Professional Documents
Culture Documents
GopyiightN".
COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT.
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
SECOND EDITION
REVISED
AND ENLARGED
BY
EDWARD
L.
THORNDIKE
PUBLISHED BY
ractj^ra (taiU^, OInlumbia Mniupraita
NEW YORK
1910
0^^
-1^
^^i^
CorYKlGllT, 1903,
H\
RDWARD
L.
1910
THORNDIKIC
TRUSS OF
FRANK
II.
UVORY S CO
ALUANY,
N. Y.
CI.AJi68683
PREFACE
This book
is
in 1903.
Its
primary purpose
as
is,
'
'
it
was put
known and
in the original
their
differences.
man
as
species,
general
problems
of
instinct,
habit,
learning, practice,
be treated in a
the
the nature of
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I.
X^
II.
^Llll.
IV.
Introduction
.........
...
........
...
.......
.........
The Influence
The
of
Influence of
Remote Ancestry
The Influence
of
VI.
The Influence
of Maturity
A VII.
The Influence
of the
IX.
X.
XI.
Race
Individual
the
of
18
51
69
104
.114
Environment
Same
or
Sex
V.
VIII.
-.--
PAGE
Amounts
.
142
.171
The Nature and Amount of Individual Differences in Combinations of Traits; Types of Intellect and Character
193
Extreme Individual
207
APPENDIX
I.
II.
List of authors
List
List
and
the text
.........
and descriptions
in the text
III.
and
of
measurements referred
231
to cursorily
236
242
CHAPTER
Introduction
The
may
Particular
method of
be
gleaned
'
'
'
'
heredity,
traits,
undertaken
largely
because of
certain
beliefs
concerning the
is
the con-
determined
in
specialized that
improvement
(1)
in
will help
Educational Psychology
2
all
is
in
movement
skill in
is
influenced,
themselves.
Effective description of the facts of individual differences and
The
become such when
first
survey.
" In
are
carried beyond
questions
How much
differ ?"
what do they
comparing them quantitatively.
"Are there
distinct
types of
means
"
What
is
the value of
most averse
to
CHAPTER
The Measurement
II
of Individual Differences
Exact knowledge of the nature and amount of individual differences in intellect, character and behavior is valuable to educational
theory and practice for two reasons. The first is the general need
of knowledge of what human beings are in order to choose the
best means of changing them for the better
a need which includes
knowledge of the divergences of individuals from the type of the
species as a whole, as well as knowledge of that type. Education
needs knowledge of men as well as of man. The second reason is
the causes
that by a study of the causes of these differences,
which make men good and bad, wise and foolish, skillful and
clumsy, efficient and futile, education may hope to learn about
means of making all men more wise, skillful and efficient. The
causes of the differences between one man and another, as things
now are, will lead to knowledge of the causes whereby all men
may be made to differ from their former selves. It is of special
importance to know what differences amongst men are due to differences in sex, race, immediate ancestry and maturity, which are
beyond control by ordinary educational endeavors, and what
differences, on the other hand, are due to training or education
itself.
difference in
human
nature
imaginative
less
may
(as
imaginative
'good
'quick
better,'
unimaginative
')
or (2)
slow,'
in the
*0r what
is
assumed
to be the
is
;
imaginative
is
rational,' or,
same
(3)
thing.
Educational Psychology
The second
commonly reduces
case
James knows
3;
if
made
'
ative to 2 extent,
imaginative to
is
we have,
szv extent.
Similarly
is
of
Thus,
adequate.
aggregate
an
to
vw
is
imagin-
is
rational
y and s
amounts, respectively, of certain qualities, certain degrees of which
in combination we call the artistic temperament; D has small or
to
V extent;
possibly zero
nature then
is
rational to
amounts of these
commonly
is
qualities.'
r,
difference in
human
a difference in the
that between
k,
without k
y^, or ^
^^, or k
}ik, etc.
'
'
zero to k
'
In
all
fact, it is
human
doubtful
if
there
intellect or character
of
sort.
When,
therefore,
it
is
is
skill,
stated that
qualitative
is
knowledge, present
in
more than
set of things.
and more
useful, to think of human individuals as all measured upon the
same series of scales, each scale being for the amount of some
It is
scientific
in
human
nature,.
The Measurement
of Individual Differences
And
need concern us
trait in different
method which
problem of the nature and
amounts or degrees of the
same
human
beings.
The
traits
facts
illus-
trations.
A,
B and
1.
What
B and C
How many
in
each of the
times as great
in trait I as that
times as great
n
What
concerning individuals
and
2.
as that
is
between
is
and B,
B and C
and C
between
and C,
traits ?
in trait I ?
between
the difference
is
in trait
and B can be
How many
B and C
H,
and
in trait
etc., etc.
definitely deter-
example, the reader had heard the oral work and seen the
written work which in combination mean good in the school whence
A and B came, he would not know that they did mean good.
*If,
for
Educational Psychology
TABLE
I.
ABC
I.
II.
III.
160 cm.
140 cm.
130 cm.
175 sec.
.125 sec.
.150 sec.
mm.
line to
line
3.2
mm.
2.8
mm.
mm.
2.2
Number
and C
Stature
equal a 100
IV.
A, B,
Number
examples in addition
(each of 10 numbers, repeating no
number in any one example, taken
at random from the numbers 10
to 99) done correctly in 8 minutes
VI. Quality,
6 words
9 words
14
12
words
of
or
merit,
18
goodness of
or
handwriting
See Fig.
Ex.
Good
Poor
82
62
93
VIII. School
marks
in spelling
number
X. Criminality:
of times con-
010
48 A's
little
5080
d.
60 A's
82 A's
d.
5615 d.
how
the
in,
how
at
what
_g
n
a
n
ni
W
pq
^
.<<
"3
Educational Psychology
time, under
The
list.
needs to be
list
to think of the
known
if all
The measure
of criminality
is
zvords.
inferior to the
measurement of
kind-hearted boy.
of ability in spelling might turn out to be,
The measurement
were the conditions of the test and the system, of scoring results
in it known, as objective as that in addition, or, on the other
hand, may be only a record of the opinion of some teacher that
As
above A.
The
values
case of
I, II,
A C = 30
B and
better than
in
good;
is
my
is
that
C was somewhat
20 may mean no
unsatisfactory,' or 'A
is
soniezvhat
opinion.'
~^
I.
-r
.667.
p^
from
in stature
AB
A ^C
we have
Good which
= Excellent
n
Excellent Poor,
,.
on
the
may
contrarv
-r
=3
Q
B
s"*i
scale.
memory
=
^ 2
p
;-
zz^
of
words (A
9,
= y)
if
to
7,
to
zvord.
6, -B
and
these
and the
first
remembered the
It would
two.
The Measurement
of Individual Differences
be very risky to assume that the difference between A and B (remembering career, dilatory and numbers) was only three times
the difference between
and
C (remembering
And
numbers).
is
(a)
(b)
25
89
35
95
58
30
40
60
67
79
The chances
of
7:;^
II,
are
still
B = 6
if
and
in
the tests.
in terms so as to allow
comparison.
As
of A,
B and C
^ g
AC
at
all.
some
If,
for example.
Educational Psychology
lo
and C
was approximately five-twelfths of the difference between two
standard samples accessible to all competent persons, and that the
difference between A and B was approximately two-twelfths of
the difference between the same two standard samples, he could
the measurer could
then regard
-r
show
as, of course,
^p or -,
As
is
that in
its
There
application to particular
is
a personal
equation in
even the most objective measures, such as the length of this line
If they measured it to thousandths of a millimeter, competent observers
would not get the same result, except by chance. Nor would the same
observer in several independent measurements. The ultimate distinction
between objective and subjective is simply that in the former sort of
measurements competent observers use very nearly the same criteria and,
tho independent, agree very closely, whereas in the latter they use very
if independent, agree only roughly.
The reader may
any subtle or thoroughgoing treatment of the distinction
until he can study the theory of mental measurements in detail.
For the
purposes of this book, objective measures may be defined as measures
which competent observers could repeat and verify or reject, and subjective
measures as measures which they could not so repeat and verify.
in the
it
ii
much
data,
less
to
On
psychology or of education.
would not
rank and
the
file
of students
of
and barely describe the quantitative conclusions that have been drawn from subjective opinions or from
the acceptance as equal of units which happened to be called by
the same name.
The reason for contrasting physical and mental measurements,
to the apparent disrepute of the latter, is not that I wish to discourage the reader from trusting, or from making, measurements
of any feature whatever of intellect or character.
It is to be
hoped, however, that he will be effectually discouraged from
trusting measurements which do not deserve trust.
The lesson
to be drawn from the contrast is that a measurement can rightly
suffice to list
it
describes
is
known.
Any
numerical
The
One
Variability of a
Mental Measurement
common
is
so
that
it
down
as
many
as he could
remember
in theii:
was 4 correct
in
one
trial
and 10 correct
in
His score
another, the two
What
assurance,
letters is
it
thing.
Educational Psychology
12
A's ability
the score
To
in that test is
was
4 than
to guess at
it.
In a second test
10.
is
record of 4
The Measurement
of Individual Differences
15
The
We
series of
measures above
than in figures.
If
we
let
is
line
Fig. 4.
6
The
10
ability of individual
A in memory
of letters.
in
ability of individual
memory
of letters.
If
which
6
The
Fig. 5.
mode may be
between
the
records
and
that
is,
the
central
tendency
2 th
their
lie,
number of measures. These two definitions lead to substantially the same results, and for present purposes the reader may adopt
either one.
Indeed it will do no harm if he can see no difference between
the total
the two.
Educational Psychology
14
Let us suppose
that,
test,
individual
B showed
2 records of 5 correct.
II
"
17
"
"
"
is
constant performer.
It is
the second
is less
average from a
likely to deviate
result inferred
And
reliability of the
from them.
memory we
to
is
likely true
average number of
more than
99 to
999 to
written by
more than
more than
written by
The
how
from
from
from
from
.291
.651
.835
variability of mental
just
more than
.245
3 to
written by
from
.171
written by
letters
2 to
From what
Within
15
Large
human being
From such
records the
very simple
summary
TABLE
2.
An
average of
letters
was remembered by
o individuals
letter
"
2,000,000
2 letters
"
30,000,000
"
60,000,000
"
190,000,000
280,000,000
6
"
<<
360,000,000
"
310,000,000
190,000,000
9
ID
"
"
11
"
"
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
difference
of
40,000,000
"
6,000,000
400,000
100,000
"
40,000
20,000
"
"
4,000
"
500
"
100
"
5
"
o
o
"
17
occurs
only
10,000,00
times,
between
(5 times
occurs
3,000,000
-J-
Educational Psychology
i6
individuals
is
one
to
another
if
it
is
presented in graphic
Thus
form.
3S
30-
iO-
2 8 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Fig. 6.
letters of
human
number
18
number
of
words remembered.
The
The horizontal
scale is
graphic representation
is
Such a
line,
or scale
of distribution; the line which, with the base
encloses this surface is called a frequency curve or distribution
curve.
No
fair
sampling of
Nor, as we shall
all
all
human
human
trait.
The Measurement
it
easier to see,
what
every difference
is
is
of Individual Differences
the same as
each
person's
amount of the
trait.
It is
CHAPTER
III
The Influence
of Sex
Preliminary Cautions
By way
it
is
well
home
training,
make-up of the
sexes were identical it might still be wisest to educate them
differently.
It is true that a difference of two groups in a mental
if
the mental
may outweigh
For
ential treatment.
mode
Let us note
of
life
in the
actually received
been alike in
mental condition
in
whether
it
is
due
exclusively
to
the
Those produced by
undergo belong
in
chapter VII.
(i8)
So
far
as
may
be,
such a
The
Influence of
Sex
19
is
But
is
in
to be
made being
left to
the
reader's judgment.
further
caution
is
It
is
description
and
physical traits.
Even
if
women
may
work do
as
still
might not
in active
much.
convention
It
is
possible theoretically to
make
determine.
The
The
is
to
v/
make
in sex alone.
to this crucial
comparison
20
Educational Psychology
Sample Study of
the Influence of
I shall report as a
[Thompson, H. B.,
ment of present knowledge concerning sex
or semi-intellectual
intellectual
motor
sities
Sex
abilities,
differences, first in
and then in those interests, tendencies and propenwhich constitute what we roughly call character and temabilities,
perament.
Dr.
Thompson
made by
['03
tions
due
to
is
it
essential
secure as
to
who
are
who have
ment
is
the
among
university.
*I have
made
9 to 15 years
small details
this
old, in
(A
comparison
multiplication).
pairs of twins
from
The
(opposites
and
girl
test,
addition and
of a pair of twins
is
ten pairs were studied, but the chances are over 9 out of 10 that there
Most
21
in coeducational schools.
The
individuals
who
number of
few
individuals of nineteen years, and a few over twenty-five were
admitted.
The subjects were obtained by requesting members
of the classes in introductory psychology and ethics to serve.
They were told nothing about the object of the tests except that
they were for the purpose of determining psychological norms.
The series of questions on age, health and nationality,
shows that in all these respects the m.en and women tested were
closely comparable
The series of tests employed in this investigation required
from fifteen to twenty hours of time from each subject. The
hours were arranged from one sitting to the next according to
the convenience of the subject. It was not possible to have the
hours for any one test constant for all subjects, since the schedules
varied so widely.
No attempt was made to keep the order of
experiments rigidly the same for all. Convenience and economy
In
of time necessarily determined the order to a great extent.
general, however, the simple sensory and motor tests were given
in the early part of the series, and the intellectual tests in the
The questions on personality usually came last.
latter part.
The taste and smell experiments had to be scattered through
most of the periods, since only a few at a time could be performed
a
sufficient
The
subjects
within
these
was applied
twenty-five men and twenty-five women.
without fatigue.
The experiments
entire series
fell
limits,
to fifty subjects,
ability,
skin
desire to
make
as possible
and
Educational Psychology
22
The following
the
two of the
of
case
[Thompson,
faculties "
111-114]
'03, pp.
Test
" Fifteen matches
of
tests
were
for Ingenuity
on the table
laid
in
7.
it
if
of the fifty
woman
had
seen
had forgotten
its
purpose.
The
curve.
others,
is
Fig.
7.
knowledge of the figure or its purpose, were told that the problem
was to remove three matches from it in such a way that three
perfect squares only remained in other words, to remove three
matches in such a way that every match remaining on the table
after the three were removed should be a part of a perfect square.
No rearranging of the remaining matches was allowed.
The
subjects were all given exactly the same directions, and were
left entirely free to use any method they chose.
Removing
matches on trial was permitted.
