations of the deity. Ten avatars were recognized within the tradition.
5. Avatars were forms that the deity was believed to have assumed in order to save the world
whenever the world was threatened by evil forces.
6. It is likely that different avatars were popular in different parts of the country. Recognizing
each of these local deities as a form of Vishnu was one way of creating a more unified
religious tradition.
7. Shiva, for instance, was symbolized by the linga, although he was occasionally
represented in human form too. All such representations depicted a complex set of ideas
about the deities and their attributes through symbols such as headdresses, ornaments and
weapons (ayudhas or auspicious objects) the deities hold in their hands how they are
seated.
8. To understand the meanings of these sculptures historians have to be familiar with the
stories behind them many of which are contained in the Puranas, compiled by
Brahmanas
9. Puranas contained much that had been composed and been in circulation for centuries,
including stories about gods and goddesses. Generally, they were written in simple
Sanskrit verse, and were meant to be read aloud to everybody, including women and
Shudras, who did not have access to Vedic learning.
10. Puranas evolved through interaction amongst people priests, merchants, and ordinary
men and women who travelled from place to place sharing ideas and beliefs. We know for
instance that Vasudeva-Krishna was an important deity in the Mathura region. Over
centuries, his worship spread to other parts of the country as well.

Building temples
1. The early temple was a small square room, called the garbhagriha, with a single doorway
for the worshipper to enter and offer worship to the image.
2. Gradually, a tall structure, known as the shikhara, was built over the central shrine. Temple
walls were often decorated with sculptures.
3. Later temples became far more elaborate with assembly halls, huge walls and
gateways, and arrangements for supplying water.
32

4. One of the unique features of early temples was that some of the temples were hollowedout
of huge rocks, as artificial caves (Rock cut temples). The tradition of building artificial
caves was an old one. Some of the earliest of these were constructed in the third
century BCE on the orders of Asoka for renouncers who belonged to the Ajivika (fatalist) sect.
5. This tradition evolved through various stages and culminated much later in the eighth
century in the carving out of an entire temple, that of Kailashnatha (a name of Shiva) in
Maharashtra.

European Scholars with the unfamiliar Indian sculptures

1. In nineteenth century European scholars first saw some of the sculptures of gods and
goddesses; they could not understand what these were about. Sometimes, they were
horrified by what seemed to them grotesque figures, with multiple arms and heads or with
combinations of human and animal forms.
2. These early scholars tried to make sense of what appeared to be strange images by
comparing them with sculptures of ancient Greece. While they often found early Indian
sculpture inferior to the works of Greek artists.
3. European scholars were very excited when they discovered images of the Buddha and
Bodhisattas that were evidently based on Greek models. These were, more often than not,
found in the northwest, in cities such as Taxila and Peshawar, where Indo-Greek rulers had
established kingdoms in the second century BCE.
4. As these images were closest to the Greek statues these scholars were familiar with, they
were considered to be the best examples of early Indian art (Gandhara Art-Use of Greek
style to make sculptures for Indian Gods or religious teachers)
5. In effect, these scholars adopted a strategy we all frequently use devising yardsticks
derived from the familiar to make sense of the unfamiliar.

If text and sculpture do not match what do Art Historians do?

1. Art historians often draw upon textual traditions to understand the meaning of sculptures.
While this is certainly a far more efficacious strategy than comparing Indian images with
Greek statues, it is not always easy to use.
2. One of the most intriguing examples of this is a famous sculpture along a huge rock surface
in Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu).
3. Art historians have searched through the Puranas to identify it and are sharply divided in
their opinions.
4. Some feel that this depicts the descent of the river Ganga from heaven the natural cleft
through the centre of the rock surface might represent the river. The story itself is narrated
in the Puranas and the epics.
5. Others feel that it represents a story from the Mahabharata Arjuna doing penance on the
river bank in order to acquire arms pointing to the central figure of an ascetic.

5-Through the Eyes of Travellers

33

Al-Biruni and the Kitab-ul-Hind

1. Al-Biruni was born in 973, in Khwarizm in present day Uzbekistan. Khwarizm was an important
centre of learning, and Al-Biruni received the best education available at the time. He was well
versed in Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew and Sanskrit.
2. In 1017, when Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Khwarizm, he took several scholars and poets as
hostage to his capital and Al-Biruni was one of them. In Ghazni , Al-Biruni developed an interest for
India.
3. When the Punjab became a part of the Ghaznavid Empire, Al-Biruni came to India and spent years in
the company of Brahmana priests and scholars, learning Sanskrit, and studying religious and
philosophical texts.
4. He travelled widely in the Punjab and parts of northern India. He collected various information and
wrote a book called Kitab-ul-Hind.
5. Al-Birunis Kitab-ul-Hind, written in Arabic, is simple and lucid. It is divided into 80 chapters on
subjects such as religion and philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social
life, weights and measures, iconography, laws and metrology.
6. Al-Biruni adopted a distinctive structure in each chapter, beginning with a question, following this
up with a description based on Sanskrit traditions, and concluding the chapter with a comparison
with other cultures.

Problems or barriers obstructed Al-Biruni in understanding India.

1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

Al-Biruni, discussed several barriers that he felt obstructed in understanding India.

The first amongst these was language. According to him, Sanskrit was so different from Arabic
and Persian that ideas and concepts could not be easily translated from one language into
another.
The second barrier he identified was the difference in religious beliefs and practices.
The self-absorption and consequent insularity of the local population constituted the third
barrier.
He was aware of these problems so Al-Biruni depended almost exclusively on the works of
Brahmanas, often citing passages from the Vedas, the Puranas, Bhagavad Gita, the works of
Patanjali, the Manusmriti, etc., to provide an understanding of Indian society.

Al-Biruni and His description of the caste system

According to Al-Biruni the highest caste is the Brahmana, who were created from the head of
Brahman. The next caste is the Kshatriya, who were created from the shoulders and hands of
Brahman. After them the Vaishya, who were created from the thigh of Brahman. At last the
Shudra, who were created from his feet.
2. As these classes differ from each other, they live together in the same towns and villages, mixed
together in the same houses and lodgings.
3. Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by looking for parallels in other societies. He noted
that in ancient Persia, four social categories were recognized a)knights and princes; b)monks, firepriests c) lawyers, physicians, astronomers and other scientists; and d) peasants and artisans.
1.

34

He attempted to suggest that social divisions were not unique to India. At the same time he pointed
out that within Islam all men were considered equal, differing only in their observance of piety.
5. In spite of his acceptance of the Brahmanical description of the caste system, Al-Biruni disapproved
of the notion of pollution. As we have seen, Al-Birunis description of the caste system was deeply
influenced by his study of normative Sanskrit texts which laid down the rules governing the system
from the point of view of the Brahmanas.
4.

Ibn Battuta and His book Rihla

1. Ibn Battuta was a Moroccan traveler. He was born in Tangier into one ofthe most respectable and
educated families. Ibn Battuta considered experience gained through travels to be a more important
source of knowledge than books.
2. Before he come to India, he had made pilgrimage trips to Mecca, and had already travelled
extensively in Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman and a few trading ports on the coast of East Africa.
3. Ibn Battuta reached Sind in 1333. He had heard about Muhammad bin Tughlaq, the Sultan of Delhi.
The Sultan was impressed by his scholarship, and appointed him the qazi or judge of Delhi. He
remained in that position for several years, until he fell out of favour and was thrown into prison.
4. Once the misunderstanding between him and the Sultan was cleared, he was restored to imperial
service, and was ordered in 1342 to proceed to China as the Sultans envoy to the Mongol ruler.
5. With the new assignment, Ibn Battuta proceeded to the Malabar Coast through central India. From
Malabar he went to the Maldives. He took a ship to Sumatra, and from there another ship for the
Chinese port town of Zaytun (now known as Quanzhou). He travelled extensively in China, going as
far as Beijing and returned home in 1347.
6. Ibn Battutas book of travels, called Rihla, written in Arabic. His account is often compared with that
of Marco Polo, who visited China (and also India) from his home base in Venice in the late thirteenth
century.

Why was travelling more insecure in the medieval period according to Ibn
Battuta?
1. Ibn Battuta was attacked by bands of robbers several times. In fact he preferred travelling in a
caravan along with companions, but this did not deter highway robbers.
2. While travelling from Multan to Delhi, his caravan was attacked and many of his fellow travellers
lost their lives; those travellers, who survived, including Ibn Battuta, were severely wounded.
3. He suffered from home sick and in many places he was not welcomed by the people.

Ibn Battuta and the Excitement of the Unfamiliar

1. The coconut
Coconut trees looked like date palms. It resembles a mans head. Inside of it looks like a brain. Its
fibre looks like human hair. Its fibre used for making rope which is used for pulling ships.
35

2. The paanBetel plant looked like grape plant. It is grown for the sake its leaves. People chew betel leaves with
areca nut and lime.
3. Indian cities
a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

Ibn Battuta found cities in the subcontinent full of exciting opportunities , resources and skills. They
were densely populated and prosperous, except for the occasional disruptions caused by wars and
invasions.
Most cities had crowded streets and bright and colourful markets that were stacked with a wide
variety of goods. Ibn Battuta described Delhi and Daulatabad as vast cities, with a great population,
the largest in India.
The bazaars were not only places of economic transactions, but also the hub of social and cultural
activities. Most bazaars had a mosque and a temple, and in some of them at least, spaces were
marked for public performances by dancers, musicians and singers.
Ibn Battuta explains that towns derived a significant portion of their wealth through the appropriation
of surplus from villages because of the fertility of the soil, which allowed farmers to cultivate two
crops a year.
He also noted that the subcontinent was well integrated with inter-Asian networks of trade and
commerce, with Indian manufactures being in great demand in both West Asia and Southeast Asia,
fetching huge profits for artisans and merchants. Indian textiles, particularly cotton cloth, fine
muslins, silks, brocade and satin, were in great demand.