Time was counted from the
moment the conditions were understood
The second ingenuity test was designed to call a pure process
;
problem,
demanding
perfectly
It
simple
the
computations
involved
but
The Influence
Sex
of
23
g +
S
+
II
Oin45S7?ilO
15
20
2J
id
35
+ +
r'
1
l
02
U glOI2l1IUno
iS
30
50
55
35
10
f*
IS
i
7
]+
I
Figs.
10
8,
15
+
1
20
2S
30
35
10
50
55
60
^5'
15
of ingenuity.
The height
of a
The
whose right
number
men whose
times
of individuals.
fell
within the
The height
of
a cross has the same meaning, but for women. Thus ( in the middle diagram )
4 men and i woman took from o to 2 minutes, 3 men and i woman from 2
to 4 minutes, 3 women and i man from 4 to 6 minutes, in the second test in
ingenuity.
Fig. 8 ( at the top ) records the results in the first test of ingenuity.
" second test of ingenuity.
"
"
"
Fig. 9 (in the middle ) "
" third test of ingenuity.
"
"
"
Fig. 10 (at the bottom ) "
Educational Psychology
24
timed from the
moment
'
man swimming
down stream
Means
of
as
Measuring
the Dirferences
the difference in
memory
or accuracy of
any one
trait
movement
them with
or rate of
should be represented
'
know
minutes.
men.
It
men who
took from 12 to 14
would be at the point of the quickest of these three
place
for
him
is
from 12
to
I2f
TABLE
25
4
6
10
10
12
12
14
16
14
16
18
18
20
20
25
25
30
30
35
35
40
40
45
50
45
50
55
Educational Psychology
26
group
may
in
is
is
In place of a
be.
of per cents of
advantage
list
now
of differences
men who
in
traits
now
time taken,
now
in the
amount
the second
reach ihe
lies in
in
trait in
and
still
Dr.
Thompson does
summarize the
table
(Table 4)
The Results
of
to
we can
have clearly
in
mind the
it
significance
will
be Mistruc-
of different
per
in Fig.
11.
in Fig.
12.
in
Fig. 13.
The Influence
TABLE
Sex
of
27
4.
Women
in
Various
women
is
as follows:
In reaction time
68
Rate
81
"
"
'
last
of 120*
"
20
81
speed
"
"
"
"
accuracy
Accuracy in thrust from the shoulder at a target
"
" free arm drawing of a line within an angle
Lowness
14
approx.
44
60
72
43
46
(recognition
salt,
of
it
34
as sweet,
sour or bitter)
34
45
and
22
of sour
" smell
bitter
and
(cloves
violet)
pres-
ence
43
recognition
*
Range
"
41
62
light
52
50
47
66
weights
" (points
on
the
forearm)
crosswise
lengthwise
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
43
18
61
(at 5 C.)
53
36
(at 45 C.)
52
"
"
44
" brightness
78
58
50
blindness)
" area by the eye
24
56
*Six
women
Educational Psychology
28
Memory
of
"
"
"
"
"
"
visual
32
46
auditory
5^
visual
43
46
60
"
"
69
68
72
General information
Information about English literature
"
"
31
76
physics
-...^a^rr^:
Fig. II. The amount of difiference between two groups when the per
cent of one group reaching or exceeding the median of the other group is
;
45 or 55.
40 or
12.
The amount
of difference
60.
25 or 75.
The amount
of difference
The
Influence of
Sex
29
*j
u
o
a
bo
,g
S
(L)
<U
U
<u
o
bo
y
ii
cu
3
O O
bo M
o o
c
u o
a.
bJ5
V
a
tn
&,
y
c
.
(U
y
it!
y
y
is
'
Educational Psychology
30
is
among
those
as
is
and
able
in discrimination of points
superiority
judgment of
'
of either
painful
'
on the
Women
sex.
to a
much
skin, there
less
in the
effect.
men judged
in the case of
was no appreci-
standard of
'
painful
in
judging pitch as
was
naming
colors
and
in
memory
it
men
was only
18.
movement
median woman,
In rate of
rate of association
In
The
facts are
In
the case of boys and girls 8-14 years old (inclusive), the per cent
of boys reaching or exceeding the median ability for girls of the
same age
is:
48
55
39
57
64
The
Influence of
Sex
31
In the case of boys and girls 15-17 years old (inclusive), the
same per cent is
:
58
58
In reaction time
In resistance to the size-weight illusion
In rate of tapping
76
68
in objective tests
and
73
in school
shown
In the case of boys and girls from 8-14 years old (inclusive) the
per cent of boys reaching or exceeding the median ability for girls
of the
same age
is
48
test,
the
and the
In memory of words
In spelHng
for
like
33
40
33
is
50 (approx.)
41
"
"
"
"
"
"
57
"
"
"
"
57
"
"
"
"
"
60
is
Mental Science
35 (approx.)
45 (approx.)
56 (approx.)
5 (approx.)
Modern languages
40 (approx.)
In English
In mathematics
History and economics
In the case
of
college
students
little
the selection
better.
The
of
women
is
Educational Psychology
32
the sex difference
may
be disregarded.
way
to
each group but differing between the groups than to take the
two
sexes.
generation's experience
is
The
psychologists' measurements
gifts,
comes
women.
the control of
situations.
to
differences
training
in
is
The
also.
first
is,
New Haven
and
New
York,
differences
in
favored
vast
in analyses of the
minor
them, for their existence in original nature and for their relations
one with another. It would be largely profitless, however for
;
is
is
by
itself
They
is
the cause
suffice to
prove that
the sexes are closely alike and that sex can account for only
a very small fraction of
human mental
The
They do not
listed.
Influence of
that of
trait.
trivial difference
women which
the
is
common
One who
representatives
women have
men.
33
suffice to
The
Sex
art,
modal)
of the two sexes must assume the burden of
accepts the equality of typical
(i.
e.,
The probably
true explanation
male sex.*
man
is
The most
women
gifted
men may
be
Sex Differences
in Variability
may
be clearest
ary cases.
men on
if its
influence
is
observed
first in
be of as
This
will
is
women,
call
this
M
M
*It should be obvious that the greater variability of males in the sense of
the divergence of individuals from the average or median or mode of their
sex implies nothing whatever about the variability of individual men in
general average,
in
of an individual.
is,
'trials'
from
his
own
man might
be
Educational Psychology
34
men
and 28 M.
The limits required to include all the women would, on the
contrary, range from about 8
to 32 M. The best woman would
the worst
man,
all
men;
The Influence of Sex
35
At
be due to women.
all
the
IM.
The
Fig. 18.
identical,
if
the
status of
men vary
i8M-
20 M.
IZM.
Sivl.
and
32M.
measurement
its
is
in
no wise a
if
men
differ in intelligence
in
men.
They
will
oftener deserve
it.
says
['03,
idiotic idiots.
p.
375]
in
men
of fact
women do
list.
They
have
in all
Educational Psychology
36
and fiction
the only department in which woman has accompHshed much
give ten names (of which three are in the first 500) as compared
with 72 men. Sappho and Joan d'Arc are the only other women
on the list. It is noticeable that with the exception of Sappho
a name associated with certain fine fragments women have not
Yet these are the departments least
excelled in poetry or art.
dependent on environment and at the same time those in which
the environment has been perhaps as favorable for women as for
men. Women depart less from the normal than man a fact that
usually holds for the female throughout the animal series in many
fortunes, beauty or other circumstances.
Belleslettres
The
distribution of
women
is
shaped curve."
In a study restricted to British genius Ellis
a similar failure of
"In the
final
women
result
my
to reach the
['04, p.
lo-ii] finds
extreme of men.
selection yields
among
the
women
than
among
On
the men.
account of the
It
women
of
my
list,
little
men
women seem
to be
could scarcely
little, if
more than
In one departat
all,
inferior
known
is
well
many men
that very
women
idiots and
and
third
imbeciles and one
times as many will be found by
a
a census including those cases (commonly somewhat less stupid)
cared for at home.
as
will
more
37
'
'
'
'
Methods
When
the
of
Comparing
in
For instance,
in the case of the pressure required to cause a judgment of
"painful" the results in Dr. Thompson's investigation ['03]
were that the pressure required ranged from 800 to 3600 grams
for women and from 800 to 4000 for men. The average deviation
of the 25 pressures required for the 25 men from that required
for the average or median man was about 960 grams, while that
in the case of women was only about 530 grams.
Twenty of
tendencies
the
it
twenty-five
women
are
included
variabilities.
1600
within a range of
If the
is
required to include
pressure required ranged, for them, from 4000 to 8000, but for
to
3600
if
the median
man
required 6000
whereas the median woman required only 2200, then the greater
range or greater average deviation of men might not mean a
greater real variability.
For, an objector could properly say,
the average deviation of butterflies from their average in weight
is only a small fraction of an ounce whereas the average deviation
of men from their average is a hundred or more ounces, yet
butterflies really
as
much
another
mean
as another
and
men
if
do.
Only
if
one
C. T.
The
Influence of
Sex
39
o men and
to
women
Educational Psychology
40
The Results
It
is
of
unfortunate that so
little
information
is
in Variability
available for a
The comparisons
in
and
Gilbert
in the r-e
The nature
W.
memory
['94].
and o-n
are based on
tests
A. Fox and L.
in
am indebted
W. Cole.
If
the
word
test,
memory
boys.
that, except in the
two
years nearest the age of puberty for girls,* the male sex
slightly
more
variable.
From
is
The
*The greater
two years
probably a result
TABLE
41
5-
By
ages.
test
A-t test
Easy opposites
10
12
16
13
14
15
1.08
1.03
1.07
86
I.
II
1.04
91
1.05
1.05
1.07
1.35
1-07
-73
.97
.81
i.io
1.24
.89
1.15
1.05
.91
.85
.87
test
Word test
Memory (related words) ..
Memory (unrelated words)
11
.94
17
.77
.137
.93
.72
.77
.46
.94
.66
.77
1.28
.7*5
.80
.81
.98
1.04
.70
98
1.21
.98
.93
i.oo
i.ii
.83
1.14
1.22
Time memory
56
.75
1.21
.82
.85
1.27
1.26
.66
1.06
Discrimination of length.
General
ratio.
.78
Average...
.92
1025
.97
Median
.93
1.035
-95
By
to
grades.
77
1.19
.97
.82
.85
Spelling
55
.69
.55
.68
.68
i.oo
.91
1.06
.85
.97
.56
1.15
Addition
Multiplication
was
In tests in arithmetic
in variability
history, it
was
was
.96;
all)
ist high.
.975.
(six in all) the ratio of
high school
.96; in school
marks
in eight subjects,
it
and
is
is
reached
is
less
boys
girls to
.85.
The
its
in
.86.
entirety to an original
The
greater
show
that in this
is
sound.
complex
girls
Educational Psychology
42
year high
school
classes
Detroit,
(1908) in
Angeles, Lowell and Worcester were
:
Age
13
14
Boys
18
Girls
12
Fall
River,
Los
17
i8
19
20 and over.
237 274
104 298 265
154
69
25
893
177
40
10
907
16
15
113
Total
In Chicago (1908) the figures were (the numbers for the 1164
girls
Age
Boys
Girls
18
19
20 and over.
34
17
32
10
14
13
16
15
17
Total
975
974
Age
13
14
Boys
750)
18
19
20 and over.
47
28
10
750
750
16
15
Girls
New York
to a basis of
17
Total
(1905.
Age
13
Boys
Girls
On
18
19
20
43
20
12
1356
1356
14
15
16
17
and oldest age groups and about one and one-half times as
frequent at ages 14 and 19.
Dr.
Thompson does
on
anyone
do
it
exactly.
latter.
memory
in
accuracy
*For the
In
indebted to the U.
S.
time,
in hitting a target, in
statistics
reaction
in
the
more
rate
of
variable
The Influence
of
Sex
43
But
the whole
in the
is
that
women
than men.
On
less variable.
show female
ratio of female to
traits,
by
itself
42,
vari-
The
and the
in the different
alone, be of no
great reliability.
Sex Differences
We
now
in Traits
to turn
service.
There
are
two studies
which
do
report
such
differences
German women
of intellectual interests
make
in rating individuals,
as
quiet
or
shy
noisy,
or
self-assertive,
and the like. The results in the case where a boy and his sister
were both rated are given in Table 6. If taken at their face
value they show boys to be somewhat more athletic, noisier,
more
self-assertive,
conscience,
lectually,
more
quicker-tempered,
and
less efficient in
given by Table
less
sullen,
penmanship,
little
duller
duller
in
intel-
6.
comparing
individuals, opinions about the sexes as total groups might be
influential and taint the estimates with some measure of current
irrational
prejudices.
differences
beyond
This
error
for,
even
in
Avould
probably
Such
prejudices,
increase
if
exist-
Educational Psychology
44
to
was assigned
to
it
in the case of
be really as conscientious or
may
much
boys and
girls,
unless
made by
specially
TABLE
competent observers.
The Influence of Sex
The greater
45
variability
is
On
61%
we have
trait that is
reached or exceeded by
Educational Psychology
46
men
sex differences.
On
to
to
the
facts of life
and
mere
common
may
this
his
at least serve
opinions he has.
The authors do
these traits, the differences due to sex itself and the differences
shown by
ality,
to be
more impulsive,
than
men
less efficient
From
Emotional
Not emotional
the reports
made
From
the reports
made
almost exclusively by
almost exclusively by
were
The
The next
Influence of
73%
28%
manual work 28%
of
men
Sex
47
In adroitness in
In love of sedentary games of
71%
30%
skill
In emotionality
In impulsiveness
In quickness of recovery from
66%"
grief
Then come
In activity
(of
"
"
"
the following
the
aimless
sort)
In
In
In
In
In
In
In
In
34%
sympathy
patience
love of sports
humor
risibility
talkativeness
gaiety
vanity of person
36%
36%
36%
37%
38%
38%
62%
61%
39%
40%
40%
40%
of
men
men
are a
little
in
mathematics,
gifted
in
literature,
specific, of
good
They
and punctual.
are a
little
less
anger,
nature,
insistent
on immediate
practically
gifted in music,
results,
resourceful,
good observers,
narrow,
thrifty,
gifted
in
languages,
Educational Psychology
48
and courageous
no difference observable:
in sickness.
is still
less difference
reported or
seeking.
It
is
not desirable to
comment
further
until
on these
further
results
of
study by more
would be desirable
any such study that the sex differences in the instinctive acts, interests, aversions and emotional
responses should be studied apart from the differences in similar
traits that have been produced by circumstances.
Two instincts
are worthy of special attention. The most striking difference in
instinctive equipment consists in the strength of the fighting
instinct in the male and of the nursing instinct in the female.
No one will doubt that men are more possessed by the instinct
It
women
winner
to fight, to be the
are
in
nor that
in
the instinct to nurse, to care for and fuss over others, to relieve,
And
human
nature will doubt that these are matters of original nature. iThe
out and out physical fighting for the sake of combat
pre-
is
been
common
seem
to talk of
women's "dependence."
it.
This
is,
It
has
am
instincts
fighting instinct
is
in fact the
to
save
souls.
The
Their intellectual
The
amount of
efforts
are
aimed
in
great
The maternal
assent.
man,
49
subdue nature,
to
is
conquer
to
woman's
superiorities in the
Training
undoubtedly
accentuates
these
inborn
differences
reversal
social
of training by which
milieu
now
affecting
women we
could explain
by the
indirect effect of physical strength and bodily fitness or by an
actual difference in intellect or by the zeal and activity due to
the fighting instinct.
Our rule would be to exhaust first the
influence of the known physical differences and second the
influence of the instinct in question.
Only if these were
superior to that of
inadequate should
we
it
either
Havelock
Ellis
['94,
'04]
The
first
responsiveness to stimuli of
all
sorts,
but also
and
the
By
its
Not only
greater
less inhibition
The
fact
of
seems
suggestibility
which
we have
power
noted,
but
and emotional
outbreaks and the common differences between our treatment of
the men and of the women with whom we are associated, witness
also the relative frequency of dreams, trance states
to
it.
Educational Psychology
50
How
fact of female
The
([ualilies that
we
in
mental
done, the
in intellect.
organizing and
critical
ill
delnK-d
men
are
more
If
we
variable.
their
own
feelings
women
are
men
in
An
interesting
fiction.
Many
which they figure and which ])ossesses its interest from the
chance il gives to think pleasantly of oneself.
According to
Learoyd '96] three and a half times as many women as men
do this (46.7 per cent and 13.5 per cent).
On the whole the difl'erences reported in the case of the less
easily measurable features of intellect, character and behavior
in
They do
that sex
is
amendment
CHAPTER
The Influence
The
Men
because
IV
Possibility of Racial
Mental Differences
men
common remote
ancestry
which was not the ancestry of dogs and horses. Men, dogs and
horses are more alike mentally than men, dogs, horses, earthworms and clams arc, because presumably men, dogs and horses
spring from a common ancestry which was not the ancestry of
earthworms or clams. Certain men, for example the American
Indians, springing from a common ancestry which was not the
ancestry of Europeans, may be expected to be mentally more
like one another than like Europeans, if their common ancestry
differed mentally from that of Europeans.
A distinct race is a group of men who to a considerable extent
have in common the same remote ancestry, its present descendants
being to a considerable extent confined to that group.
they
all
The more
the
A
in
more
race that
is
some physical
If its
is
commonly
distinct
traits, as
it
probably
in
a certain race,
that
is,
to
(51)
Educational Psychology
52
at least of the
modern
is
enough, and
hard to distinguish
and negroes
in scholarship in the
high school.
I shall
then sum-
recommends
A
Mr. Mayo
Sample Study
[in a
York
of Racial Differences
who
New
*A negro
officers.
The
Influence of
the negroes in
New York
Remote Ancestry
or
Race
53
In general,
much
is
Whatever be the
two groups,
York City differ from
New
On
of
them being
as
(2)
They continue
(3)
in the
The
general tendency
is
for
(4)
The
difference
is
median
the
for whites.
differences.
The
less variable
all
Thus,
little
The corresponding
60 per cent
in variability
importance.
is,
The
33 and 31.
The comparison
more
hundred of
its
Educational Psychology
54
its
mediocrities.
more
is
thus noteworthy.
7.
TABLE
The
in
New York
The Influence
The Results
of
of
Remote Ancestry
or
Race
55
shall in the
['10].
The
different races of
measurements
few
objective
in
The reports
besides.
of travelers
.1/1..
I
HE
20
dk
40
60
80
Fig. 19. Comparison of white pupils (continuous line) and colored pupils
(dotted line) in respect to scholarship in the high school. The horizontal
scale is for the median of all marks obtained by an individual except those
has led to
its
testing
feats of vision,
in these schools
many measurements by
"Ranke on
The marks
natives
anthropologists.
of
Brazil,
race
notable
The
fell
for
was
and
their acuity
was indeed
Educational Psychology
56
when all
The amount
were excluded.
of overlapping
is
indicated by stating
"The
among
little
examined.
McDougall found
Papuans a number with extremely fine powers of discrimination by the skin. The difference between two points and
one could be told by these individuals even when the two points
were brought very close together on the average, the Papuans
tested excelled Europeans considerably in this test. On the other
hand, Indians and Filipinos, and a few Africans and Ainu, tested
in the same manner, seem not to differ perceptibly from whites.
the
The
The
Influence of
Remote Ancestry
or
Race
57
may
is
when he
It
first
be,
Now
Though most
specially important.
give no sign
is
much higher
till
who
And
similarly,
much lower
pressures than the bulk of their fellows, falling into the ranks
is
bimodal, or
it
the
test,
my
impression
in
On
With
['10, pp.
176-177]
in certain objective,
Woodworth
says
though somewhat
trivial,
tests of intellect,
Educational Psychology
58
"Some
whites
in
this
test,
though,
of
course,
lapping
used.
Few
much depends on
tests of this
different races.
The
InUiience of
Remote Ancestry
or Race
same
59
disturb-
so
least
"The mere
members
fact that
and experiments
mentality.
Rivers and
appraising
in
their
some value
of
is
his
collaborators
not secure from these people, but, in any experiment that called
straightforward
formed.
If
tests
interests
of
the
sustained
are
put
primitive
attention.
they
observation,
form as
such
in
man,
he
can
to appeal to the
be
relied
sometimes met
Statements
with
on
for
to
the
power of
attention, because, when the visitor began to quiz them on
matters of linguistics, etc., they complained of headache and ran
away, sound a bit naive. Much the same observations could be
reported by college professors, regarding the natives gathered in
effect
that
such
and such a
tribe
is
deficient
in
"A good
in
spite
of equal
standing in
groups of men.
Probably no single
complex a
trait
as
intelligent
action
intelligence.
are quickness in
test
could do justice to so
Two
important features of
the situation
is
6o
Educational Psychology
to
is
The demand on
intelligence certainly
is
representatives
appeared.
several
As between
This
efforts.
races
and
waste
test
much
was
considerable
time
tried
on
differences
its
test.
would
If the results
Pygmy and
Negrito a low
The
The
Remote Ancestry
Influence of
or
Race
6i
1
I
150
15
15
30
45
75
60
90 105
Comparison
of whites
Negritos (dotted lines) in respect to time taken 'to put variously shaped
blocks in holes to match. The horizontal scale is for. time in seconds, first
trial.
As
which he
finds
is
tions representing
somewhat
He
writes
62
Educational Psychology
'Tsychologically
in
English
it is
scientific
Anglo-Danish
first,
difficult to detect
genius, according as
district or
not
a distinct character
it
am
The Anglo-Danish
district
may
men
it
to possess
it
Newton
will be
the
is
noted that
difficulty
he finds in taking
any other point of view than his own, are happily tempered by
the more cautious and flexible mind of the East Anglian. Darwin
(who also belonged to the Welsh Border) belonged in part, like
Newton, to the East Anglian border of the Anglo-Danish district,
and also (somewhat remotely) to Norfolk, a county which contains many Danish elements.
The science of the Anglo-Danish
district is not exclusively mathematical, and geology especially
owes much to the Anglo-Dane it will be remembered that geology
was one of the first sciences to attract Darwin.
" The East Anglian is in scientific matters drawn to the concrete,
and shows little or no mathematical aptitude. He is a natural
;
sift,
He
describe, co-ordinate,
East Anglian
scientific
methods
art.
and
classify them.
Gilbert illustrates
Ray
in
among men
it
most
fact
that
district.
The
"It
is
Influence of
Remote Ancestry
Race
or
63
Welsh Border.
At most
it
may
is
"The
and definitely distinct from those of either the AngloDanish district or the East Anglian focus. What we find here
is the mechanical impulse, and more especially the physiological
clear,
temper,
the
instinct
phenomena.
It
may
Kentish family,
focus,
as
also
Sydenham
seek
on
this
out
driving
the
forces
vital
to
(the
at the
East Anglia.
The
surgeons
largely
are
East Anglian),
Huxley, again,
figure.
of
is
to
is
with
a typical
men
of this
These
all
last
ence, that
is
if
they exist at
in
it
shown
in Fig. 22.
difference between
very slight
tendency
may (and
two groups
in
central
two groups that possess a very high degree of the trait in question.
Indeed I have quoted Ellis's conjectures chiefly as a sample of
how, on the one hand, a striking difference between extreme
Educational Psychology
64
representatives
may
producing
may by
its
The Interpretation
Another
The moderation
in
Achievement
is
in striking
the
first
Fig. 22.
labor, or get
any of the
results
The
they.
Chinese,
who
in a tenth
we
think he ought to
Under
the
deliberate
scrutiny
of
what seemed to be large differences shrink to five or ten per cent, and what seemed to be wide
gaps are bridged. No two races have been measured which
The
between
first
thing
common
to
note
in
trait
measured.
is
that the
The
Remote Ancestry
Influence of
Race
or
65
holes that
fit
ences in
such
observation are
of race differ-
know
common
traits,
ment,
or
if
is
its
environ-
created
more
but
exacting
environment.
also
all
more
remunerative
may
itself
of qualities which
be a
is
by the psychologist's
symptom
of superiority.
So the complex
untouched
test
his
inferiority.
A third
is
most rigorous
by no means
a well
known
fully
scientific
chapter on
opinion
['69, '92] in
of Different
who
visit
them.
The
we
latter,
native chief
66
Educational Psychology
he
men
as can be
is
fills,
The
result
is
we hear
he
his
traveller in
familiar
enough
own
their presence.
in
It
almost
seldom that
is
whom
feels to
this subject
with competent persons, and can only recall a few cases of the
inferiority of the white man,
certainly not more than might be
one
may
Fig. 23.
The
Negroes (dotted
original difference
gifts.
line)
and
according to Galton.
should
to
call
half-witted
negro servants
in
much impressed by
America
this fact
made
is
full
during
in their
of instances.
my
own
was myself
travels in Africa.
The
stupid,
On
f.]
observe mental
them which
it
traits,
is
common
likely to misinterpret.
It
The
Influence of
moral capacity
habits,
not energy
knowledge,
not^
6y
intellect.
do not measure
and knowledge, its "civilization" or "culture" are in the main due to the
original nature of men long dead and have come to it by training.
The origination of advances in civilization is a measure of
ability, but the abilities that have originated them have probably been confined to a very few men. A race that originated
none of them may now possess them all.
Even if a race has
been completely isolated, its civilization has been originated by
only a few of its members and the chance of men of great gifts
present original nature.
its
Its habits
being born
race and
is
its
is
man
to
more rapidly
in large
its
size, civilization
condition of isolation.
The
civilized races
most of
their civilization
from without.
Of
of
what
much
it
gets.
different
of the
Germans
of to-day
is
not
and
need not be
caused by
in a direct
it.
proportion to
its intellect,
even
intellect
if
entirely
might give
one
real
other.
What
due to the conditions under which it operates, and a race may put on or put off such conditions or have
them imposed or removed by other races, for all sorts of reasons.
actually achieves
From
all
these
is
facts
each student
may make
his
own
esti-
68
Educational Psychology
greater
"higher"
traits,
such
as
found
the
in
My own
the
there
case of
will
still
the
be
capacity
to
associate
and
very
great
that
is
estimate
overlapping.
and
originality,
traits,
to
than
but that
Calling the
dif-
races as wholes.
*Defining a pure race arbitrarily as one whose ancestry has less than
per cent of community with that of any other race for at least 20
generations back.
CHAPTER V
The Influence
There
is
'
remote ancestry or
more
all
race.
This
is
the
family
'
amount
of
to be regretted because
species
and of
their relation to
immediate
ancestry.
The problem
the
measure-
of
we have
of individuals of
individuals of different
amount due
to
their
to
like
ancestry surpasses
ancestry,
greater
the likeness
likeness
in
training
it
than
the
that
found in the case of individuals of different ancestry. Measurements of the greater differences of wwrelated individuals with an
allowance for the greater differences in their training would serve
But the effect of differences in ancestry in prothe same end.
ducing differences in intellect and character is more easily measured by the
The
The
meas-
like training.
(60^
Educational Psychology
70
Take, for
form
intelligent habits or
amongst sense impressions, ideas and acts. The number of associations between situation and act, the number, that
associations
is,
conditions of
The
kingdom.
varies
life,
free
swimming protozoa
studied by
Professor
common physiological
habit.
The sum of the life
functions
of Para-
Dioecium
is
move along
in a steady
form
again as before.
whose
toilet, table
is
a cultivated
human being
etc.,
now we
human
beings and
human
Some
we
of our thousand
of
Some
human
of
human average
instead of
about the general animal average, and the average deviation of the
human group
will
kingdom.
To
illustrate
who
are,
say,
vary not about the general average, but about a point 2 inches
above
it
and
teenths as
will differ
much
from another.*
to
Inheritance.
in
Natural
The Influence
number
yi
same
the
of unrelated individuals.
only in as
Common
far
as
different
false,
but
common
thinking
is
false just
because
it
all
miracles.
In
all
One
in
quality
germs surely possess. They are variable. Discarding syntax and elegance for emphasis, we may say that the germs of a
six-foot man include some six-feet germs, some six-feet-one
germs, some six-feet-two, some five-feet-eleven, some five-feetten, etc.
Each human being gives to the future, not himself, but
a variable group of germs. This hypothesis of the variability of
the germs explains the fact that short parents may have tall sons
gifted parents, stupid sons the same parents, unlike sons.
these
in
Mental Traits
will
detail.
"
Educational PsycJwlogy
72
from
which these children were chosen. That is. the first four columns
of the first line of the table read,
" Of two twins one had a
cephalic index of ./SS, the other of .790 one was .025 below*
the average of the population, the other was .023 below it."
Cohnnn 5 gives the difl"erence between the indices of the twins
is
in
Column 6
the deviations of the indices of the twins from the average cephalic
much
column
first
smaller
is
5, in
former differences
"
Colunm
all
5 gives the
the
differing
from loi,
by 2,
from
etc.
Individual 2
8,
15,
from o
to 57.
How
find individual
**
102,
dift"ers
The
2,
from
by
5.
dififer-
Thus we
by
7.
16,
averaging
18.
If the reader
used.
Consider
"
How
both
in the
same
direction)
in
Two
quency of
front
'
Greater
th.an
^o
f>cr
cent fre-
same direction
another simple measure of their
is
The Influence
Pairs OF
Twins
and
"
"
"
"
9
10
"
"
loi
102
105
106
107
108
109
TABLE
8.