4. A unique system of communication

5.
a)

b)

c)
d)
e)

Almost all trade routes were well supplied with inns and guest houses. Ibn Battuta was also amazed
by the efficiency of the postal system(by horse and human runners) which allowed merchants to
not only send information and remit credit across long distances, but also to dispatch goods required
at short notice.
Use of slavesSlaves were openly sold in markets, like any other commodity, and were regularly exchanged as
gifts. When Ibn Battuta reached Sind he purchased horses, camels and slaves as gifts for Sultan
Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
There was considerable differentiation among slaves. Some female slaves in the service of the Sultan
were experts in music and dance, and Ibn Battuta enjoyed their performance at the wedding of the
Sultans sister.
Female slaves were also employed by the Sultan to keep a watch on his nobles. They were generally
used for domestic labour.
Ibn Battuta found that men slaves were used for carrying rich women and men on palanquins
or dola.
The price of slaves, particularly female slaves required for domestic labour, was very low, and most
families who could afford to do so kept at least one or two of them.

Francois Bernier

36

1. Franois Bernier, a Frenchman, was a doctor, political philosopher and historian. He came to the
Mughal Empire in search of opportunities. He was in India for twelve years, from 1656 to 1668,
2. He was closely associated with the Mughal court, as a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, the eldest
son of Emperor Shah Jahan, and later as an intellectual and scientist, with Danishmand Khan, an
Armenian noble at the Mughal court.
3. Bernier travelled to several parts of the country, and wrote accounts of what he saw, frequently
comparing what he saw in India with the situation in Europe.
4. He dedicated his major writing to Louis XIV, the king of France, and many of his other works were
written in the form of letters to influential officials and ministers.
5. In virtually every instance Bernier described what he saw in India as a bleak situation in comparison
to developments in Europe. This assessment was not always accurate.

Bernier and the DegenerateEast- Travels in the Mughal Empire

A. The question of landownership (crown ownership of land)
1. Bernier, one of the fundamental differences between Mughal India and Europe was the lack of
private property in land and crown ownership of land as being harmful for both the state and its
people.
2. He thought that in the Mughal Empire the emperor owned all the land and distributed it among his
nobles, and nobles to the peasants.
3. Owing to crown ownership of land, landholders could not pass on their land to their children. So they
were averse to any long-term investment in the sustenance and expansion of production.
4. Bernier saw the Mughal Empire its king was the king of beggars and barbarians; its cities and
towns were ruined and contaminated with ill air; and its fields, overspread with bushes and full
of pestilential marshes.
5. And, all this was because of one reason: crown ownership of land. Curiously, none of the Mughal
official documents suggest that the state was the sole owner of land.
B. A more complex social reality (No care for artisans)
1. Berniers descriptions occasionally hint at a more complex social reality. Artisans had no incentive
to improve the quality of their manufactures, since profits were appropriated by the state.
Manufactures were, consequently, everywhere in decline.
2. At the same time, he conceded that vast quantities of the worlds precious metals flowed into India,
as manufactures were exported in exchange for gold and silver. He also noticed the existence of a
prosperous merchant community, engaged in long-distance exchange.

C. Mughal Cities (Camp towns)

1. In fact, during the seventeenth century about 15 per cent of the population lived in towns. This was,
higher than the proportion of urban population in Western Europe in the same period.
2. Bernier described Mughal cities as camp towns. He believed that these cities came into existence
and grown when the imperial court moved in and rapidly declined when it moved out.
3. There were all kinds of towns: manufacturing towns, trading towns, port-towns, sacred centres,
pilgrimage towns, etc. Their existence is an index of the prosperity of merchant communities and
professional classes.
37

4. Merchants often had strong community or kin ties, and were organised into their own caste-cum
occupational bodies. In western India these groups were called mahajans, and their chief, thesheth or
nagarsheth.
5. Urban groups included professional classes such as physicians (hakim or vaid), teachers
(punditor mulla), lawyers (wakil ), painters, architects, musicians, calligraphers, etc. While some
depended on imperial patronage, many made their living by serving other patrons,
D. Sati and women Labourers
1. European travellers and writers often highlighted the treatment of women as a crucial marker of
difference between Western and Eastern societies. Bernier chose the practice of sati for detailed
description.
2. He noted that while some women seemed to embrace death cheerfully, others were forced to die.
However, womens lives revolved around much else besides the practice of sati.
3. Women labour was crucial in both agricultural and non-agricultural production.
4. Women from merchant families participated in commercial activities, sometimes even taking
mercantile disputes to the court of law.
5. Therefore it seems unlikely that women were confined to the private spaces of their homes.

Travelers who wrote detailed accounts regarding Indian social customs and religious
practices
Jesuit Roberto Nobili- He translated Indian texts into European languages
Duarte Barbosa- , He wrote a detailed account of trade and society in south India
Jean-BaptisteTavernier- He was particularly fascinated with the trading conditions in India, and
compared India to Iran and the Ottoman Empire.
Italian doctor Manucci- He wrote detailed accounts regarding Indian social customs and religious
practices and settled in India.

How did Franois Berniers accounts influence policy-makers and the intelligentsia in
Europe?
Or
How did Franois Berniers descriptions influence Western theorists from the eighteenth
century?
Berniers Travels in the Mughal Empire is marked by detailed observations, critical insights and
reflection. His account contains discussions trying to place the history of the Mughals within some
sort of a universal framework. He constantly compared Mughal India with contemporary Europe.
2. Abul Fazl, the sixteenth-century official chronicler of Akbars reign, describes the land revenue as
remunerations of sovereignty, a claim made by the ruler on his subjects for the protection to the
crops he provided rather than as rent on land.
3. Berniers descriptions influenced Western theorists from the eighteenth century onwards. The French
philosopher Montesquieu, for instance, used this account to develop the idea of oriental despotism,
1.

38

according to which rulers in Asia enjoyed absolute authority over their subjects, who were kept in
conditions of subjugation and poverty.
4. This idea was further developed as the concept of the Asiatic mode of production by Karl Marx in
the nineteenth century. He argued that in India surplus was appropriated by the state. This led to the
emergence of a society that was composed of a large number of autonomous and egalitarian village
communities.
5. However, this picture of rural society was far from true. In fact, during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, rural society was characterised by considerable social and economic differentiation.

6-Bhakti and sufi traditions

Sources to understand Bhakti and sufi traditions
1. Textual sources available for this periodinclude compositions attributed to poet-saints,most of
whom expressed themselves orally inregional languages. Thesecompositions, which were often set to
music, werecompiled bydisciples or devotees, afterthe death of the poet-saint.
2. Historians also draw on hagiographies orbiographies of saints written by theirdisciples or
devotees. These may not beliterally accurate, but allow a glimpse into the waysin which devotees
perceived the lives of these pathbreakingwomen and men.

India is a Mosaic of Religious Beliefsand Practices

1. The integration of various cults or traditions of Hinduism

2.

There were twoprocesses at work to integrate different cults. One was a process of
disseminatingBrahmanical ideas. This is exemplified by thecomposition, compilation and
preservation of Puranictexts in simple Sanskrit verse, explicitly meant tobe accessible to women
and Shudras.
At the sametime, there was a second process at work that ofthe Brahmanas accepting and
reworking the beliefsand practices of Shudras
Infact, many beliefs and practices were shaped througha continuous dialogue between great
(Brahmans) traditionsand little (Shudras) traditions throughout the land.
One of the most striking examples of this processis evident at Puri, Orissa, where the principal
deitywas identifiedas Jagannatha(literally, the lord of the world), a form of Vishnu.
Such instances of integration are evidentamongst goddess cults as well. Worship of thegoddess,
often simply in the form of a stone colouredwith red and yellow mud. They were identified as wives
of the principal male deities sometimes theywere equated with Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu,
inother instances, with Parvati, the wife of Shiva and Saraswati, wife of Brahma.
Difference and conflict betweenvarious cults or traditions of Hinduism
Tantric practices
Puranic traditions
Vedic Traditions
Those engaged in Tantric
Also, devotees often tended to
In Vedic traditions
practices frequently ignored the project their chosen deity,
the principal
authority of the Vedas.
eitherVishnu or Shiva, as
deities are Agni,
supreme.
Indra and Soma,
39

Tantric practices were

widespread in several parts of
thesubcontinent they were
open to women and men, and
practitioners often ignored
differences of caste and
classwithin the ritual context
They followed sacrifices or
precisely chanted mantras

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

The singing and chanting of

devotional compositions were
often a part of such modes
ofworship. This was
particularly true of the
Vaishnava and Shaiva sections

Those who valued

the Vedic tradition
oftencondemned
others practices

Alvars and Nayanars were part

of this tradition.

Vedic practices
were for only men
andBrahmans,
Kshatriyas and
Vaishyas.They 1.
practiced Vedic
tradition by
chanting long
Vedic hymns and
elaborate
sacrifices.