Resemblances of Twins
in
-sS
zl
2|
Bio
Oio
uiu
tfli)
"
^I
^T
"
788
780
796
816
790
773
812
826
25
33
23
40
849
853
777
801
837
859
766
770
738
773
859
763
no
"
"
"
"
III
745
112
"3
804
823
116
765
117
118
119
120
778
836
839
20
"
"
"
"
21
"
121
23
"
"
"
123
124
125
786
806
778
826
"
"
126
127
128
129
802
834
763
827
793
839
817
843
130
814
789
819
758
827
773
828
725
817
786
817
827
780
836
830
846
11
13
16
17
18
19
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
34
35
36
37
38
40
41
43
44
45
47
50
"
"
761
788
836
797
768
783
831
784
850
"
"
131
"
"
132
134
"
"
"
"
136
"
"
"
"
140
141
143
144
850
838
783
785
793
846
786
826
"
"
"
145
147
899
832
836
856
828
838
135
137
138
150
2S
17
3
36
40
36
13
24
46
i^
l'^
"
t",
fe
575
1320
16
10
39
8
6
17
864
1840
1692
516
35
25
10
23
26
52
23
16
o
42
....
2340
35
13
21
50
II
13
I
24
6
55
4
27
18
29
37
20
II
31
7
31
36
2
3
25
6
24
9
875
529
810
....
220
546
54
....
17
390
14
13
16
15
9
33
23
50
13
18
88
33
17
31
37
20
25
31
30
28
27
13
41
86
43
18
14
25
43
4
57
6
126
200
14
960
90
4840
132
621
37
416
1015
481
4
30
13
23
5100
360
460
2400
26
40
^x-s->
47
43
75
40
46
50
45
30
g"?
,5|-5 a
12
68
9
10
48
27
73
Cephalic Index.
^x
"
12
I.
68
403
740
775
810
364
3698
252
575
Educational Psychology
74
now columns 3 and 4 in connection with this quesWhat is the ratio of one twin's deviation from the C. T.*
Consider
tion, "
to that of his
mate
We
"
and so on, to be
If. If. fo. It. V. TT. A. -/. etc., fourteen of them being minus
quantities. The central tendency (Median) of these ratios is .87.
Now if twin and twin always possessed perfect resemblance,
if the two indices of each pair were alike,
these ratios would
each be I. If we take the ratio of any person's deviation from
the C. T. to that of any other person regardless of blood relationship, there will be as many minus quantities as plus quantities
and the median of the ratios will be o. The median of the ratios,
each of the deviation of one member of a related pair from the
central tendency of the whole group to the similar deviation of
the other member, is an important measure of resemblance.
When it is o, it means no greater resemblance than one of the
group bears to another taken at random. When it is i.oo it
means perfect resemblance or identity. When it is .5 it means
a resemblance halfway between perfect identity and that found
between any two persons of the group taken at random. This
is for many reasons the most serviceable measure of resemblance
between individuals, and it, or a measure that may for the purposes of this chapter be regarded as the same as it, will be used
in reporting the resemblances found by various students of heredThe figures, ranging from o to i.oo, called Coefficients of
ity.
Correlation, designated by the symbol R, and used to measure
resemblance, are to be thought of as expressing the central tendof
I's
I's
The
8.
may however
be cal-
Consider column 6
these products be
is
somewhat
less
easy to describe.
in
if
which
"What would
every pair?"
In the
were
it
first
would be
is
575.
If the
twins
*C. T.
is
either 625
'
The Influence
product
With
1320.
is
of
would be 189 or i.
are 39 and 9 or 169.
perfect resemblance
1600.
it
With
17.
is
75
would be 1089 or
it
perfect resemblance
it
In the
fifth pair
576.
Consider
now
sum
the
it is
(2815), and
would be with perfect resemblance (3208 or 2875). Consider what the sum of the products would be with no greater
resemblance than that found between any one of the group and
any other one taken at random. A plus deviation would then go
with a minus deviation as often as with a plus in the long run
as many of the algebraic products would be negative as positive
and their sum would be o. The proportion which the sum of
the products of the related deviations is of what that sum would
be with perfect resemblance is thus a measure of the amount of
as
it
resemblance.
y^
This proportions
+ ^^7 +
,
2" X.
or
xy
aYs
i'x2.i'y2
members
of the
series of.
Thus
2815
3208.2875
^x y
When
'
^ =
z-
1,
resemblance
1/2x2. Jy^
When
^
-2
^^ Q? there
is
no
is
perfect.
^
exists
may
series of
the values of
and the
like,
still
R=.75, R=-9.
Educational Psychology
76
by
median
Series
Series
R= the
as
^X V
y
V Ix\Iy^
(x) + +1 + 1 + +3+3+3 + 5 + 7 + n i i- i i-
of the
i.
V
X
ratios
-|
or as
3-3-3-5-7-11
(y) + + + + i+3+3+3+5 + 7 + ii i-i-i
3-3-3-5-7-11
2.
Thus,
artificially so
pairing
them
R=
order,
in
while
i,
them
pairing
be specially useful
It will
R=
as to get
R = about
o,
to pair
so as to get
them so
R=
as to get
about
R=
and so as
.2,
so
i,
to get
.8.
The Influence
mental
traits I shall
is
is
a z'cra
The
The
fraternal resemblance
must be due
to
and son
to
be
height
The
Nor
'
will
.3,
tall
the class
'
men two
of
fraternal
inches above
.49.
Here
it
is
their sons
the
average
in
the
Pearson,
make
is,
case
of
it.
the
according to
The Influence
yy
Fraternal correlation
to Pearson, .55.
according
is,
Immediate ancestry can and does, apart from any other force,
cause in whole or in part the abmodality, or deviation from the C.
T. of his race, of an individual in the case of stature, cephalic
There
is
no reason
to
less
that
cause
height, or the shape of the skull bones that causes cephalic index,
or the
ancestry
when
deposits
is
Immediate
eye color.
And
there
is
it
is,
after
all,
ence of ancestry
a demonstrated
in physical traits
fact.
may
be considered a physical
ence
mental
is
in the
that
trait
because
The
traits.
it
is
due
real dififer-
The brother
found
is
to be
deaf in 245 cases out of 1,000, almost one case out of four. The
number of deaf persons amongst 1,000 brothers and sisters of
hearing individuals
than
I,
probably
is
much
not
known
less.
That
more) times as
likely to
exactly, but
is,
is
it
is
certainly less
a person of the
at least
same ances-
245 (probably
many
as a hearing person.
p. 49].
The
child of
is
Educational Psychology
y8
600 children
As
tests.
in the St.
Xavier school
in
New York
commonly
by careful
enter at a very
brother or
sister.
Similarities
this,
in
home
much
spellers
efficacy
such
to
though
Bad
remain bad
Moreover, Dr. J. M. Rice
similarities.
spellers
methods, and
little
commonly
These
exist.
facts
make
it
amongst men
in
mental
traits.
home
now
In the measurements
more prob-
shall in
made and
to be
each case
the allowance
He
['69,
'92].
sons 129,
uncles
all
53,
numbers of
The Influence
men
fathers,
79
follows
He
class
this superior
says
"To
recapitulate
brothers,
eminence
men and
chance of
artists.
have endeavored
eminence
to
show
in
That men who are gifted with high abilities even men of
E easily rise through all the obstacles caused by inferiority
of social rank.
2.
poor
to a
man
rising in
life,
Men who
3.
I call
eminent men.
(England
as illustration.)
achieve eminence, unless they are endowed with high natural gifts."
approach equality
He
in
men.
own
Finally,
man based
may safely be
man can
that no
Gal-
He
says
'T
feel
convinced
The
historic
mental inheritance.
in
ancestry.
1889 Galton published his Natural Inheritance, the results of more precise studies * of resemblances amongst related
In
He
in
in various
memoirs from
1871 to 1887.
'
8o
Educational Psychology
The
popularity, temper,
ability, vivacity,
introspection or
self-con-
and handwriting. In ability and handwriting the measure was a grade from one to six according to
ability; in temper from one to three.
In the other traits the
individual was put into an upper or a lower class. Such material
is not well suited for measuring resemblance, chiefly for two
reasons.
First, the measurements are very coarsely made, and
so have a large chance inaccuracy. A slight prejudice or ignorance in the teacher making the measurement may put a boy who
is really above the average in one of these traits below it.
If
errors of judgment displace a boy on the scale at all, they will
alter his position by half the total scale in five of these traits, by
a third of the scale in one and by a sixth in the other.
Such
sciousness, assertiveness
Their effect
is
to
make
the
Spearman
are very
much
['04, p.
too
low,
the
==
.5
real
when
resemblances
'
attenuated
.8.
known
to
Spearman
judgment
him, but
Pearson certainly underestimates them, when he makes no allowance at all for them.
He measured them only in the case of ability,' which would
'
The Influence
'
8i
the agreement in
dent,
if
J-
Js.
Fig. 24.
The real unlikeness of Jo. and Ja.
Fig. 25.
'
dull
'
Any
quiet,'
'
in conscientiousness,
noisy,'
'
teacher
keen' in conscientiousness
and the
like.
Whether he
shall
'
'
'
'
Educational Psychology
82
now
or
unself-conscious ? "
whom
is
asked, " Is
Each of them
is
Consider
John self-conscious
ignorance of the
in total
which should be
rated
self-conscious
and every point below which should be
rated unself-conscious.'
Each of them makes his own dividing
point.
These divisions will vary. How much they will vary is
Fig. 25 gives an arbitrary estimate of ten as
not known.
an illustration. Now John and James, when rated by these ten
subjective scales, seem alike in four cases out of ten, though they
are really not in this sense alike, one being really above and the
other below the real dividing line. Now, in general, any differposition of the dividing point, every point above
'
'
'
whereby they
who
it
will
lead
who
them
to
greater
is
How much
is
not known.
The
error
would probably be greater in the case of conscientiousness, selfconsciousness and shyness, where subjective standards probably vary very much, than in the case of intelligence or popularity.
The average resemblance of .52 obtained by Pearson would thus
be raised if one error had been avoided, and lowered if a second
error had been avoided.
I judge that roughly on the whole the
two errors would somewhat nearly balance. Just what would
happen to each of the particular resemblances if accurate original
measurements had been secured, cannot be more than guessed.
Pearson's obtained measures were ['04, p. 155]
:
The Influence
who
measurements might
It
is
to
true that
if
you seek
science concerned,
83
field
of
is apparently no
reason to believe that the teachers had, apart from the directions
sent to them, any prejudicial belief in fraternal similarity.
I )
To
"
The
i.
Pairs
The
two-
and
same parents
estimates are to be
data paper).
is
may
made on
(I)
of brothers
and
sisters
(blue
data
['04, p.
161.]
It
and not
athletic,
as
is
between
athletic
home
ye-color, hair-color
is
and
five
Educational Psychology
84
.53
and
.51
The resemblances
sources
of
error,
this
correspondence
exact
is
doubtful
of
significance.
Unless one
is
unmod-
ifiability
is
Of
produce
man
One
is
irrespective of training
coefficients of correlation to
where he
show
may
But
is
to
next
lives,
from
.3 to
Dr.
of
training eliminated
.5.
Frederick
Moral Heredity
in
Adams Woods
has
reported
in
Mental and
Monthly
first in
morality.
The
Woods
The Influence
85
No
be to
make
prince
may
his
may
ability.
son
who must
may
however, no
more
inefficiency.
This
is,
thereby
moder-
from them are probably too low rather than too high.
The bulk
of this
work
is
wherever found.
the entire
if
number of
now be
studied as
tionship.
If
we should
see
Educational Psychology
86
Queen
Isabella, of Spain,
still
['06, pp.
The
In
265-266.]
intellect
.30
r
.16;
then on
is
.15
to
is
.30
r
.175
only from
of the offspring.
Dr.
Men
Woods
In moral qualities
thinks that
little
it
is
not
so.
or no allowance need be
made
for
greater similarity of environment for son and father or grandfather than existed for sons of royal families in general.
He
"advantages and hindrances must have always been of an accidental character, depending on various causes, and their distribution would occur largely at haphazard throughout the entire
number
of collected persons
(832)
So
latter Spain,
Portugal and
['06, p. 284.]
random throughout
the entire
The Influence
He
['06, p. 285.]
tests
87
"
There
all
namely, the
facts,
one peculiar
is
eldest,
whom
The
devolved, have
whom
fall
by right of primo-
greatness of Frederick
II,
much
of the
William the Silent, was due to their official position but an actual
mathematical count is entirely opposed to this view.
The in;
Grades
Total
number
23456789
Grade ..
in each
Succession Inheritors
Percent
10
21
41
49
71
70
68
14
26
31
38
45
71
67
63
64
49
69
43
23
18
54
67
54
67
57
thus seen that from 54 to 71 per cent inherited the succession in the dififerent grades. The upper grades are in no way
It
is
Thus we
outward circumstances namely, the right of succession can be proved to have no effect on intellectual distinction, or at least so small as to be unmeasurable without much
greater data. The younger sons have made neither a poorer nor
difference in
a better showing."
['06, pp.
285-286.]
His conclusion
: " The
upshot of
intellectual life,
If
it
environment
is
it
all
is,
that as regards
fails to
all
is
explain as
many more
it
always
environment are
seem
that
we
left
when
questions of
would
these rough
Therefore,
all
it
Educational Psychology
88
primary
,t;vrm-cells."
['o6, p. 286.]
Woods
emphatic
in
required.
is
is
He
not clear.
less
is
in training
says, "
The
ity is able to
while
all
environment
think
slight
only explain
will
this
in
Other considerations
The comparison between
enable us to
go even
and
maternal
paternal
grandsires
much
we
test
Offspring
significant.
is
as their paternal,
we
no weakening of the latter force. Such a result is surprising, for it does seem improbable that environment has no
infiueuce in the determination of temperament, behavior, and
virtue in general anil there is, of course, an ingrained popular
find
belief that
has."
it
['o(>.
p.
294.J
Rut only a i)age later he adds, " All
made
can say
is,
that
have
it
in this research."
'06, p.
is
295.
choses.
This
is itself
When
much
among
by those who
In
is
a coincidence to be explained
among
the children,
the ancestors."
['06, pp.
we alwa}s
290-292.]
[Thorndike,
05]
of
89
word
sites of
a set of words.*
The resemblances
York
of twins, resemblance
City, are:
test
R = .69
R==.7i
In the
R = .80 +
R=
R = .84
R = .90
In addition
.75
In multiplication
In the opposites
test
measurements
namely, (i) the possibly unfair selection of twins and (2) the
fact that the two members of a pair were commonly tested together.
The method of discovering twins was as follows:
Teachers in certain schools were asked to inquire of their pupils
whether any one had a twin brother or sister. All twins so
reported were tested.
But also frequently some teachers would
report that in such and such a school there was a pair of twins.
These could then be found quickly and measured. These reported
cases were perhaps likely to have been noticed in the first case
because of their likeness and so to be an unfair selection. Again,
in the
New York
schools
it
is
in the
life,
and
it
is
a frequent practice
to separate
*Thcse
tests
fOf
fifty
the
are
start.
pairs of twins
in
Appendix
II.
random
selection.
Educational Psychology
go
However, in respect to time of day, conditions of weather and light, and such conditions as are determined by family life, e. g., the lack of breakfast, fatigue from a
party the previous night, and the like, two twins would, when
measured at the same time, be influenced alike. Thus the obtained
resemblance would be too large. I can evaluate the amount of the
resultant constant error only from general considerations.
I believe it to be small.
This constant error would also influence
the correction made from attenuation, but here would make the
obtained resemblance too small.
An allowance was made for
these two sources of error to the best of the author's ability.
If now these resemblances are due to the fact that the two members of any twin pair are treated alike at home, have the same
parental models, attend the same school and are subject in general
unconscious changes.
up
to the
i )
twins should,
alike,
and
in
traits,
ordinary
fraternal pairs not over four or five years apart in age should
a resemblance
somewhat nearly
show
home
be much less
will not
traits
much
On
young
twins comes to equaling that of old, (2) the greater the superiority
of twin resemblance to ordinary fraternal resemblance is, and (3)
the nearer
comes
The
older twins
show no
younger
twins, and the chances are surely four to one that with an infinite
number
The
show a
facts are:
The Influence
The resemblances
of
Twins
i)
2) a-t
Twins 12-14
9-1
66
test
and
r-e tests
3) Misspelled
word
test
4) Addition
Multiplication
81
73
62
76
74
90
54
91
6) Opposites
96
69
88
Averages
83
70
5)
91
The
traits
most subject
show
to training-
The
word
test
traits
test).
the
less close
and opposites
do
cause
whatever similarities
and differences exist in the original natures of men, that these
conditions influence body and mind equally, and that in life the
differences in modification of body and mind produced by such
cells
conditions of conception
differences
as
New York
We
must be
ferent things
careful,
(
to
produce differences
in these
but this
does not in the least deny that better methods of training might
improve
all
Educational Psychology
92
general conditions of
in Au-w ]'ork City
life at
as
pupils
in
its
scliool
made up
partly of
New York
sysfon.
If
in the case of a
the
group
Is the
from the
quiet
2.
chair,
Is the
home
or
['06
life,
The
being in a
diflferent place
source of error
is
in
This
Pearson's
The authors do
so.
way
In view of the
this
method.
The authors do
it
training,
though they
state that
They
home
93
is
home
training,
much
They
is
little
subject to
it.
The
Near Ancestry
of
In the facts so far given in this chapter, the emphasis has been
The degree
How
far,
to
for
How
some
far
is
ancestry?
man
original
exists,
sort,
this
It is
specialization,
if
it
an
of ability?
due to
But
of
'
may
decide.
'
',
'
who had
this
"
Out
them
have been either father, son or brother to another judge, and
the other high legal relationships have been even more numerous.
There cannot, then, remain a doubt but that the peculiar type
of ability that
descent."
is
necessary to a judge
is
in every nine of
often transmitted by
61 and 62.]
mitted or inherited.
It
would be tedious
is
largely trans-
Educational Psychology
94
Those
in favour.
In
bitter controversiaUst)
all
(who
my
and
appendix, one or
more statesmen
will be
shown
is
to be the case
With men
is
of
is
The eminent
part
in
relatives
due,
Galton
thinks,
in the
same
In Galton's
special line.
all
training.
to
list
These were
Of
course there
possibility that
is,
success
in
other
the case of
in
their
all
We
Still
amenable
to
it
is
a question of fact,
make him
is
'
ability, that
most marked.
is
of 1030 eminent
men he
['04, p. 83.]
Men
In his group
House
groups of
of Lords,
Army and
as lawyers.
The two
and
very unlike.
The
sons of
95
a very
versatile group,
great soldiers
that
among
the
35 per cent
among
difficult to
It is
a real connection
"To suppose
relationship
is
that
an inadmissible theory.
The
this
association between
the craft of builder, carpenter, tanner, jeweller, watchmaker, woodcarver, rope maker,
and
etc.,
in
Ellis
adds,
" It
may
art
is
{Psychologic du
European
those
painters,
have reached
in
my
He
found that very few were of upper class social rank, and those
not usually among the most important, while nearly two-thirds of
the whole number were found to be the sons either of painters
or of workers in some art or craft.
He refers to the special
frequency of jewellers among the fathers. I may remark that in
my list, working jewellers and watchmakers occurred twice, a
Educational Psychology
96
small number, but relatively large considering that there are only
three fathers of this occupation in the total parentage of British
men
of ability."
['04, p. 85.]
for
'
Woods
ability.'
common
temper or hand-
sense, of insanity
From
the
work
of Burris
['03],
if
his
results
are properly
is
ability to
nearly or quite as
do well
much due
in
to ancestry as
is
the ability
do well
it
nature
is
organized
by
inheritance
in
great
detail,
and complexes of traits showing similarity between father and son or brother and brother.
Mental inheritance is specialized also in the further sense that
two individuals alike in one trait as a result of heredity need not
be equally alike in some other trait, though the latter be in general
equally subject to inheritance.
For example, a pair of twins
may be indistinguishable in eye color and stature but notably
different in hair color and in tests of intellect.
To measure the extent of this specialization of resemblance,
exact measures of the resemblance of individual relatives are
The procedure required to measure accurately the
needed.
resemblance between one individual and another in one trait is
somewhat intricate, and I shall not describe it here. The reader
may verify the accuracy of the measures which I give by examining Measurements of Twins, [Thorndike, '05] sections 16 to 18
Here I shall simply give the resemblances in
and 21 to 23.
efficiency in the A test, a-t test, and misspelled word test of the
ten pairs of twins who showed the closest resemblance in efficiency
in addition, multiplication, and writing opposites.
These show
particular traits
'
The Influence
shown by
children of the
in tests of
'
same
perception.'
TABLE
9.
Resemblance
Twin
97
in association
Resemblance
in perception
Educational Psychology
98
What
called
is
ation.
with
itself
little
or no vari-
germ generation
in
ovum
with
it
be (i)
all
it,
witliout the
or
(3)
all
it.
Fourth.
Any
original nature
difference
is
between one
man and
another
in
determiners.
not required.
Fifth.
'
character
'
one which
is
miner in the
(positive
unit character
is
unit character), or
may
multiple character
one
sort,
sort.
illustrated as follows
simplex.
which is produced by a
ovum from which he springs,
in the individual
'
The Influence
the individual which
is
99
in the
ovum, A duplex.
Suppose cooperativeness to be a positive unit character. Call
Then the condition in the parents
it C, and call its determiner c.
may be: (i) both with C duplex, (2) one with C duplex and one
fertilized
with
(i) Ifsall
(2)
have
2c
half
t will
unions 1
the
of
will
have 2c
\
/
or
if
ova have c
sperms have c
half of the
and
all
half
unions
the
of
will
have
and half
have c
ova have c
sperms
of the
and the
offspring
\ will have
C simplex.
\ will have
/ and
\ will
the
offspring
have no C.
(4) If all
or
if all
(5) If
/ and the
\ will have
IC
half
the
of
will
offspring
C simplex.
the offspring
r and
\ will have C simplex.
unions
have ic
or
if
(6)
half
the
of
will
results
seem
common
fact of
blended inheritance.
at first sight in
\ will
These
the appearance, in
unions
have no c
and none
of the offhave C.
\ spring will
toward
-j-
B
,
these conditions
all into
facts of blended
two or three
distinct groups.
inheritance in a trait
four,
is
if
two, three,
E ducatio nal Psy cho logy
lOO
mental
and c are determiners of intellect, aa, bb, and cc being the normal double
determiners. Suppose aa to produce in the individual an amount
of intellect represented by 2q, bb to produce an amount represented
by 4q, and cc to produce an amount represented by 8q. Suppose
a, b, and c to produce each approximately half as much as aa,
bb, and cc, respectively.
The union of a germ and ovum could have
trait.
a, b,
o
or
The Influence
the total
traits
gradation and
all
compounded of these
the
loi
complexities of
a continuous
factors,
observation finds.
Many
more or
less
all
the
character.
The Mendelian
nature by a
list
ideal
is
man's original
its
individuals.
it
may
not be better.
This concerns
on the invariability of the determiners from generation to generation, and within each fraternity of germs.
If this
invariability is perfect, any unit character can appear in only
two forms or degrees, one corresponding to the presence of a
double determiner in the united sperm and ovum whence the
its
insistence
hard
But
if this
requirement
is
made
strictly,
it
is
to find
of eye,
its
in
of
heredity would frankly admit that the determiners did vary some-
what and
determiner.
*Though even
this
may
be doubted.
Educational Psychology
102
Mendelian Inheritance
The
possibility of analyzing
and controlling
mental
human
species
by breeding
the
all
all
It
is
very attractive.
If
p.
I4f.]
that imbecility
a unit character, depending on the absence of a certain determiner. " That imbecility is due to the absence of some definite
is
simple factor
Two
ance.
is
its
method of
inherit-
imbecile offspring.
his experience.
feeble-minded
man
20 years has borne him 19 defective children. A feebleminded epileptic mother and an irresponsible father have 7 idiotic
and imbecile children. The L. family numbers 7 persons, both
parents and all 5 children imbecile.
Among the " Family
Records " I have been collecting there occurs the R. family where
who
in
has
children,
13
all
mentally weak
In a case
have 7 children
There
is,
all
more or
so far as I
am
less
the absence of
some
some
definite simple
will
If
it
be found
were due
division of intellects
into those
The Influence
it
Rough
distinct
'
103
intelligence
'
determiner.
some
writes:
['02, p. 9]
on the
"Imbeciles
Richardson
intellectual scale.
my
experience
know
of a case where a
Mental
results,
On
the
contrary, most of
characters.
known
o,
It
moderate,
and
full
amount,
with
Almost,
if
gaps
clear
not quite,
all
mental
many
gradation in a
trait's
amount
determiners to produce
it,
if it is
to be
traits,
traits,
different
But
this
many
produced by determiners
and moral
between,
It is
nor whether,
if
two variable
The question must be
may
blend.
for investigation
resemblances.
CHAPTER
The Influence
No
VI
of Maturity
mental
traits
dififer
The same
self,
in
certain
irrespective of
all
some of the
training.
differences
sex,
groups by a difference
to
in
least certain
in the extent to
who were
in
traits,
its
is,
all
closely alike
in a later stage of
growth, regard-
very
much
The study
and
made
to be
growth.
6,
7,
successive
of the facts
8,
will
etc.,
stages
in
is
represent
in
the
mental growth.
comparisons of children at
ments available
difficult
central
And
tendencies
of
maturity.
(104)
The Influence
Changes
Some
of
the
in
of Maturity
Mental Traits
105
Age
zvith
best
studies
in
['94].
will
fairly careful
examination of
method and
its
results
made
Dr. Gilbert
and mental
The mental
Delicacy
1.
number of measurements
of both physical
traits in
traits
old.
were
of
discrimination
weight
of
('Muscle-Sense').
2.
(A
series of reds
varying
Force of suggestion.
3.
made much
ability.
T=
5 seconds of a
made
Measured by the amount a child oversize compared with the same weight
larger.)
Voluntary motor
4.
i.)
trial for
the
(The number of
made in the
Let L = the number of
number
45 seconds.
Let
F=
made with
taps
of taps
f
L
F was
wr~-
first
taps
the measure
of fatigue used.)
6.
and
7.
time taken to
(Measured by the
see that the signal was blue and not red and to react
The
It tells
as
'
Table
10.
girls
and the
to 9 years
1 1
in
months
inclusive,'
io6
Educational Psychology
measured.
In three
girls together.
TABLE
lo.
The Central Tendencies and Variabilities of Children op Different Ages in Discrimination of Weight, Discrimination of Shades
OF Red, Resistance to the Size-Weight Illusion, etc.
M. V. = in
the median
B = in
all
all
grams
D col. = the
smallest
number of
difference
required
in
order that
the
difference.
differences
(not
objectively
defined)
required in order that the median child should perceive the difference.
For
H~
f.
the median difference in grams between the two weights (of equal
F-
T-L
/jK
(L being
tlic
number of
taps
made
in the last 5
seconds of
movement
of a
disc
down
if
the surface
instead of blue.
The Influence
of Maturity
Sensitiveness to Color-differences
Age.
107
io8
Educational Psychology
Fatigue
Age.
The Influence
of Maturity
109
mean?
Just
what do the differences between those for six and seven, seven
and eight, etc., tell us about the development of mental traits in
life?
Just what do we learn about human nature from these
comparisons of the capacities of children of different ages
It is clear that
an alteration
in
any mental
trait in
any individual
The
we should
from nature which we may not
In the former
It
In the latter
earnings of training.
different training
we
is
say
We
as
some environmental
it
It is
With
lack or possess
it
a product of education.
might be absent.
We
may
choose.
Moreover,
in the case of
many measurements
of mental traits,
maturity and training upon the ability to understand and the wish
to follow instructions
complex of
traits
we may
call
to
do well
general ability in
in tests.
tests.
It is
all
This
even
the
As
a matter of fact
all
most of the changes of mental traits with age. Even if the changes
are due directly to outside forces, in the form of the experiences of
life and training, maturity may still count as a force cooperating
with these or furnishing the conditions in the individual which
permit their action on him to produce the mental changes in
question. On the other hand, mere inner growth, no matter how
A child
potent, requires usually some stimuli from without.
grows mentally in some kind of a world of experience, forming
some habits. Only in thought can the contribution of his inner
impulsions be separated off from the contribution of the outside
stimuli by which the inner impulsions are roused to action. Furthermore, a mental test with children almost always measures some-
:
;
no
Educational Psychology
memory
how
is its
respect to the
trait.
power
ostensible object.
amongst
estimate the amount of
their causation
as the special
is
distributed
between mere maturity and the added training which has accompanied maturity.
Until this is done we cannot progress far
beyond the vague commonplaces of common observation.
The
Difficulties in Inferring
from
So
Differe,nces
far
way
describe
them.
The
made
first
point will be
clear
I.)
10I/2 years,
ability, 2.22,
viz.,
we had simply
we
the figures
in
average
between
ability at ten
The Influence
Case
Ability
in
of Maturity
Case
112
Educational Psychology
may
beginning of
this chapter
who
will live
in
any
test
12 year-olds,
100; 13-year-olds,
like a fair
become.
The
Some mental
Some moral
institutions.
life
leave
defectives
If
we
fill
for
reform
Some
grammar
chil-
up our quota
jump from
of the brighter,
fairly well off
fire,
we
the
age has not been and can not be adequately measured by such
studies as those quoted.