Early
Traditio
ns of
Bhakti
in
Tamil
Nadu
(South
India)
Historian
s of
religion
oftenclas
sify
bhakti
traditions

into two broad categories:sagunaand nirguna

The Saguna Bhakti included traditions thatfocused on the worship of specific deities suchas Shiva,
Vishnu and his avatars (incarnations) andforms of the goddess or Devi, in anthropomorphic (early
human) forms. Nirgunabhakti on the other hand was worship of an abstract (Nonliving objects)
form of god.
The Alvars: Some of the earliest bhakti movements were led by the Alvars, literally, those whoare
immersed in devotion to Vishnu. Nayanars: literally, leaders who were devotees of
Shiva.Theytravelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamilin praise of their gods.
During their travels the Alvars and Nayanarsidentified certain shrines as abodes of their chosen
deities and large temples were built atthese sacred places. These developed as centers
ofpilgrimage.
Some historians suggest that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest againstthe
caste system and dominance of Brahmanas. Bhaktas joined from diverse social backgrounds from
Brahmanas to cultivators and even from castes considered untouchable.
Alvars and Nayanars claimed that their compositions were as importantas the Vedas. The
composition of the Alvars, the NalayiraDivyaprabandham, was frequently described as the Tamil
Veda and the composition of Nayanars is Tevaram.
One of the most striking features of thesetraditions was the presence of women. For instance ,the
compositions of Andal, a woman Alvar, were widely sung and continue to be sung to date. Andal
saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu; her versesexpress her love for the deity.
Another woman, Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, adoptedthe path of extreme asceticism
in order to attainher goal. Her compositions were preserved wit in the Nayanar tradition.

Alvars and Nayanars and their Relations with the state(Rulers)

1. Cholas,Pallavas and Pandyasruled south India. Buddhism and Jainism hadbeen prevalent in this
region for several centuries. Alvars and Nayanarsopposed Buddhism and Jainism through their
hymns.This hostility was due to competition between religious traditions for royal patronage.
2. Chola rulers supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions, making land grants andconstructing
temples for Vishnu and Shiva.In fact, some of the most magnificent Shivatemples, including those at
40

Chidambaram, Thanjavur were constructed under the patronage of Chola rulers and representations
of Shiva in bronze sculpture wereproduced.
3. Rulers tried to win the support of Alvars and Nayanars. The Chola kings often attempted to claim
divine supportand proclaim their own power and status by buildingsplendid temples that were
adornedwith stone and metal sculpture torecreate the visions of these popularsaints who sang in the
language ofthe people.
4. These kings also introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns inthe temples under royal
patronage,taking the initiative to collect and organise them into a text (Tevaram).
5. Cholaruler Parantaka I had consecratedmetal images of Bhakti Saints -Appar, Sambandar and
Sundarar in a Shiva temple.These were carried in processionsduring the festivals of these saints.

The Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka

1. A new tradition in Karnataka, led by a Brahmananamed Basavanna who was initially aJaina and a
minister in the court of a Chalukyaking. His followers were known as Virashaivas(heroes of Shiva)
or Lingayats (wearers of the linga).
2. They worship Shiva in his manifestation as a linga, and men usually wear a small lingain a silver
case on a loop strung over theleft shoulder. Those who are revered include thejangama or wandering
monks.
3. Lingayats believe that on death the devotee will be united with Shivaand will not return to this
world. Therefore they donot practice cremation instead, theyceremonially bury their dead.
4. The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste andthe pollution attributed to certain groups
byBrahmanas. They also questioned the theory ofrebirth. These won them followers amongst
thosewho were neglected by the Brahmanas.
5. The Lingayats also encouraged certain practices such as post-puberty marriage and the remarriageof
widows. Our understanding of the Virashaiva tradition is derived fromvachanas(literally,
sayings)composed in Kannada by women and men whojoined the movement.

Religious (Tradition)Ferment inNorth India

1. During this period, in north India deities such asVishnu and Shiva were worshipped in temples,
often builtwith the support of rulers. However, historians have notfound evidence of anything
resembling the compositions of the Alvars,Nayanars and Lingayats.
2. Thiswas the period when several Rajput states emerged in North India. Inmost of these
states Brahmanas occupied positions ofimportance, performing a range of secular and
ritualfunctions.
3. There seems little attemptto challengeBrahmanical position directly. These included theNaths, Jogis
and Siddhas.Many of them came fromartisanal groups, including weavers, who had long-distance
trade withCentral Asia and West Asia.
4. Many of these new religiousleaders questioned theauthority of the Vedas, andexpressed
themselves in languages spoken by ordinarypeople, which developed over centuries into the
onesused today. However, thesereligious leaders were not in a position to win thesupport of the
rulers.
5. A new element in this situation was the coming ofthe Turks and establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.
This underminedthe power of many of the Rajput states and theBrahmanas who were
associated with these kingdoms.

41

New Strands in the FabricIslamic Traditions(Arrival of Islam into

India)
1.

Arab merchantsfrequented ports along the western coast in the firstmillennium CE, they settledin
the Malabar Coast.
2. In 711 an Arab general named Muhammad Qasim conquered Sind, which became part of the
Caliphs domain.
3. Later the Turks and Afghans established theDelhi Sultanate.This continued with theestablishment
of the Mughal Empire in the sixteenthcentury.
4. Theoretically, Muslim rulers were to be guided bythe ulamas. Ulemas are theologians who are well
versed in Islamic laws.Rulers ruled according to the sharia.The sharia is the law governing the
Muslim community. It is based on the Quran and the hadiths.

5. Muslimsruled and protected people of all the religions but collected Jizya tax from the Non- Muslims. Several
rulersgave land endowments and granted tax exemptionsto Hindu, Jain, Zoroastrian, Christian and
Jewishreligious institutions and also expressed respect to the Saints.

The popular practices of Islam in India

1. The developments that followed the coming of Islampermeated far and wide, through the
subcontinent,amongst different social strata peasants, artisans,warriors, merchants, to name a few.
All those whoadopted Islam accepted, in principle, the five pillarsof the faith.
2. There is one God, Allah, and ProphetMuhammad is his messenger; offeringprayers five times a
day; giving alms; fasting during the month of Ramzan;and performing the pilgrimage to Mecca.
3. However, these universal features were oftenoverlaid with diversities in practice derived fromlocal
customary practices of converts from differentsocial milieus. For example, the Khojahs, a branch
of the Shia sect composed devotional poems in Punjabi,Multani, Sindhi, Kachchi, Hindi and
Gujarati, sing them in special ragas during daily prayer meetings.
4. Arab Muslim traders who settledalong the Malabar Coast (Kerala) adopted thelocal language,
Malayalam. They also adoptedlocal customs such as matriliny and matrilocal residence.
5. Some architectural featuresof mosques are universal such astheir orientation towards
Mecca,evident in the placement of the mihrab(prayer niche) and theminbar(pulpit).However a
mosque in Kerala is built with Shikara, a mosque is built in Kashmir with wood and a mosque
is built in Bangladesh with bricks.

Different Names for Muslim community

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Historians pointed out that the termMusalmanor Muslim was virtuallynever used in India upto
14th century. Instead they wereoccasionally identified in terms ofthe region from which they came.
Turkish rulers were designated as Turushka.
Tajika were people from Tajikistan. Parashika were people from Persia.
Sometimes, terms usedfor other peoples were applied to thenew migrants. For instance, theTurks and
Afghans were referred to as Shakas andYavanas.
A more general term for these migrant communities was mlechchha, indicating that they didnot
observe the norms of caste society and spokelanguages that were not derived from Sanskrit.

The Growth of Sufism

42

1. In the early centuries of Islam a group of religiousmindedpeople called Sufis turned toasceticism
andmysticism in protest against the growing materialismof the Caliphate.They were critical of the
dogmatic definitions andscholastic methods of interpreting the Quran and sunnahby the Ulemas.
They emphasized on seeking salvationthrough intense devotion and love for God by following the
commands of Ph. Muhammad.
2. Khanqahs:Institutionally, the Sufis began to organize communities around thehospice orkhanqahc
ontrolled by a teaching master known as sheikh. He enrolled disciples and appointeda successor. He
established rules for spiritualconduct and interaction between inmates as well asbetween laypersons
and the master.
3. Silsilas:The word silsilaliterally means Spiritual chain, signifying a continuouslink between master
and disciple, stretching as anunbroken spiritual genealogy from Allah> the Prophet Muhammad >
Sufis > devotees. It was through this channel that spiritual power andblessings were transmitted to
devotees.
4. Ziyarat:When the sheikhdied, he was buried in a tomb shrine and his tomb-shrine is
called dargah. Itbecame the center ofdevotion for his followers. This encouraged the
practiceof pilgrimage or ziyaratto his grave, particularly onhis birth, deathand marriage
anniversaries. This was becausepeople believed that in death saints were united with God.
5. Be-sharia and Ba-sharia Sufis:

Be-Sharia
Sufis, Who left the khanqahand took to
mendicancy and observedcelibacy and
extremeforms of asceticism were called BeSharia
They were known by differentnames
Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris,etc.

Ba-Sharia
The Sufis who lived in Khanqas by following
normal Sharia practices were called Ba-Sharia
Sufis.
They did not have other names.