To measure
it
we must
all
repeat measure-
purposes of infer-
In connec-
of the training
all
is
false.
The same
fraction of the
The Influence
of Maturity
total inner
in
113
ability, will
different children.
The
is
the
main
produce
is
growing.
growth,'
is
also false.
differences cannot be
limit for
case.
it
can be
Take discrimination
set.
at hand,
an upper
of weight as a sample
same direction
as does maturity,
the average inner growth from, say, ten to seventeen must produce
less
seventeen-year-olds.
olds
pupils, including
would become.
to seventeen
difference
is
So the
effect of
from 8.8
to 5.8 grams.
less.
would
year-olds
there
is
is
markedly
eccentric.
And
among
the ten-
measurements of discrimination of weight. Hence even the topmost limit for the average effect of these seven years' maturity is
surely less than one sixth of the effect of the extreme differences
in ancestry and training upon children of the same age.
CHAPTER
The Influence
Difficulties in
VII
of the
Estimating the
Environment
Amount
of Influence of the
Environment
The
title
the agencies
pation, etc.
for
intellectual
and human influences upon intellect and character hampers scientific study and favors guesswork.
The environment includes a
practical infinitude of different causes
and
at different
in
many
upon
human
(114)
The Influence
of the Environment
may
as well
115
'
is
Who
intellects
men
To
class
whose children go
ensures to an individual
itself
when we
to the university
uncommon mental
ability.
select
Any
extremely hard.
is
almost sure to
is
surroundings.
mar
High
school graduates
sent an
entirely
They
and better
in
gram-
surely
are
ideals.
Again,
monly
a superior selection.*
So
also scientific
men
are a class
resulting not only from the training given by research work, but
also
from the
Children brought up in
work.
The ordinary
arrangement of
.us
social
out, the
The
difficulty
excuse for
its
neglect.
is
no
a hint of
its
etc.,
without finding
recognition.
*This apparently
is
becoming
trait
less
common
every year.
selective
Educational Psychology
ii6
tific
would be absurd.
all
human
When
indi-
Such
differ-
differ-
its
effect.
No man
is
left
un-
common
It
is
terms of 'men-training-products,
in interaction zvith his training
each
',
of an individual's nature
One
students
its
knowledge
against
is
such
verbal
plausibilities.
is
to
guard
For example,
man's nature.
Two
The
first is
axiom are of
special significance.
a.
The Influence
certain
power or
of the
ideal or habit in
inadequate to do so in another.
was,
if
common
story
is
Environment
man may
one
Washing
true,
117
be hopelessly
bottles in a
ding-shop
to secure the habit of reading in one child, while the child beside
The second
environment.
man
is
The boy
move him,
lets it
that each
corollary
it
it,
his
may
mind does
not.
be disregarded in
own
Even
if
character.
Common
cation
it
it
would be
possible for
tempted to claim
acts,
that,
since
the
features
of civilization,
human
have
the
been
and since consequently the environment in all important respects is itself due to
original nature,
therefore original nature is at bottom the cause
of almost all of human destinies. " A people gets as good government as it deserves a race has the environment its own nature
natures,
Educational Psychology
ii8
man
So he might
Many
carelessly claim.
human
it
may
Even when
And
it.
it
is
even when
it
is
known
effect, there
may
be
is.
former case are abundant in history. Hisfact largely a record of unexplained changes in human
Illustrations of the
tory
is
in
nature.
the
Nearly
modern
ancestors
of
all
English, French, or
Germans and
in environment.
The
their barbarous
to
differences
may have
much. Our
this
The Influence of
the
Environment
119
environment upon
History of Twins
The
third
intellect
is
environments upon
in
spelling
and of differences
in the
first
qualities of
tastes,
associations
of
ideas
mind.
The evidence
in the
ture
One
parent
from
"They
says:
their birth
up
nature."
2.
" I
from the
moment of their birth to the present time, though they were
nursed by the same woman, went to school together, and were
perfectly dissimilar in character, habits, and likeness
never separated
till
120
Educational Psychology
"
3.
same
they differ as
much from
4.
Very
dissimilar in
the one
is
my
quite retir-
The
"
6.
sition.
The two
The one
sisters are
is
very different in
ability
and determined
7.
up by hand they have been under the same nurse and governess
from their birth, and they are very fond of each other. Their
increasing dissimilarity must be ascribed to a natural difference
of mind and character, as there has been nothing in their treatment to account for it."
;
8.
''
They
most instructive
the certainty of
is
given by their
wounding the
if
"
and therefore
fall
influence
have no control."
we
The Influence of
" This case
10.
is,
Environment
the
121
acter.
justify, in
Gal ton's
We
"
may, therefore, broadly conclude that the only circumstance, within the range of those by which persons of similar
conditions of life are affected, that is capable of producing a
marked effect on the character of adults, is illness or some accident that causes physical infirmity.
all this
leaves on the
can do anything at
mind
is
The impression
that
all,
There is
prevails enormously over nurture when the differences of nurture
do not exceed what is commonly to be found among persons of
the same rank of society and in the same country."
Even in the hands of a master, the collection of data through
correspondence is inferior to direct observation and measurement. Galton was misled to believe that twins fall naturally into
two groups, those much alike, and those little alike, in infancy.
They do not. His correspondents may have made careless reports in other respects also. However, it will be remembered that
training.
with respect to
showed
facts
fifty
objectively measured,
pairs of twins,
The
been studied by
Odin
men
conditions of nurture of
De
['95], Ellis
in
more
cities
abilities tested.
are
more
['06],
likely
training had
['04], Cattell
men
home
the
containing universities
men
of science or letters,
by parents
in
comfortable or
more than comfortable financial circumstances and to have received a good education.
Such facts are used in Odin, and by Lester F. Ward ['06]
following him, as evidence that the number of men of great achievement could be increased many times over if all men had in vouth
the stimulus of an intellectually active city, freedom from pro;
82
Educational Psychology
122
But obviously the features of the successful man's surroundings, enumerated above,
might all be the secondary results of superior parentage. If men
of high capacity go to live in cities, their sons will be born and
reared in cities if men of scientific and literary gifts are attracted
to university cities, such cities will, on grounds of heredity alone,
produce future scientific and literary men. If men of high achievement are born of men of over-average achievement, they will not
be brought up by day-laborers and without education as often
The parent's achievement leads foras chance would dictate.
ward to these environmental conditions as truly as the son's
achievement leads back to them. So nothing is proved by them.
;
From Table
ii
[Cattell, '06],
TABLE
Distribution of 867
Men
II.
I.-V*
Birthplace.
Per
VI.-X.*
Million
i860.
19
10
Total.
46.
29
15
18
Massachusetts
60
74
134
Rhode
4
26
28.6
Connecticut
14
40
86.9
New York
New Jersey
99
9
84
19
183
28
Pennsylvania
32
34
66
Vermont
Island
46.0
57-1
108
47
41.6
23.7
17.8
12
14
26
Virginia
3
13
37-8
39-9
West Virginia
o
4
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
8.8
5.0
7.1
2.8
Kentucky
6.9
Tennessee
5.4
Alabama
2.1
Column
men
men
of less ability.
column
The Influence of
the
Environment
Birthplace.
I.
-v.*
Mississippi
Louisiana
Texas
North Central Division.
Ohio
o
42
Indiana
17
Illinois
24
Michigan
Wisconsin
Minnesota
12
11
i
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota
South Dakota
Nebraska
Kansas
Western Division.
Montana
Wyoming
Colorado
New Mexico
Arizona
Washington
California
Alaska
Hawaii
Philippine Islands
Total
432
123
Educational Psychology
124
inferior to
Texas
He may
commerce
production of
scientific
men
different parts
in
of the country
due
heredity.
to
It
such
is
to
is
forms
other
of
population,
of
traditions
but,
The main
proved.
not
and
factors
producing
performance
intellectual
seem
scientific
to
be
opportunity,
institutions
scientific
and
density
and
All these may be ultimately due to
wealth,
ideals.
in
social
race,
productivity of the
My
mathe-
matics and music, are mainly innate, and that kinds of character
and degrees of ability are mainly innate, but that the direction of
performance is mainly due to circumstances, and that the environment imposes a veto on any performance not congenial to it."
['06, pp.
The
734-735]
cities in
which
five or
more of
the thousand
men
of science
The
in
of city
life.
He
is
Table
12.
Of
[Cattell,
the 866
'06, p.
men
738]
native to the
in the cities
85
6
2
rate
was
due
due
to a
The
23.8.
Environment
125
it
may
is
doubtless
also be in part
['06, pp.
738-739]
TABLE
12.
I-V
New
York, N.
Boston, Mass
Philadelphia,
Pa
Md
Baltimore,
Cincinnati,
Brooklyn, N.
Chicago, Ills
Total.
71.2
58
33
24
25
12
16
9
6
11
43
28
20
12
74-5
ii
19
241
49 5
94 -i
39-4
73.2
86.2
Mo
4
4
7
6
43.5
230
140
269
no.
Buffalo, N.
St. Louis,
VI.-X.
Per
Million
i860.
Cambridge, Mass
Cleveland,
Salem, Mass
Milwaukee, Wis
Newark, N.J
San Francisco, Cal
Total
With
6
6
112
115
227
that those
who
69
88 .0
.
it
appears
"
The
['06, pp.
is
740-741]
is
was the
of school work.
it
Educational Psychology
126
still
few
in
to increase rapidly
with increasing
Dr. Rice ['97] tested the spelling ability of some 33,000 children
in twenty-one schools representing a great variety in spirit,
He
then
systems he says
" Indeed, in both the mechanical
mechanical systems.
these
cities,
And
it
is
He
that
is
home reading
Table
examined are
making
is
Grade.
14.
the cause of
the comparisons of
14.
TABLE
or cultured
The Influence
o
z
3
o
o
w
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of the Environment
127
128
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Educational Psychology
Environment
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fin
2:
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Educational Psychology
130
instruction."
in
my
viz.,
that the
part."
its
we
The average
if
mean
all
cases equally
of the 12 eighth
grade classes which were tested in the first half of the year is 1.9
that of the 13 tested in the last half of the year is 2.6; the
average deviation by pure chance of 12 eighth grade classes of
a variability of 12.2
1.9,
the
variability
of
individuals
The Influence of
being
12.2.
cause at
all
the
Environment
131
we may need no
" gives
two averages
The
results
This table
at the top
From
He
( i )
the
home environment
of the pupils
(2) the size of the classes; (3) the age of the children; (4) the
time of day of the test; (5) the time devoted to arithmetic in
the school;
(6)
the
ability
as
represented by a
demands in regard
to results; (12) the testing for results (a) by teachers alone,
(b) by teachers and superintendents, (c) by principals, (d) by
training of teachers
( 1 1 )
the establishment of
He
for results,
method of testing
that teachers and pupils do about what is demanded of
the
them, and that the best work appears when the superintendent,
in
The following
samples of the
are
reasoning by
which he
Home
Environment
be as important as
it
is
is
played by the
generally
Educational Psychology
132
homes, while those in the lower part had been attended by those
whose home environment was very poor. However, if a line
should be drawn across the middle of the table, and the schools
above
it
'
'
and the best of these secured the tenth place, while the
The school
others ranked eleventh and sixteenth, respectively.
that ranked seventh was distinctively a school of the slums. That
is to say, the school laboring under the poorest conditions in
respect to home environment obtained a better standing than any
The building which
one of the so-called aristocratic schools.
stands fifth is representative of conditions just a shade better
than those of the slums. And when I add that, from the standpoint of environment, the schools of City I. did not average a
single degree better than those of Cities VI. and VII., I have
latter,
said
enough
to
show
can not be condoned on the ground of unfavorable environment. Thus, as in spelling, so in arithmetic, this mountain, upon
cities
down
of Classes
if
may appear
made for the
to be
my
test.
shall
not
enter into the details in regard to this point, but will dismiss
it
with the remark that the number of pupils per class was larger
in the highest six schools than it was in the schools of City VI.,
classes
Age
of Pupils
His argument
is
is
rather
awk-
to eliminate
age
group from City VI. or VII. with a group idenage and grade from City I. or III.
to .compare a
tical in
The Influence
Time
of
of the Enviromnent
133
Day
much
within any one city the time of day of the test makes Httle
difference.
direct
to
tell
that
special
no
is
pressure
"In the
first place, it
is
average
25
one where
mean
failure.
in the
it
In
cent.
amoimt of
all
the grades
was
In the latter the time varied in the different classes, but averaged
fifty-three
minutes
daily.
results
list,
we
find three
In one of these,
insuffi-
might be suggested as a reason for the unsatisfactory results, only thirty minutes daily having been devoted to
arithmetic.
The second school, however, gave forty-eight, while
the third gave seventy-five. This certainly seems to indicate that
a radical defect in the quality of instruction can not be offset by
an increase in quantity.
"If we now turn our attention from the three schools just menSchools 2, 3, and 4,
tioned and direct it to three near the top
City I.
we find the conditions reversed for while the two schools
that gave forty-five minutes made averages of 64 per cent, and
67 per cent., respectively, the school that gave only twenty-five
minutes succeeded in obtaining an average of 69 per cent. This
would appear to indicate that while, on the one hand, nothing is
gained by an increase of time where the instruction in arithmetic
is faulty, on the other hand, nothing is lost by a decrease of time, to
a certain point, where the schools are on the right path in teaching
the subject. Perhaps the most interesting feature of the table is
the fact that the school giving twenty-five minutes a day came
cient pressure
out within two of the top, while the school giving seventy-five
Educational Psychology
134
it
in the lowest
in the first
In the other cases the facts are given more vaguely, and in his
presentation of positive evidence that differences in supervision
by
achievement
all
in City
I.
the
take
it
The
ment
is
fourth sample of studies of the influence of the environnot of major importance, but
is
distinctive in that
its
facts
The
facts
was
The
scholarly
men
ates entering
in each decade.
some one
oi
B K
was 65
gradu-
in 1840-
The Influence
for that of teaching
of the
were included.
Environment
The incomplete
135
records avail-
d)
Z"
may be
young men who entered
Roughly,
it
social
The same
and
if
for
1900
is
probably under
into
TABLE
16.
Law
1844
scholarly
intellectual
1840
10.
Medicine
Teaching
Work That of
Ministry
Educational Psychology
136
The Method
We
may summarize
intellect
and morals
as
1.
2.
action of
is
capable.
3.
ties in
According
life
activi-
to this description
we should
As
life.*
way
that the
conditions of heat
human mind,
forms.