The Chishtiss Tradition in the Subcontinent

1. The Chishtis,one of the groups of Sufis who migrated to India inthe late twelfth century.They were
themost influential because they adaptedsuccessfully to the local environment and adoptedseveral
features of Indian devotional traditions.
2. Life in the Chishtikhanqah
a.

The khanqahwas the centre of social life. It comprised several small rooms anda big hall, where the
inmates andvisitors lived and prayed.
b. The inmates included familymembers of the Shaikh, his attendants and disciples.The Shaikh lived in
a small room on the roof of thehall where he met visitors in the morning and evening. Sufi or Walior
friend of the God, who claimedproximity to Allah, acquiring Gods Grace to performmiracles.

c.

There was an open kitchen (langar), run on unasked charity. From morning till late nightpeople
from all walks of life soldiers, slaves,singers, merchants, poets, travellers, rich andpoor,
Hindu jogisand qalandars cameseeking discipleship, amulets for healing.
d. Practices that were adopted, including bowing beforethe Shaikh, offering water to visitors, shaving
theheads of initiates, and yogic exercises, representedattempts to assimilate local traditions.

43

e.

ShaikhNizamuddin appointed several spiritualsuccessors and deputed them to set up hospices

invarious parts of the subcontinent. As a result, theteachings, practices and organisation of the
Chishtisas well as the fame of the Shaikhwere spread rapidly.
3. Ziyarat
a.
b.

c.

d.

e.

4.
a.
b.

c.
d.
e.

5.

Pilgrimage, called ziyarat, to tombs of sufi saints isprevalent all over the Muslim world. This
practiceis an occasion for seeking the sufis spiritual grace.
For more than seven centuries people ofvarious creeds, classes and social backgrounds
haveexpressed their devotion at the dargahsof the fivegreat Chishti saints.Amongstthese, the most
revered shrine is that of KhwajaMuinuddinChishti, popularly known as Gharib Nawaz(comforter
of the poor).
But the earliestconstruction to house the tomb was funded in thelate fifteenth century by
Sultan GhiyasuddinKhalji of Malwa. Since the shrine was located on the traderoute linking Delhi
and Gujarat, it attracted a lotof travellers.
The earliest textual references to KhwajaMuinuddinsdargahdate to the fourteenth century.It was
evidently popular because of the austerityand piety of its Shaikh, the greatness of his
spiritualsuccessors, and the patronage of royal visitors.Muhammad bin Tughlaq (ruled, 1324-51)
was thefirst Sultan to visit the shrine.
Akbar visitedthe tomb fourteen times,sometimes two or three times a year, to seekblessings for
new conquests, fulfilment of vows, andthe birth of sons. He offered a hugecauldron (degh) to
facilitate cooking for pilgrims.He also had a mosque constructed within thecompound of the dargah.
Qawwali
Also part of ziyaratis the use of music and danceincluding mystical chantsperformed by
speciallytrained musicians or qawwalsto evoke divineecstasy.
The sufis remember God either by reciting the Divine Names or evoking His
Presencethrough sama(audition) or performanceof mystical music called Qawwali.
Amir Khusrau the great poet, musician and disciple of ShaikhNizamuddinAuliya, gave a unique
form to the Chishtisama by introducing the qaul, a hymn sung at the opening or closing of qawwali.
This was followed by sufi poetry in Persian, Hindavi or Urdu, and sometimes using words from all
of these languages.
Qawwals (those who sing these songs) at the shrine of ShaikhNizamuddinAuliya always start their
recital with the qaul. Today qawwali is performed in shrines all over the subcontinent .
Languages and communication in Chishti Tradition:

a.

In Delhi, those associated withthe Chishtisilsilaconversed in Hindavi, the languageof the people.
Other sufis such as Baba Faridcomposed verses in the local language.
b. Yet otherscomposed long poems or masnavisto express ideasof divine love using human love as an
allegory (Symbol). Forexample, the prem-akhyan(love story)Padmavatcomposed by Malik
Muhammad Jayasi revolvedaround the romance of Padmini and Ratansen, theking of Chittor.

44

c.

A different genre of sufi poetry was composed inand around the town of Bijapur, Karnataka.
Thesewere short poems in Urduattributed to Chishtisufis who lived in this regionduring the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
d. These poems were probably sung by women whileperforming household chores like grinding grain
andspinning. Other compositions were in the form oflurinamaor lullabies and shadinamaor
weddingsongs.
e. It is likely that theSufis of this region wereinspired by the pre-existing bhakti traditionof
theKannada vachanasof the Lingayats and the Marathiabhangsof the santsof Pandharpur. It is
throughthis medium that Islam gradually gained a place inthe villages of the Deccan.
6. Sufis and their relations with the state(Rulers)
a.
b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

The sufisaccepted unsolicited grants and donations from thepolitical elites. The Sultans in turn set
up charitabletrusts as endowments for hospices andgranted tax-free.
The Chishtis accepted donations in cash and kind.Rather than accumulate donations, they
preferredto use these fully on immediate requirementssuch as food, clothes, living quarters and
ritualnecessities.
All this enhanced themoral authority of the shaikhs, which in turnattracted people from all walks of
life. Further, theirpiety and scholarship, and peoples belief in theirmiraculous powers made Sufis
popular among themasses, whose support kings wished to secure.
Kings did not simply need to demonstrate theirassociation with Sufis; they also required
legitimationfrom them. When the Turks set up the DelhiSultanate, theyanticipated opposition from
Ulemas for not imposing Sharia as the state law. The Sultansthen sought out the Sufis who
derived theirauthority directly from God and did not depend onjurists to interpret the sharia.
Besides, it was believed that the auliyacouldintercede with God in order to improve the materialand
spiritual conditions of ordinary human beings. That is why kings often wanted their tombs tobe in
the vicinity of Sufi shrines and hospices.
However, there were instances of conflict betweenthe Sultans and the Sufis. To assert their
authority,both expected that certain rituals be performed suchas prostration and kissing of the feet.
Occasionallythe Sufi shaikhwas addressed with high-soundingtitleslikesultan-ul-mashaikh.

Life and teachings of Kabir

1. Kabir was born in aHindufamily (Kabirdas)but was raised by a poorMuslim family belonging tothe
community of weavers orjulahas, who were relativelyrecent converts to Islam. Theyalso suggested
that he wasinitiated into bhakti by a guru,perhaps Ramananda.
2. Kabir was one of the most outstanding examples of a poet-saintwho emerged in North
India.Verses ascribed to Kabir have been compiled inthree distinct but overlapping traditions.
The KabirBijakis preserved by the Kabirpanth in Varanasi and in UttarPradesh;
the KabirGranthavaliis associated withthe Dadupanth in Rajasthan, and many of hiscompositions are
found in the AdiGranth Sahib.
3. Kabirs poems have survived in several languagesand dialects; and some are composed in the
speciallanguage of nirgunapoets, the santbhasha. Others,known asulatbansi(upside-down sayings),
arewritten in a form in which everyday meaningsare inverted.
4. Kabirs mystical experiences are many to describe the Ultimate Reality. These includeIslam: he
described the Ultimate Reality as Allah,Khuda, Hazrat and Pir.

45

5. He also used terms drawnfrom Vedantic traditions, alakh(the unseen),nirakar(formless), Brahman,

Atman, etc. Other terms withmystical connotations such as shabda(sound) orshunya(emptiness) were
drawn from yogic traditions.
6. Diverse and sometimes conflicting ideas areexpressed in these poems. Some poems draw onIslamic
ideas and use monotheism and iconoclasmto attack Hindu polytheism and idol worship; othersuse
the Sufi concept of love to expressthe Hindu practice ofNam-simaran(remembranceof Gods name).
7. Scholars havetried to analyze the language, style and content toestablish which verses could be
Kabirs. What thisrich corpus of verses also signifies is that Kabir wasand is to the present a source
of inspiration forthose who questioned entrenched religious andsocial institutions, ideas and practices
in theirsearch for the Divine.
8. However, the verses attributed to Kabir use thewords guru and satguru, but do not mention the
nameof any specific preceptor. Historians have pointedout that it is very difficult to establish
thatRamananda and Kabir were contemporaries, withoutassigning improbably long lives to either or
both.

Life and Teachings of Baba Guru Nanak

1. Baba Guru Nanakwas born in a Hindumerchant family in a village called Nankana Sahibnear the
river Ravi in the predominantly MuslimPunjab (now in Pakistan). He trained to be an accountant and
studiedPersian.
2. He was married at a young age but he spentmost of his time among sufis and bhaktas. He
alsotravelled widely.The message of Baba Guru Nanak is spelt out inhis hymns and teachings.
3. Headvocated a form of nirgunabhakti. He firmlyrepudiated the external practices of the religions
hesaw around him. He rejected sacrifices, ritual baths,image worship, austerities and the scriptures of
bothHindus and Muslims.
4. For Baba Guru Nanak,the Absolute or rab had no gender or form. Heproposed a simple way to
connect to the Divine byremembering and repeating the Divine Name,expressing his ideas through
hymns called shabadin Punjabi. Baba GuruNanak would sing these compositions in
variousragas while his attendant Mardana played the rabab.
5. Baba Guru Nanak organised his followers into acommunity. He set up rules for
congregationalworship (sangat) involving collective recitation. Heappointed one of his disciples,
Angad, to succeedhim as the preceptor (guru), and this practice wasfollowed for nearly 200 years.
6. It appears that Baba Guru Nanak did notwish to establish a new religion, but after his deathhis
followers consolidated their own practicesand distinguished themselves from both Hindusand
Muslims.
7. The fifth preceptor, Guru Arjan,compiled Baba Guru Nanaks hymns along withthose of his four
successors and other religiouspoets like Baba Farid, Ravidasand Kabir in theAdiGranth Sahib.
Thesehymns, called gurbani, are composed in variouslanguages.
8. In the late seventeenth century the tenthpreceptor, Guru Gobind Singh, included thecompositions
of the ninth guru, Guru TeghBahadur,and this scripture was called the Guru Granth Sahib.
9. Guru Gobind Singh also laid the foundation of theKhalsaPanth (army of the pure) and defined its
fivesymbols: uncut hair, a dagger, a pair of shorts, a comband a steel bangle.
10. Under him the community gotconsolidated as a socio-religious and military force.