And
fail to fit
like the
as, in the
animal kingdom,
its
many
universe of mental
of these variations
tion or two, so in
by others
fit
to a
speedy disappearance
animal world
in the
The
outside events.
is
in
consequence of
which survival
is
Further,
*In
An
all
The Influence
Environment
of the
137
kingdom
any stage
at
new
in the history of
have appeared, but also of a natural selection working upon them. The
tale of a
human mind's
progress
is
varieties that
its failures.
tion
record of a
The
human
life.
influence of
varies with
its
avoidability.
men may
a democracy to which
social,
if
there
Customs do not
make men so infallibly if there is a radical party, however small,
which ofifers an alternative mode of life.
Music's charms to
is
emigrate.
if
men can
means
when undisputed
is
started
it
and so very
first
rare.
and advertised,
it
for to be the
man
it
But once
easily attract
be the more
to
a genius
is
is
modes of behavior
may even
act as a stimulus
it is
So
toward
designed to thwart.
all
Which
is
'
Educational Psychology
138
things a
man can
or does
what he
largely a matter of
is
On
is
stimulated to do and
many
features
efifect
men
can meet
in
modern
civilized countries.
In such countries
irrepressible
irrepressible
in this
country
is
likely to have.
The
It is
facts.
This interpretation
cautions
addition
in
to
is left
or
amplification
in
of
those
already
explained.
Many
due
that
if
due entirely
to original nature
that
if
it
are
it
are
other
men
attribute
absolute gain
differences
in
may
be relative
loss.
One
thinker
to
may
nurture
The Influence
of the
Environment
if
139
the former
is
thinking of
The commonest
differential, the
is
vironmental force
upon which
will
it
that of concluding
itself
operates.
We
may even
amounts of capacity does not imply any the less advantage from or need of wise investment. If it be true, for example,
that the negro is by nature unintellectual and joyous, this does not
imply that he may not be made more intelligent by wiser training
or misanthropic and ugly-tempered by the treatment he now
different
receives.
same
It
results
does
arson.
To
much
the real
He
does not rejoice that he and his children are healthier, happier and
his ancestors of a
Educational Psychology
140
rise
who seems
higher.
Thus
most men really seek are after all in large measure given or
withheld by original nature. In the actual race of Ufe, which is
not to get ahead, but to get ahead of somebody, the chief determining factor
is
heredity.
But the prizes which education ought to seek are all within
its power.
The results for which a rational mankind would strive
are determined largely by mankind itself. For the common good
indifferent
is
it
most.
who
is
at the
To
men
are achieving
for the
is
zvhich
top,
all
great contributor.
it
mental
much matter
will not
limits are
somewhat
contracted.
If the question
inal nature
it
is
between orig-
is
rather
more
depend on inherent qualities than to refer it entirely to advantages possessed during life,
and contempt is merited more by him who has failed through
being the inferior person than by the one who has failed simply
from bad luck. Whether or not it is merited in either of the
two cases we shall decide in view of our general notions about
merit and blame, not of our psychological theories of the causes
encouraging
of conduct.
On
men
the whole
of the
it
made
The Influence
of the
Environment
141
really they
merely
toto.
work of church,
library
man
sympathy and
Second.
The
channels in which
human energy
shall proceed,
human
capacities,
are
less
determined by inborn
traits.
The
We
provides.
lamentable waste of
it
as
intellect,
but
We
can
it
Third.
Morality
mental influence.
more susceptible than intellect to environMoral traits are more often matters of the
is
virtues.
The one
is
we
call
is
development of
do best
the
least.
which we
call habits.
'
CHAPTER
VIII
of Individual Differences in
Single Traits
scales,
such as quick
slow, intense
broad
like.
superficial,
So temperament
to
one
is
to be re-
trait
We
at
natur-
ally take
man
all
all
of each race
and of one sex,* and so on for each stock, degree of maturity, and
kind of training. That is, the condition of the individuals in each
of a great many groups, each defined by sex, ancestry, age and
By combining these one could detraining, would be described.
scribe the condition of the individuals in groups defined by sex
and age alone, or race and age alone, or race, age and training
alone, and the like.
For practical reasons, however, the individuals whose differences one from another have been measured often form groups
For example, the indiof a somewhat adventitious character.
vidual differences between one student and another in university
classes in psychology
*That
is
for a
So
143
or " those
who are willing to reply to a series of questions sent out by mail " are groups
",
The group
viduals are
all
is
insane, or
men
Furthermore, many
delinquent, or
all
when
or
the indi-
all
morally
of science.
of the facts concerning individual differ-
men from
like,
the average of
all
men
due to chance
These investigators took no interest in these individual divergences save as annoying hindrances to the exact formulation of constant laws of mental life.
So also students primarily
interested in the differences of man from woman have, without
desire, got results concerning the differences of one man from
conditions.
another.
Finally the experiments
of
life
made
for us
The
respect to the
achievement in
life,
or of criminals in
As
of a
traits.
There are also studies of individuals of the same sex and of nearly
The
the same age, race, and training (in certain particulars).
children just mentioned,
in school,
if
Educational Psychology
144
In spite of the
from the
mixture of unknown degrees of age, race and training, four general facts about individual variations in traits taken one at a
time seem highly probable,
(i)
The
of
all
mammals.
(3)
The
man
(2)
than in
They
are,
in
traits character-
One grade or
next as ten men is
ways, continuous.
degree or amount
TABLE
The
is
not sepa-
17.
pounds
is
145
The
(4)
"
varia-
type."
As
Laws
Variations
of Mental
II
Ml
II
800
Fig. 26.
The
10
1)
Iq
The
(Upper Diagram).
III
il
II
III
II
Hf}
Sfl
ability
11
III
I^A
illil
III
11 times
of each of 37
Mini
III
|u
IS
3S
women
II
)0.
in adding.
of 10 figures,
wrong sum.
Fig. 26.
The ability
100 mm. line. The scale
(Lower Diagram).
Each
one individual.
K)
etc., etc.
The median
of
all
10
women
Educational Psychology
146
The Amounts
Any
indi-
To
the question,
In particular,
traits,
mammalian versus distinctively humust depend upon some means of comparing the mag-
versus acquired
man
my
traits,
or in
tallest
difference of another
a sense
equivalent to
If one
'
and
just not
'
just not
any
'
any
'
man
commensurate with
Nothingness
of one thing
is
is
taken
treated as
of another thing.
person on a
Indhndual Differences
scale for " ability in addition " one
in Single Traits
147
would
would be
It
a score
still
harder,
if
Should
in this test.
it
be 100
sec.
it
in
terms of
on a
test in
drawing
lines to place a
scale
person
as
ability,
There
"
is
is
common
great absurdity in
mental
in the case of a
trait
relative differ-
ences between this and that manifestation of the trait and o are.
Even
best handwriting
is
it
is
They
will declare,
much
curiosity the
man
'
or concerning
how many
times as
idiot.
rational
was
times
how many
and
just decision as to
we
what
'
'
or
'
just
that individual
differ-
Educatiottal Psychology
148
'
in solving
problems
'
mechanical
in arithmetic,
difficulties,
or geo-
The range
proof.
statistical
is
of variations or the
sounds or distances
in the
and
quired, than in
inal
instincts
;
in
movement, which
of
winking, swallowing,
knowledge, which
is
is
largely ac-
than in the
interest in sex.
The second
man
is
than in
traits
common
to
man and
the
mammals
in general,
remembering acts of skill, by the comparison of variability in marking A's with variability in marking
logically absurd sentences, by the comparison of variability in
drawing a line between two lines accurately with that in defining
a word accurately, and the like. As the superiority of the best to
ideas with variability in
worst
rememberer
of
is
places
or
avoider
of
animal
enemies,.
149
greater than
is
The Continuity
Mental Variations
of
the
absence of
rats,
between
and
rats
squirrels,
But
if
will
be
5, 6,
7,
and
made and
may
appear in the
5.5's, 6.75's
the average
is
and the
like.
taken, there
6.75's.
from the
insufficient
individuals are
number
measured
of cases measured.
If only a
few
number
Thus
in Fig.
(p.
145)
had the
The 37 individuals whose
have been
all
26
filled in,
were reported
*0f course
continuity
in Fig.
is
not
taken
here
in
the
sense
of
infinite
or do not
act,
Educational Psychology
ISO
should
be
unnecessary
warn
to
the
reader
against the
few groups by coarse scaling next assuming that the central part
of one of these coarse divisions really measures all the individuals
therein and finally imagining that, because the continuous series,
varying from a to a + b, has been called, say, Poor, Medium, Good
;
600
500
.600
500
seconds
in
really
gaps within
The
it
Unfortunately
this error.
of Different
Amounts
of Difference
These
'
amounts of the
trait in the
151
n
A
C
Fig. 28.
in
mental
A.
Reaction time
B.
C.
Memory
traits.
of digits
from 12 years
months.
months to 13 years
Accuracy in drawing lines to equal a 100 mm line 153 girls from
E.
months.
months to 16 years
13 years
F.
Efficiency in marking words containing each the two letters a and t
months to 13 years o months.
312 boys from 12 years
In all six cases the left end of the scale represents the lowest abilities,
that is, the longest times in A, the fewest digits in B, etc. The continuous lines give the distributions. The broken lines are to be disregarded for
D.
the present.
'
Educational Psychology
152
central tendency.'
This statement
On
is
not,
however, universally, or
common
opinion
amount
trait is multimodal, as in Fig. 29A, or even a compound
There would then be
distinct species, as in Fig. 29B.
of a single
of entirely
many small
of medium
differences
differences.
This
may
be called the
'
multiple type
A
V
B
Fig. 29.
theory.
For
Multimodal
distributions.
we
if
the
were
separated
acting together).
If,
153
for instance,
we
men
gifts,
intellect,
who
of
it
may be such
children
may
Fig. 30.
distribution
showing
traits,
ability to play
those
idiotic
less
This
is
doubtful,
One
includes
ability
measured
in adults the
world over.
Here
Many
such causes
may
if
is
so
Educational Psychology
154
may
well be
two modes
all
knowing
it.
it
very
Appren-
may
happens
Fig. 31.
is
class.
How
human
far this
not known.
made
a great
traits in
155
tribution
Fig. 32.
Fig. 33.
girls.
traits in
'
'
iS6
34
Educational Psychology
This fact
trait.
is
shown
157
The
common
opinion
more or
that
there
are
of
species
distinct
less
limit itself to
r^
The
Fig. 37.
relative
is
at the
left,
of high-school
The
150 negroes.
of the scale.
skill
those
in
plumbing, by those
who
men
as
because
and
and the
like.
It
who never
and
it
thinks of
all.
It
158
Educational Psychology
L_
corresponding divisions
in reality
159
grades
men
even long-trained
'
'
'
'
B
The
Fig. 39.
distortion of the
cases
is
blindness.
is
same
trait
from the
first
28 of them.
ated children of normal intellect from the imbeciles and idiots was
also very strong in
many
scientific
men.
The
multiple-type theory
group of causes.
of the same sex,
It
race,
'
types.'
fall
'
Educational Psychology
i6o
In such a form
it is
if
normal
'
'
Thus
men
blind, color
weak and of
( i )
if
if all
men
are rated
as short,
'
likewise
weak and
these
included
the
measured and
individuals are
are
into
'
by,
merge imperceptibly
Thus (2)
normal.'
the scale
if
twenty
say,
is
divisions
only
fifty
it,
there
a fair
is
show
may
fifty
The
human
when
trait
The Chance
Mental Traits
In sharp contrast to the
common
notion that
human
beings are
is
trait,
men, at least by original nature, form always only one class defined
This theory answers in the
by one single sort of distribution.
affirmative the questions " Do the distributions of mental traits
:
groups of individuals follow any regular law? Are the differences between individuals in mental capacities and characteristics
amenable to any single type of description?" It supposes that,
in
in
all
original
traits,
human
beings so differ as to
make
the
The exact meaning of this supneed not now be discussed. Our present
it
interest
is
in discovering
characterize
how
far
all
i6i
human
beings.
By
using
and the evidence for it can be made clear even to one who knows
nothing whatever of the mathematical properties of the surface
of frequency of a chance event or of any other.
Figs. 40
conform.
and
The
41.
'chance' or 'probability'
form of
same distribution
distribution.
it
will
this theoretical
form
II
its
trait
different
in
Educational Psychology
i62
from these
likely to be
causes,
drawn.
The
None
a
ab
abc
bee
ad
ac
abd
bcf
ae
af
abe abf
bde bdf
acd
bef
abed
abce
abcf
abde
adef
bcde
bcdf
beef
abcde
abcdf
abcef
bd
be
be
ace
cde
abdf
bdef
abdef
bf
acf
cdf
abef
cd
ce
ade
cef
cf
adf
de
aef
df
ef
bed
def
acde
acdf
acef
cdef
acdef
bcdef
abcdef
Consequently for every individual possessing o units of the
trait there will be 6 possessing 6 units of it, 15 possessing 2 units,
amounts of the
traits will
Amounts of
be
TABLE
163
19.
of
trait.
Relative frequencies
Educational Psychology
164
As
fits
them
fits
all,
No
it.
simple curve.
mental
The
of
fit
is
in
traits.*
many combinations
of
many
factors, each
In so
48
43
Fig. 42.
The
'chance'
six equal
and indepen-
dent causes.
Fig. 43.
The
'chance'
form of distribution
and
independent causes,
far as
it is
so,
in the trait's
to the
'
'
'
Normal
'
*The broken
distribution.
lines in Fig.
'
chance
'
form of
Such a
165
trait as stature
many
skull,
the like.
But such a
For certain
will not.
'
is
trait as
'
many
wealth pos-
and there
tives;
is
many
of the
There
is
On
is
amount
are due to
largely un-
dike, '04, p.
69
Distributions
mental
in
f.]
approximating
it
Educational Psychology
i66
Moreover, what
approximation.
is
to
known
the
many
expectation that
traits
we examine,
become
clear if
first,
I
i-T_r-i
dK
r
46
47
The
Figs. 44-47.
groups distinct
effect
affecting the
trait in question.
Fig. 44.
and
The
test,
of children
8,
9,
14
15 years old.
Fig. 45.
The
The
7.
from
The
and IS
years old.
at
work.
te-
1
r^^-^
2A
kl
167
Educational Psychology
i68
words
in a
Fig. 46
letters a
and
t,
In general
15-year-olds.
in a
when
from the probability curve toward a flattening and toward the appearance of two or more modes, one may
expect to find a mixture of sexes, races, ages or trainings.
mental
trait departs
symmetry
that
The
lack of
we
are
chance distribution.
by
due
The
is
By combining
torted
grade or higher.
same
6A
selection.
50,
mathematical ability
honors in mathematics at Cambridge JJnivercourse such candidacy implies that the poorer grades
Of
sity.*
and 53 represent
the distribution of ability, in marking A's and in immediate memory
of lists of words respectively, in seventeen university teachers and
of mathematical ability are eliminated.