Life and Teachings ofMirabai, the devotee princess

1. Mirabai is perhapsthe best-known woman poet within the bhaktitradition. Biographies have been
reconstructedprimarily from the bhajansattributed to her, whichwere transmitted orally for centuries.
46

2. According to the traditions, she was a Rajput princess from Marwar who was married against her
wishes to aprince of Mewar, in Rajasthan.
3. Shedefied her husband and did not submit to thetraditional role of wife and mother,
insteadrecognising Krishna, the avatar of Vishnu, as herlover.
4. Her in-laws tried to poison her, but she escapedfrom the palace to live as a wandering
singercomposing songs that are characterised by intenseexpressions of emotion.
5. According to some traditions, her preceptor(student) wasRaidas, a leather worker. This would
indicate herdefiance of the norms of caste society.
6. Afterrejecting the comforts of her husbands palace, sheis supposed to have donned the white robes
of awidow or the saffron robe of the renouncer.
7. Although Mirabai did not attract a sect orgroup of followers, she has been recognised as asource of
inspiration for centuries.
8. Her songscontinue to be sung by women and men, especiallythose who are poor and
considered low caste inGujarat and Rajasthan.

Varieties of sources used to reconstructthe history of sufi traditions

1.
2.
3.
4.

A wide range of texts were produced in and around sufikhanqahs.

These included Treatises or manuals dealing with sufi thought and practices
Malfuzator conversations of sufi saints Theywere compiled over several centuries.
Maktubat or written collections of letters. These letterswritten by sufi masters, addressed to
their disciples
5. Tazkirasor biographical accounts of saints

7- An Imperial Capital-Vijayanagara
The Discovery of Hampi( How was the city Hampi/ Vijayanagardiscovered?)
1. Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an employee of the English East IndiaCompanyprepared the first survey
map of thesite of Hampi.
2. Much of the initial information he received wasbased on the memories of priests of the
Virupakshatemple and the shrine of Pampadevi.
3. Subsequently,from 1856, photographers began to record themonuments which enabled scholars to
study them.
4. As early as 1836 epigraphists began collectingseveral dozen inscriptions found at this site and
othertemples at Hampi.
5. In an effort to reconstruct thehistory of the city and the empire, historians collatedinformation from
these sources with accounts offoreign travellers and other literature written inTelugu, Kannada,
Tamil and Sanskrit.

Rayas,the rulers of Vijayanagara Empire

1. According to tradition and epigraphic evidence twobrothers, Harihara and Bukka,
founded theVijayanagara Empire in 1336. This empire included territories from
Karnataka,Andhrapradesh,Tamilnadu and Kerala.

47

2. The first dynasty, known as theSangama dynasty, exercised control till 1485.They were supplanted
by the Saluvas, militarycommanders, who remained in power till 1503. They were replaced by
the Tuluvas and Aravidudynasty rulers.
3. ( Explain the contributions of Krishnadeva Raya to the Vijayanagara Empire)
a. Krishnadeva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty.
b. Krishnadeva Rayas rule was characterised by expansion and consolidation.
c. This was the time when the land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers was acquired.
d. He subdued the rulers of Orissa (1514) andsevere defeats were inflicted on the Sultan of Bijapur.
e. Krishnadeva Raya is credited with building somefine temples and adding
impressivegopuramstomany important south Indian temples.
f. He alsofounded a suburban township near Vijayanagaracalled Nagalapuram after his mother.
g. Some of themost detailed descriptions of Vijayanagara come fromhis time or just after.
4. On their northern frontier, the Vijayanagara kingscompeted with contemporary rulers including
theSultans of the Deccan and the Gajapati rulers ofOrissa. Some of the areas that were
incorporated withinthe empire had witnessed the development ofpowerful states such as those of the
Cholas in TamilNadu and the Hoysalas in Karnataka.
5. As warfare during these times depended uponeffective cavalry, the import of horses from
Arabiaand Central Asia was very important. Local communities of merchants known
askudiraichettisor horse merchants provided horses to Vijayanagara rulers.
6. In fact, Vijayanagara was also noted for itsmarkets dealing in spices, textiles and preciousstones.
Trade was often regarded as a status symbolfor such cities, which boasted of a wealthy
populationthat demanded high-value exotic goods, especially precious stones and jewellery.
7. Krishnadeva Rayas successors were troubled by rebellious nayakasormilitary chiefs. By 1542
control at the centre hadshifted to another ruling lineage, that of the Aravidu,which remained in
power till the end of theseventeenth century.
8. During this period, as indeedearlier, the military ambitions of the rulersof Vijayanagara as well as
those of the DeccanSultanates resulted in shifting alignments.Eventually this led to an alliance of the
Sultanatesagainst Vijayanagara. It was the adventurous policy of Rama Raya who tried to play off
one Sultanagainst another that led the Sultans to combinetogether and wage war on Rama Raya.
9. In 1565 Rama Raya, the chiefminister of Vijayanagara, led the army into battleat Rakshasi-Tangadi
(also known as Talikota), wherehis forces were routed by the combined armiesof Bijapur,
Ahmadnagar and Golconda. The victoriousarmies sacked the city of Vijayanagara. The city
wastotally abandoned within a few years.

Amaranayaka System
1. The amara-nayakasystem was a major politicalinnovation of the Vijayanagara Empire. It is
likelythat many features of this system were derived from the iqtasystem of the Delhi Sultanate
2. Among those who exercised power in the VijayanagarEmpire weremilitary chiefs who
usually controlled forts and hadarmed supporters. These chiefs often moved fromone area to
another, and in many cases wereaccompanied by peasants looking for fertile land on which to settle.
3. The amara-nayakaswere military commanderswho were given territories to govern by the rayas.
4. They collected taxes and other dues from peasants,craftspersons and traders in the area.

48

5.

6.
7.
8.
9.

They retainedpart of the revenue for personal use and formaintaining a stipulated contingent
of horsesand elephants. These contingents provided theVijayanagara kings with an effective
fighting forcewith which they brought the entire southernpeninsula under their control.
Some of the revenuewas also used for the maintenance of temples andirrigation works.
The amara-nayakassent tribute to the kingannually and personally appeared in the royal courtwith
gifts to express their loyalty.
Kings occasionallyasserted their control over them by transferring themfrom one place to another.
However, during the courseof the seventeenth century, many of thesenayakasestablished
independent kingdoms. This hastenedthe collapse of the central imperial structure.

Vijayanagara-the Capital and itsPhysical Environment

1. Water resources
a) The most striking feature about the location ofVijayanagara is the natural basin formed by
theriver Tungabhadra which flows in a north-easterlydirection.
b) A number of streams flow down tothe river from these rocky outcrops.In almost all
cases embankments were built alongthese streams to create reservoirs of varying sizes.
c) Elaborate arrangements had to be made to storerainwater and conduct it to the city. The
mostimportant such tank was Kamalapuram tank.
d) Water from this tank not onlyirrigated fields nearby but was also conductedthrough a channel to the
royal centre.One of the most prominent waterworks to be seenamong the ruins is the Hiriya canal.
2. Fortifications (Explain the descriptions about the forts observed by AbdurRazzaq and Paes)
a.

b.
c.

d.
e.
f.

g.
i)
ii)
iii)

AbdurRazzaq, an ambassadorsent by the ruler of Persia was greatlyimpressed by the fortifications,

and mentionedseven lines of forts. These encircled not only thecity but also its agricultural
hinterland and forests.
The outermost wall linked the hills surroundingthe city. The massive masonry construction
wasslightly tapered.
No mortar or cementing agent wasemployed anywhere in the construction. The stoneblocks were
wedge shaped, which held them inplace, and the inner portion of the walls was ofearth packed with
rubble.
What was most significant about this fortificationis that it enclosed agricultural tracts.
AbdurRazzaqnoted thatbetween the first, second and the thirdwalls there are cultivated fields,
gardens and houses.
Paes observed that from this first fort until youenter the city there is a great distance, withfields,
many gardensand two lakes. These statements have been corroborated bypresent-day archaeologists,
who have also foundevidence of an agricultural tract between the sacredcentre and the urban core.
Why do you think agricultural tracts wereincorporated within the fortified area?
Theobjective of medieval sieges was to starve thedefenders into submission. These sieges could
lastfor several months and sometimes even years.
Normally rulers tried to be prepared for suchsituations by building large granaries withinfortified
areas.
The rulers of Vijayanagara adopteda more expensive and elaborate strategy of protectingthe
agricultural belt itself.

49

h. A second line of fortification went round theinner core of the urban complex, and a third
linesurrounded the royal centre, within which each setof major buildings was surrounded by its
ownhigh walls.
3. Roads in Vijayanagara Empire
a.

The fort was entered through well-guarded gates,which linked the city to the major roads.
Archaeologists have studied roads within the cityand those leading out from it.
b. These roads have beenidentified by tracing paths through gateways, as wellas by finds of
pavements.
c. Roads generally woundaround through the valleys, avoiding rocky terrain.Some of the most
important roads extended fromtemple gateways, and were lined by bazaars.
4.
a.

b.
c.
d.
e.

The urban core

There is relatively little archaeological evidence ofthe houses of ordinary people. Archaeologists
havefound fine Chinese porcelain in some areas, which suggest that these areas may have
beenoccupied by rich traders.
Tombs and mosques locatedhere have distinctive functions, yet their architectureresembles that of
the mandapasfound in the templesof Hampi.
The housesof ordinary people are thatched, but nonetheless well-builtand arranged according to
occupations, in longstreets with many open places.
Field surveys indicate that the entire area wasdotted with numerous shrines and small
temples,pointing to the prevalence of a variety of cults,perhaps supported by different communities.
Thesurveys also indicate that wells, rainwater tanks aswell as temple tanks may have served as
sources ofwater to the ordinary town dwellers.

The Royal Centre in the Vijayanagara

1. The royal centre was located in the south-westernpart of the settlement.About 30 building
complexes have beenidentified as palaces. These are relatively largestructures that do not seem to
have been associatedwith ritual functions.
2. One difference betweenthese structures and temples is that thetemples wereconstructed entirely of
masonry, while the secular buildings were madeof perishable materials.
3. One of the more distinctive structures in the area was thekingspalacewhich is the largest of the
enclosures but has notyielded definitive evidence of being a royal residence.
4. The kings palace has two most impressive platforms, usuallycalled the audience halland
the mahanavamidibba. The entire complex is surrounded by highdouble walls with a street
running between them.
5. The audience hall is a high platform with slots forwooden pillars at close and regular intervals. It
hada staircase going up to the second floor.It is not very clear what the hall was used for.
6. Mahanavamidibbais a massive platform risingfrom a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of40 ft.
There is evidence that it supported a woodenstructure. The base of the platform is covered withrelief
carvings.
7. Rituals associated with the structure or the ceremonies performed in mahanavamidibbaon the
occasion
a. worship of the image,
b. worship of the state horse,
50

c. Sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals.

d. Dances,wrestling matches, and processions of caparisonedhorses, elephants and chariots and
soldiers,
e. Ritual presentations before the king and hisguests by the chief nayakasand subordinate
kingsmarked the occasion.
f. On the last day of thefestival the king inspected his army and the armiesof thenayakasin a grand
ceremony in an open field.On this occasion the nayakasbrought rich gifts forthe king as well as
the stipulated tribute.
8. One of the most beautiful buildings in the royalcentre is the Lotus Mahal, so named by
Britishtravellers in the nineteenth century. While the nameis certainly romantic, historians are not
quite surewhat the building was used for. According to Mackenzie this may have been a council
chamber, a place wherethe king met his advisers.
9. Another important building in the Royal centre was the Elephant Stables. This building has eleven
rooms and beautiful structures over them. This may have been used for keeping special elephants
which were used for kings family.
10. One of the most spectacular temples in the royal centre is the Hazara Rama temple. This was
probably meantto be used only by the king and his family. The imagesin the central shrine are
missing; however, sculptedpanels on the walls have scenesfrom theRamayana sculpted on the inner
walls ofthe shrine.
While many of the structures at Vijayanagarawere destroyed when the city was sacked, traditionsof
building palatial structures were continued bythe nayakas. Many of these buildings have survived.

The Sacred Centre in the Vijayanagara

1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

According to localtradition, the hills near the sacred centresheltered the monkey kingdomof Vali
and Sugriva mentioned in the Ramayana.
Other traditions suggest that Pampadevi, the localmother goddess, did penance in these hills in
orderto marry Virupaksha, the guardian deity of thekingdom, who isrecognised as a form of Shiva.
Among these hills are foundJaina temples of the pre-Vijayanagara period as well.In other words,
this area was associated with severalsacred traditions such as the Pallavas,Chalukyas, Hoysalas and
Cholas. Rulers very oftenencouraged temple building as a means ofassociating themselves with the
divine.
Temples also functioned as centres of learning. Rulers granted land andother resources for the
maintenance of temples. Temples developed as significantreligious, social, cultural and economic
centres. Fromthe point of view of the rulers, constructing, repairingand maintaining temples were
important meansof winning support and recognition for their power,wealth and piety.
The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf ofthe god Virupaksha. All royal orders were
signedShriVirupaksha, usually in the Kannada script.Rulers also indicated their close links with the
godsby using the title Hindu Suratrana this meant Hindu Sultan.
The rayagopuramsor royal gatewaysthat often dwarfed the towers on the gate ways,whichsignalled
the presence of the temple from a greatdistance. They were also probably meant asreminders of the
power of kings, able to commandthe resources, techniques and skills needed toconstruct these
towering gateways.
Other distinctivefeatures include mandapasor pavilions andlong, pillared corridorsthat often ran
around theshrines within the temple complex.

51

8. A characteristic feature of the temple complexesis the chariot streets that extended from the
temple gopuramin a straight line. These streets were pavedwith stone slabs and lined with pillared
pavilions inwhich merchants set up their shops.
9. The Virupaksha templea. The Virupaksha temple was built in the ninth-tenth centuries.
b. The hall in front ofthe main shrine was built by Krishnadeva Raya tomark his accession.
c. He is also credited withthe construction of the eastern gopuram, whichmade the central small.
d. The halls in the temple were used for a variety ofpurposes. Some were spaces in which the images
ofgods were placed to witness special programmes ofmusic, dance, drama, etc.
e. Others were used tocelebrate the marriages of deities, and yet otherswere meant for the deities to
swing in.
10. The Vitthala temple
a.

In the Vitthala temple, the principal deity was Vitthala, aform of Vishnu generally worshipped in
Maharashtra.
b. The introduction of the worship of the deity inKarnataka is another indication of the ways in
whichthe rulers of Vijayanagaraaccepted different traditions.
c. As in the case of othertemples, this temple too has several halls.
d. This temple has aunique feature that the main shrine is designed like a chariot.

Plotting or locating Palaces, Templesand Bazaars in Vijayanagar

1. After the initial surveys by Colin Mackenzie,information was pieced together from
travellersaccounts and inscriptions.
2. Through the twentiethcentury, the site of Vijayanagara was preserved by theArchaeologicalSurvey
of India and the Karnataka Department ofArchaeology and Museums.
3. In 1976, Hampi wasrecognised as a site of national importance.
4. In 1980s, an important project waslaunched to document the material remains atVijayanagara in
detail, through extensive andintensive surveys, by using a variety of recording techniques.
5. One of such techniques was mapping
a)The first step of mapping was to divide the entirearea into a set of 25squares, each designated bya
letter of the alphabet
b)Then,each of the small squareswas subdivided into a setof even smaller squares.
c) Each ofthese smaller squares wasfurther subdivided into yetsmaller units.
6. Thesedetailed surveys havebeen extremely painstaking,and have recovered anddocumented traces
ofthousands of structures from tiny shrines andresidences to elaboratetemples.
7. It is worth rememberingthat John M. Fritz,George Michell and M.S. NagarajaRao, who worked
for years at thesite to discover many important aspects of Vijayanagara.

8- Peasants, Zamindars and the State

Sources to understand agrarian society under Mughal period

52

1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

Our major source forthe agrarian history of the sixteenth and earlyseventeenth centuries are
chronicles and documentsfrom the Mughal court.
One of the most important chronicles was theAin-i Akbari authored by Akbars court historian
AbulFazl. Thistext meticulously recorded the arrangements madeby the state to ensure cultivation,
to enable thecollection of revenue by the agencies of the stateand to regulate the relationship between
the stateand rural magnates, the zamindars.
The detailed revenue records fromGujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan dating fromthe 17th and
18thcenturies.
Further,the extensive records of the East India Company provide us with useful descriptionsof
agrarian relations in eastern India.
All thesesources record instances of conflicts between peasants, zamindars and the state. In the
processthey give us an insight into peasants perception ofand their expectations of fairness from the
state.

Different terms used for describing peasants

1. The term which Indo-Persian sources of the Mughalperiod most frequently used to denote a peasant
was raiyat or muzarian.
2. In addition, wealso encounter the terms kisan or asami.
3. Sources ofthe seventeenth century refer to two kinds of peasants khud-kashta andpahi-kashta.
4. The khud-kashta were residents of the village in which they held theirlands.
5. The pahi-kashta were non-resident cultivators who belonged to some other village, but cultivated
landselsewhere on a contractual basis.
6. People became pahi-kashta either out of choice or out of compulsion.Whenterms of revenue in a
distant village were more favourable peasants moved to other villages.
7. Sometimes they were forced by economic distress after a famine.

Property and land of peasants

1. Average peasant of north Indiapossessed a pair of bulls and one plough and others possessed two
pairs of bulls and two ploughs.; most possessed even less.
2. In Gujaratpeasants possessing about six acres of land wereconsidered to be affluent; in Bengal, five
acres was the upper limit of an averagepeasant farm

Irrigation used by peasants

1. The three factors thataccounted for the constant expansion of agriculture were the abundance of
land, available labour and the mobility of peasants.
2. Since the primary purpose of agriculture is to feedpeople, basic staples such as rice, wheat or
milletswere the most frequently cultivated crops.
3. Monsoons remained the backbone of Indianagriculture, as they are even today. But there werecrops
which required additional water. Artificialsystems of irrigation had to be devised for this.
4. In northern India the state undertookdigging of new canals and also repairedold ones like
the shahnahr in the Punjab during Shah Jahans reign.
Technology used by peasants
1. Though agriculture was labour intensive, peasants did use technologies that often harnessed
cattleenergy.
53

2. One example was the wooden plough, whichwas light and easily assembled with an iron tip
orcoulter.
3. A drill, pulled by a pair of giant oxen,was used to plant seeds, but broadcasting ofseed was the most
prevalent method.
4. Hoeing andweeding were done simultaneously using a narrowiron blade with a small wooden
handle.

Crops and cropping seasons

1. Agriculture was organised around two major seasonal cycles, the kharif and the rabi.This would
mean that most regionsproduced a minimum of two crops ayear whereas some, where rainfall
orirrigation assured a continuous supply of water, evengave three crops.
2. In the Mughal provinces of Agra produced 39 varietiesof crops and Delhi produced 43 over the two
seasons.Bengal produced 50 varieties of rice alone.
3. However, the focus on the cultivation was basicstaples such as rice, wheat, pulses and vegetables etc.
The Mughal state also encouraged peasantsto cultivate cash crops such as cotton,oilseeds and
sugarcane which brought morerevenue.
4. During the seventeenth century several new cropsfrom different parts of the world reached the
Indiansubcontinent. Maize (makka), for example, was introduced into India via Africa and Spain and
bythe seventeenth century it was being listed as oneof the major crops of western India.
5. Vegetables like tomatoes, potatoes and chillies were introduced from the New World at this time, as
were fruits like thepineapple and the papaya.

Agriculturalproduction involved the intensive participation and initiative of the peasantry.

How did this affect the structure of agrarian relations in Mughal society?
1. Caste and the rural milieu
a.

b.
c.

d.

e.

Despite the abundance ofcultivable land, certain castegroups were assigned menialtasks and thus
relegated topoverty. Such groupscomprised a large section ofthe village population, hadthe least
resources and wereconstrained by their positionin the caste hierarchy, muchlike the Dalits of modern
India.
In Muslim communities menials like the halalkhoran,those who cut meat were housed outside
theboundaries of the village; similarly the mallahzadas, boatmen in Bihar were comparableto slaves.
There was a direct correlation between caste,poverty and social status at the lower strata ofsociety.
In Marwar, Rajputs are mentioned as peasants,sharing the same space with Jats, who were accordeda
lower status in the caste hierarchy.
The Gauravas, who cultivated land in UttarPradesh sought Rajput status in the seventeenthcentury.
Castes such as the Ahirs, Gujars and Malisrose in the hierarchy because of the profitability ofcattle
rearing and horticulture.
In the easternregions, intermediate pastoral and fishing castes like the Sadgops and Kaivartas
acquired the statusof peasants.

2. Powers and functions ofPanchayats and headmen

54

a.

b.

c.
d.

e.

f.

g.

h.

i.

j.

The village panchayat was an assembly of elders. In mixed-caste villages,the panchayat was usually
a heterogeneous body. The panchayat represented various castes and communities in the village so it
is calledan oligarchy.
The panchayat was headed by a headman known as muqaddam or mandal. Some sources suggest
thatthe headman was chosen through the consensus ofthe village elders, and that this choice had to
beratified by the zamindar. Headmen held office as longas they enjoyed the confidence of the village
elders.
Thechief function of the headman was to supervise thepreparation of village accounts, assisted by
theaccountant or patwariof the panchayat.
The panchayat derived its funds fromcontributions made by individuals to a commonfinancial pool.
These funds were used for defrayingthe costs of entertaining revenue officials, expenses
forcommunity welfare activities such as tiding overnatural calamities and digging a canal
whichpeasants usually could notafford to do on their own.
One important function ofthe panchayat was to ensure that caste boundaries amongthe various
communitiesinhabiting the village wereupheld. In eastern India allmarriages were held in the
presence of the mandal.
Panchayats also had the authority to levy finesand inflict more serious forms of punishment
likeexpulsion from the community. It meant that a person forced to leavethe village became an
outcaste and lost his right to practise his profession.
In western India people of lower castes presented petitions to the panchayat complaining
about extortionate taxation or the demand for unpaid labour (begar) imposed by the superior
castes orofficials of the state.
In the eyesof the petitioners the right to the basic minimum forsurvival was sanctioned by custom.
They regardedthe village panchayat as the court of appeal thatwould ensure that the state carried out
its moralobligations and guaranteed justice.
The decision of the panchayat in conflicts between lower caste peasants and state officials or the
local zamindar could vary from case to case. In cases of excessive revenue demands, the panchayat
often suggested compromise.
In cases where reconciliation failed, peasants took recourse to more drastic forms of resistance, such
as deserting the village.

JatiPanchayat
a. In addition to the village panchayat each sub-caste or jati in the village had its own jati panchayat.
b. These panchayats wielded considerable powerin rural society.
c. In Rajasthan jati panchayats arbitrated civil disputes between members ofdifferent castes.
d. They mediated in contested claimson land, decided whether marriages were performedaccording to
the norms laid down by a particularcaste group and determined who had ritual precedencein village
functions, and so on.
e. In most cases,except in matters of criminal justice, the staterespected the decisions of
jatipanchayats.

3. Life of Village artisans

a.

25 per cent ofthe total households in the villages were artisans. The distinctionbetween artisans and
peasants invillage society was a fluid one, asmany groups performed the tasks of both.
55

b. Cultivators and theirfamilies would also participate incraft production such as dyeing,textile
printing, baking and firingof pottery, making and repairingagricultural implements.
c. Village artisans potters, blacksmiths, carpenters,even goldsmiths provided specialisedservices in
return for which they were compensatedby villagers by giving them a share of theharvest, or an
allotment of land, perhaps cultivablewastes, which was likely to be decided by thepanchayat.
d. Zamindars inBengal who remunerated blacksmiths, carpenters,even goldsmiths for their work by
paying them asmall daily allowance and diet money. This latercame to be described as
the jajmanisystem,though the term was not in vogue in the sixteenthand seventeenth centuries.

Why were villages called little republic?

Some British officials in thenineteenth century saw the village as a littlerepublic. Because villages
were made up of fraternal partners of sharingresources and labour in a collective. However, thiswas
not a sign of rural egalitarianism.
b. There wasindividual ownership of assets and deep inequitiesbased on caste and gender distinctions.
A groupof powerful individuals decided the affairs of thevillage, exploited the weaker sections and
had theauthority to dispense justice.
a.

Women in Agrarian Society under Mughal rule

1. In Mughal period women and men hadto work shoulder to shoulder in the fields. Mentilled and
ploughed, while women sowed, weeded,threshed and winnowed the harvest. With the growthof
nucleated villages and expansion in individuatedpeasant farming the basis of production was
thelabour and resources of the entire household.
2. Biases related to womensbiological functions did continue. Menstruatingwomen, for instance, were
not allowed to touch theplough or the potters wheel in western India, orenter the groves where betelleaves weregrown.
3. Artisanal tasks such as spinning yarn, sifting andkneading clay for pottery, and embroidery were
amongthe many aspects of production dependent on femalelabour. In fact, peasant and artisan
women worked not onlyin the fields, but even went to the houses of theiremployers or to the markets
if necessary.
4. Women were considered an important resource inagrarian society also because they were child
bearersin a society which dependents on labour. At the same time,high mortality rates among women
owing tomalnutrition, frequent pregnancies and death duringchildbirth often meant a shortage of
wives.
5. Shortage of women led to the emergence of new social customs in peasantand artisan communities
that were distinct fromthose prevalent among elite groups. Marriages inmany rural communities
required the payment ofbride-price rather than dowry to the brides family.Remarriage was
considered legitimate both amongdivorced and widowed women.
6. The importance attached to women as areproductive force also meant that the fear of losingcontrol
over them was great. According to establishedsocial norms, the household was headed by a
male.Thus women were kept under strict control by themale members of the family and draconian
punishments were given to suspected infidelity on the part of women.
7. Women sent petitions tothe village panchayat, seeking redress and justice.Wives protested against
the infidelity of theirhusbands or the neglect of the wife and children bythe male head of the
household.

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Whilemale infidelity was not always punished, the stateand superior caste groups did intervene
when it cameto ensuring that the family was adequately providedfor. In most cases when women
petitioned to the panchayat, their names were excluded from therecord: the petitioner was referred to
as the mother,sister or wife of the male head of the household.
9. Amongst the landed gentry, women had the rightto inherit property. Instances from the Punjab
showthat women, including widows, actively participatedin the rural land market as sellers of
property inheritedby them.
10. Hindu and Muslim women inherited zamindaris which they were free to sell or mortgage. Women
zamindars were known in eighteenth-century Bengal.
8.

Forest Society and Tribes in Mughal Period

1. An average of 40 per cent of Mughal Empire was covered by forests. Forest dwellers were
termed jangli incontemporary texts. Jangli did not mean an absence of civilisation,rather, the
termdescribed those whose livelihoodcame from the gathering of forestproduce, hunting and
shiftingagriculture.
2. Collection of livelihood was largely season specific. Spring was reservedfor collecting forest
produce, summerfor fishing, the monsoon monthsfor cultivation, and autumn andwinter for hunting.
3. For the state, the forest was a place of rebels and troublemakers. Babur says thatjungles provided a
good defence behind which the people of the pargana become stubbornly rebellious and pay no
taxes.
4. The staterequired elephants for the army. Elephants were captured from forest and sold. So
the peshkash levied from forest people often included a supply of elephants.In the Mughal political
ideology, the hunt symbolised the overwhelming concern of the stateto ensure justice to all its
subjects, rich and poor.
5. Rulers went for regular hunting expeditions which enabled the emperor to travel across the
extensiveterritories of his empire and personally attend to thegrievances of its inhabitants.
6. The spread of commercial agriculture was animportant external factor that impinged on the livesof
those who lived in the forests. Forest products like honey, beeswax and gum lac were in
greatdemand. Some, such as gum lac, became major itemsof overseas export from India in the
seventeenthcentury.
7. Social factors too wrought changes in the lives offorest dwellers. Like the head men of the villages,
tribes also had their chieftains. Manytribal chiefs had become zamindars, some even became kings.
8. Tribal Kings recruited people from their lineagegroups or demanded that their fraternity
providemilitary service. Tribes in the Sind region had armiescomprising 6,000 cavalry and 7,000
infantry.
9. In Assam, the Ahom kings had their paiks, people who were obliged to render military service in
exchangefor land. The capture of wild elephants was declareda royal monopoly by the Ahom kings.
Though the transition from a tribal to amonarchical system had started much earlier in India.
10. War was a commonoccurrence between tribalkingdoms in the north-east.The Koch kings foughtand
subjugated a number of neighbouring tribes in a long sequence of wars through the sixteenth
andseventeenth centuries.

Role of The Zamindars in rural society

1. Zamindars, who were landed proprietors who also enjoyed certainsocial and economic privileges by
virtue of theirsuperior status in rural society. Caste was one factorfor their elevated status and another
factor was that they performed certainservices (khidmat) for the state.
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2. The zamindars held extensive personal landstermed milkiyat, meaning property.Milkiyatlandswere

cultivated for the private use of zamindars,often with the help of hired labour. Thezamindars could
sell or donate theselands at will.
3. Zamindars also derived their power from the state that they could often collect revenue on behalf of
the state.They had control over military resources wasanother source of power. Most of the
zamindars hadfortresses as well as armed contingentcomprising units of cavalry, artillery and
infantry.
4. AbulFazls accountindicates thatmost of the Zamindars were from an upper-caste, Brahmana or
Rajput. It also reflects a fairly largerepresentation of Zamindars from the so-called intermediate
castes,as well as a liberal sprinkling ofMuslim zamindaris.
5. The dispossession of weaker peopleby a powerful military chieftain was quite often away of
expanding a zamindari. It is, however, unlikelythat the state would have allowed such a show
ofaggression by a zamindar unless he had been confirmed by an imperial order.
6. Zamindars spearheaded the colonisation ofagricultural land, and helped in settling cultivatorsby
providing them with the means of cultivation,including cash loans. The buying and selling
ofzamindaris accelerated the process of monetization in the countryside.
7. In addition, zamindars sold theproduce from their milkiyatlands. There is evidenceto show that
zamindars often established markets to which peasants also came to sell their produce.
8. Although there can be little doubt that zamindars were an exploitative class, their relationship with
thepeasantry had an element of reciprocity, paternalismand patronage.
9. Two aspects reinforce this view. First,the bhakti saints, who eloquently condemnedcaste-based and
other forms of oppression. They did not portray the zamindars as exploiters or oppressors of the
peasantry.
10. Second, in a large number of agrarian uprisingswhich erupted in north India in the
seventeenthcentury, zamindars often received the support of thepeasantry in their struggle against the
state.

Land Revenue System under Mughal Rule

1. Revenue from the land was the economic mainstayof the Mughal Empire. It was therefore vital
for thestate to create an administrative system to ensurecontrol over agricultural production, and to
fix andcollect revenue from across the empire.
2. This system included the office of the diwan who was responsible for supervising the fiscal system
of theempire. Thus revenue officials and record keeperspenetrated the agricultural domain and
became adecisive agent in shaping agrarian relations.
3. Theland revenue arrangements consisted of twostages first, assessment and then actual collection.
The jamawas the amount assessed and hasil, the amount collected.
4. Akbar decreed ordered amil-guzaror revenue collector that he should strive to make cultivators
payin cash, the option of payment in kind was also tobe kept open. While fixing revenue, the attempt
ofthe state was to maximise its claims.
5. Both cultivated and cultivable lands were measuredin each province. Efforts to measurelands
continued under subsequent emperors. Aurangzeb instructed hisrevenue officials to prepare annual
records of thenumber of cultivators in each village. Yetnot all areas were measured successfully.

The Flow of Silver coin into Mughal Empire( Revenue through trade)

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1. The Mughal Empire was the large territorialempires in Asia among the Ming (China),Safavid (Iran)
and Ottoman (Turkey) empires that had managed to consolidate powerand resources during the
sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies.
2. The politicalstability achieved by all these empires helped createvibrant networks of overland trade
from China to theMediterranean Sea.
3. Voyages of discovery and theopening up of the New World (America)resulted in a
massiveexpansion of Indias trade withEurope.
4. An expanding trade brought in huge amounts of silverbullion into India to pay for goods procured
from India. This was good for India because it did not havenatural resources of silver.
5. As a result, the periodbetween the 16th and17th centuries wasalso marked by a remarkable stability in
theavailability of metal currency, particularly the silverrupyain India. This facilitated an
unprecedentedexpansion of minting and circulating of silver coins.
6. Italian traveller, GiovanniCareri, who passed through India c. 1690, providesa graphic account about
the way silver travelledacross the globe to reach India. It also gives us an ideaof the phenomenal
amounts of cash and commoditytransactions in seventeenth-century India.

The Ain-i Akbari of AbulFazlAllami

1. The Ain-i Akbariwas the culmination of a largehistorical, administrative project of classification
undertaken by AbulFazl at the order of EmperorAkbar. It was completed in 1598after having gone
throughfive revisions.
2. The Ainwas part of a larger projectof history writing commissioned by Akbar. Thishistory, known as
the Akbar Nama, comprised threebooks. The first two provided a historical narrative.The Ain-i
Akbari, the third book, was organized as a compendium of imperial regulations and agazetteer of the
empire.
3. The Aingives detailed accounts of the organization of the court, administration and army, the
sourcesof revenue and the physical layout of the provincesof Akbars empire and the literary,
cultural, religious traditions of the people and quantitative information of the provinces.
4. The Ainis made up of five books (daftars), of which the first three books describe the administration.
5. The first book, called manzil-abadi, concerns theimperial household and its maintenance.
6. The secondbook, sipah-abadi, covers the military and civiladministration and the establishment of
servants.This book includes notices and short biographicalsketches of imperial officials
like mansabdars, learned men, poets and artists.
7. The third book, mulk-abadi, is the one which dealswith the fiscal side of the empire and provides
richquantitative information on revenue rates, administrative and fiscaldivisions, totalmeasured area,
and assessed revenue ( jama).
8. After setting out details at the subalevel, the Aingoes on to give a detailed picture of
thesarkarsbelowthe suba in the form of tables, whichhave eight columns giving the following
information:
9. (1) parganat/mahal; (2) qila(forts); (3) araziandzamin-i paimuda(measured area);
(4)naqdi, revenueassessed in cash; (5) suyurghal, grants of revenue incharity; (6)
zamindars; columns 7 and 8 containdetails of the castes of these zamindars, and theirtroops including
their horsemen (sawar), foot-soldiers(piyada) and elephants (fil).
10. The fourth andfifth books (daftars) deal with the religious, literaryand cultural traditions of the
people of India and alsocontain a collection of Akbars auspicious sayings.

Limitations of Ain-i-Akbari
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1. Although the Ain was officially sponsored to recorddetailed information to facilitate Emperor Akbar,
it was much more than areproduction of official papers. That the manuscriptwas revised five times by
the author would suggesta high degree of caution on the part of AbulFazland a search for
authenticity.
2. For instance, oraltestimonies were cross-checked and verified beforebeing incorporated as facts in
the chronicle. Inthe quantitative sections, all numeric data werereproduced in words so as to
minimise the chancesof subsequent transcriptional errors.
3. Historians who have carefully studied the Ainpointout that it is not without its problems.
Numerouserrors in totalling have been detected. These areascribed to simple slips of arithmetic or
oftranscription by AbulFazls assistants.
4. Data werenot collected uniformly from all provinces. Forinstance, while for manysubasdetailed
informationwas compiled about the caste composition of thezamindars, such information is not
available forBengal and Orissa.
5. Further, while the fiscal datafrom the subasis remarkable for its richness, someequally vital
parameters such as prices of commodities and wages of workers from these same areas are not as
well documented.
6. These limitations notwithstanding, the Ainremainsan extraordinary document of its times. By
providingfascinating glimpses into the structure andorganisation of the Mughal Empire and by giving
usquantitative information about its products and people.

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