Figs. 52
'
Any
sort.
viduals will
mental
agency which works upon a species of indialter the shape of the surface of frequency for any
unless its selections are random with respect to dif-
selective
trait,
'
'
We
*It
is
p. 16.
same
We
tendency.
169
sex, race
and age,
that, within
in original traits,
a group of the
degree plus
about as
or,
The
more
is
briefly,
common
as that of the
the distribution
mode
is
deviation of any
approximately symmetrical.
The
tendency, at
first
Figs. 55 (above)
and 56 (below).
The
is
multitude of
nearly equal factors from which each man's nature and training
Educational Psychology
170
is
An
interde-
causes determining a
trait's
amounts
I
in a
group of
individuals.
sion of a matter
am
glad
if it
is
fit
it
was, in each
trait,
does
now seem
obvious.
The
that
human
man
roughly de-
'
probability
possibly
fit
'
form of distribution
the facts.
to cases
where
it
cannot
CHAPTER
IX
One
tions
THE Same
of Different Traits
Individual
and paltriness in such piecemeal descripof human beings and their differences one from another as
feels a bareness
The
man nature do not stand out when one trait at a time is measured.
Why, it may be asked, does psychology not take actual whole natures and state how they differ? Why does psychology not describe human minds as zoology describes animal bodies, by classifying them into families, genera and species, and by stating the
minds found?
true that zoology does not measure all animals in length,
so on through a
list
of particular traits.
It
The
first is
by direct
*The men
allied
likely to
significant.
(171)
Educational Psychology
172
men
is
trait implies
man and
weights,
all
The Measurement
It is
is
traits.
is
Relations Between Mental Traits
173
in tests of
show
memory
German
of
Trait
Trait
Individual
amount (K)
of training)
minutes.
II
II
9
3
5
In the
first
is,
remembered
after
much
after
two months
as
was
two minutes.
relations are ^u
then
+5+5+3-3
-
-;
^,
7,
-;
and
-I
Educational Psychology
174
The
same
first fact
that the
is
Such a case
The
exceptional.
as do the
amounts of a
shows the
-90
-30
trait.
women
-10
relation of
of adult college
-50
in
drawing a
+30
+10
+60
Fig. 57
central tendency
line* to equal a
50
mm.
+70
line
+170
-70
-60
-80
-10
+ 10
+30
.:
'
+50
*
+^70
'
Fig. 57.
of 30
in
The
trials)
women
relation
and
between
ability in equalling a 50
mm.
line
mm.
line
(average
(average of 30 trials),
students.
*Under
175
It is at
women
in
is
list
of
it is
fully
measured
all
Fig. 57 gives. But its main features can be summarized, for any
one degree of trait A, in two measures, one of the central tendency
of
all
The median
B.
of the ratios
3^
in Trait
2,
I,
^7^.
A,
to be, respec-
o and
+6
ITe"' ^^^- i^
in Trait
3^'
^^
imply - 4B.
The variability ranges from an implication of - 12 to one of + 6
The
to the
relation
may
amounts of
all
having
+16A was
of
to
is
replaced
by -.125.
much
in
both respects.
may
line
When
traits,
line.
that
is,
is
the
dots.
when,
it
Educational Psychology
176
Amount
to
of Tnit
>
-H
.:
Fig. 58.
but varying
relation varying
little
Amount
ot
much with
amongst individuals of
Trait
-H
different
-
*
amounts of Trait A,
like ability in
A.
>
At
tad
Fig. 59.
relation varying
amongst individuals of
is
different for
rectilinear,
little
much
like ability in
etc.,
is
it
may
be called non-
curved or broken.
When
amounts of
A,
it
may be
be a straight
line will
When
A/B
177
same
line.
scale for
is
the central tendency of the relation at that point, the relation will
Amount
of
Trdit
>
w
*
Fig. 60.
Figs. 58-60.
relation varying
The
much
in
both respects.
Trait
is
Trait
is
relation
in
left.
it
may
really be rectilinear.
relation
12
Educational Psychology
178
ber of cases
is
infinitely large.
But
= k+
such
.5
4, .6
6,
lines
may
in
in
lines,
exist,
It is
exist.
traits
as approximately rectilinear.
The
two
relation of
traits in a
A-T
-10
-8
-6
-4-2
0+2+4+6
+8
+10
+12
+14
Fig. 6i.
closer
This
The
line
somewhat
straighter.)
For example,
A/D
one to
tell
though each
A/^B
is
A/B
whether
if,
and
as close a relation as
every value of
.5),
is
we
A/D,
ratios (.5, .2
is .5.
Fig. 62.
But
is
179
A/C.
lines.
A/B, A/C
and
A/D
is
expressed as
Educational Psychology
i8o
Suppose the
B and
become commensurate.
variabilities of
Var.
A/
D/
BXvar. B C/var. C
be
.4,
and
.09
.5.*
The
.4,
and
.09
var.
each case,
.5 will, in
mean
the
same
thing,
measured
trait, to
if
(II.)
measured Hkewise
relation
memory
we compare
for
words with the closeness of the relation between memory for the
same data over a short and over a long interval or compare either
of these with the relation between accuracy of discrimination of
length and accuracy of discrimination of weight.
If each divergence is expressed in terms of the variability of
its trait as a unit,we can think of an individual's condition in one
trait as resembling or differing from his condition in another
The technique of measuring this resemblance between two
trait.
traits in one man is then the same as that m.ade familiar in Chapter V in the case of the resemblance of two individuals in the
same trait. R, the coefficient of resemblance, then measures the
central tendency to resemblance or mutual implication found in
pairs of amounts or conditions in two traits, each pair being
The amounts are divergences
characteristic of an individual.
from the central tendencies of some defined group. The relation
or resemblance or mutual implication is supposed to be constant
R is a figure so calculated from
for all amounts of either trait.
the individual records as to give the one degree of relationship
between the two traits which will best account for all the sepaIn other words it expresses the rectirate cases in the group.
linear relation from which the actual cases might have arisen with
;
^ var.
-- var.
and
.5.
A
B
A
B
var.
var.
B
A
3j
^^
^
^ 4.5
^ ^
^
Similarly
for
the
.09
Relations Between Mental Traits
least improbability.
to
'R
i.oo.
It
i8i
= +i.oo'
means
who
is
the
best in the group in one ability will be the best in the other, that
the worst
man
in the
the best person in the one ability would be the worst in the
'
'
one
trait
Samples
As samples
of the Interrelations of
Mental Traits
some of
those obtained by Burt ['09] in the case of 30 boys between 125^
and 13^ years of age in an Elementary School in Oxford, attended by boys of the lower middle class ', whose parents paid
The relations are all between divergences,
9d. a week tuition.
each from the central tendency of the group in the trait in quesThe traits were (in part)
tion.
of R's so calculated I give in Table 20
'
standard, 100
Tapping.
The
mm.
in 15 sec. in a sheet of
paper over
Dealing.
The
manner.
Sorting.
The
was allowed
Educational Psychology
82
Alphabet Sorting.
each
52 cards,
letter
then
c,
mm.
appearing twice
irregular order.
b,
each 20
etc.,
in the series,
were exposed
letter,
in
an
the score.
Of
90 words (30 concrete, 30 abstract, and 30 nonsense) all of one syllable, each one seen and pronounced by
For method of
the boy, given in series of 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8.
Immediate Memory.
'09,
p.
142.
TABLE
20.
183
to
which they
lead.
The
Same
The
Individual
they disprove.
may
tral
tendency
in
of imagery of other sorts; that superior ability to get impressions through one sense
is
tic gifts,
in
scientific
or matter-of-fact
ability
in
man
that
divergence
wisdom
in
diver-
of superior intellect
is
likely to
weak
is
that
be of inferior mental
I, p.
mean
who
is
184
Educational Psychology
is
he
is
more Hkely
that,
on the contrary,
Konzentrationsfahigkeit
eines
Distributionsfahigkeit "
['07,
['08] has
shown
Menschen,
vol.
I,
502
p.
who
desto
grosser
seine
The author
f.] )
as in a vocabulary,
majority of cases,
['03]
eminence
finds that
or generalship or science
politics
the reverse.
higher rate than does the slower worker at his more favorable
rate.
one
trait
to
Thus
Intellectual
in the
crude
sense.
It is very,
And
this
all
or nearly
all
original capacities.
The
not exceptions to this rule, but are due to the chance variations
same
relation
in
the case of
['09]
for the
There may, however, be cases where some one large environmental agency acts to bring all those individuals subject to it up in
one trait but down in another.
The Roman Catholic Church
might
of
its
members more
its
185
history,
make many
make
The
adherents successful in
its
and
City
life
might so stimulate
for individuals to
Such negative
relations
a chance
might appear,
in
is
if
is
known about
in
one
trait
producing the relations of diverto divergence in others, and still less about the
what may be
special effect of
which weaken or
relations.
in
Of such
trifles,
cases
it
may be said
upon the
total relation.
is
It
work
to the opposite
more
Those
likely to be defective
On
or
'
adaptabilities
'
or
'
desirable traits
'
traits
from
the environment.
It is
is
in sharp
some
one function
is
shared by
all
intellectual traits,
Educational Psychology
i86
them of
it,
it,
this function as a
['04 b, p. 84],
tual activity
who
have
common
factor.
In so far as they
in
common
seem
in
the others."
which
which
is
bound
more
is
The
by one
common
false.
intellectual abilities
branches of intellectual
all
latter
'
'
so as to exclude a majority of
those so far tested, one finds traits closely related to each other
common
common
The next
error
may
is
the
same
in
common
has been
in psychological
individual's experience.
all
descriptive words,
The
all
e.
g.,
activity.
the discrimination of
100 millimeters from 104, has apparently been that some general
187
circumstances of that
accessories.
Thus
all
'
'
'
The mental
ception of the
mind
which
remember, conceive, associate, reason about, desire, choose, form habits, attend to.
Such
a conception was adapted to the uses of writers of books on general method and arguments for formal discipline and barren deThere
scriptive psychologies, but such a mind nowhere exists.
sense, perceive, discriminate, imagine,
is
delicate or coarse.
Educational Psychology
i88
in
to hold in a
all
There are only the particular connections between particular mental events and others, sometimes resulting in great surety
of revival, sometimes in little. And so on through the list. Good
reasoning power is but a general name for a host of particular
capacities and incapacities, the general average of which seems
to the namer to be above the general average in other individuals.
past.
customarily to
when
it
life,
psychology in
its
tionships.
But
it is
we need
and of the
to bear in
mind the
lists
we
call
one
man more
may
the particulars
comparison
all
In any one
com-
field
the
for
example,
drawing
it,
found
['01]
the
mm.
between
accuracy
in
to be only .38,
relation
line
or
.8.
If each individual
line.
189
attenuation
'
of
from imperfect original data was not realized at all until 1904,
and is not realized by many students even now, the majority of
the R's that have been calculated are of doubtful meaning.
For
only very rarely have the measurements of individuals in any
trait included many tests on many dates under many circum-
The
R turns
it
is
that the
from
many
of the relations
example
in
The
all
known
result
is
that
For
is,
.3.
sentation.
This
is itself,
Such a general
lines in
Fig 63 be each a scale for some mental trait let the right end
always represent superiority in the trait let the central tendency
of adult human beings be in each case at the point on the scale
where a vertical line down the center of the diagram would cut
;
the scale.
The
C. T.'s for
all
traits are
then in a vertical
line.
trait.
Educational Psychology
igo
scales
for
necessary to inventory
the traits,
human
now, instead of
there were the thousands
traits.
and
faculty,
If
if,
instead
of five
sampling of
all
men, the
go with efficiency in
There would be very few cross-lines from the extreme
ency for efficiency in one
Fig. 63.
of
five
Ten
traits
individuals.
graduate students.
shown
trait
in
to
their
others.
left
of
one scale to the extreme right of the other. On the other hand
there would be few horizontal lines cut by the same man's cross-
So
191
also within the
giving opposites, and naming objects, than between one of them and
The
would
sensitivities
inter-
Sensitivity, association,
by showing closer
The
association
and images as such with one another and with movement, and
the association of symbols or meaning-carriers such as percepts
and images of words, would be found to deserve recognition as
Certain
three
levels
of mental action for the same reason.
functions quite diverse from the point of view of the fundamental
forms of mental life or the levels of the associative form would
be found to be related by reason of some instinctive tendency.
Different degrees of the instinctive interest in persons might thus
'
'
'
'
produce correlations between love of ceremonies, ability in sociology and interest in literature. The variations in the love of mental
activity are
one root of
many
all
sorts
of efficiencies.
In
more
detail,
same point
would be cut by a
would go
it
in
a cross-Hne
movement.
details
make a
precise
would be blurred
Thus
nounced.
The world
traits
traits,
make
over, there
is
certain correlations
more pro-
edge of Latin and knowledge of geometry, far beyond what natural interests
would produce.
Educational Psychology
192
might be furnished by
standing
human
ability in
The
nature.
mathematics and
original relation
ability in
is
under-
perhaps closer
common forms
of training
Roughly the
effect of the
environment
is
make
to
closer the
due to content.
'
',
when Latin
is
the
datum operated
on.
Just what the original relations are will in the progress of research be discovered. It is unlikely that the relations of original
capacities
and
relations.
is
insufficient to
compliabilities.
CHAPTER X
The Nature and Amount
of Individual Differences in
Combinations of Traits Types of Intellect
:
AND Character
men
in
combina-
tions
by the
direct
are
as
like.
As a sample
in
Imagery
we may
take
in
fidelity
vividness
is,
of visual images,
the
list.
study of imagery
scientific
it
memory
was
pres-
The
graph, as
it
full detail
a mental photo-
Such
'
visualizing type.'
It
was supposed
(193)
3
Educational Psychology
194
and frequency
fidelity
in
more
etc.,
vivid, faithful
less
vivid,
To
was evident
Fig. 64 at
human
that
all well.
human
Even
who
fit
into the
scheme of
V-
The
interrelations
of
the
The
imagery respectively.
lowest degree
is
in
left.
12
imagery could not, try as they might, distribute inMeumann in fact admits that in
dividuals around these types.
all his studies of children he never found one such pure type.
" How rare the pure types [of imagery] are amongst children
is witnessed by the fact that in our extensive investigations of
children at Zurich we have never found a perfectly pure type.
in respect to
Also
know
is
(!)
[Segal,
'08],
were
intro-
195
fact instead of
64 could be located by
by opinion.
The
The
contrary
mixed
true.
gradation.
tinuous
'
is
Instead
types, there
'
is
of
one type
few
'
pure
mediocrity.
types
'
is
a con-
many
or
Instead of antag-
fair
human
nature in combinations of
real existence.
distribution of individuals.
actual
measurements
are
And
it is
made,
mediocrity
when
temperament
moderately sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, and melancholy moderately slow, quick, shallow, intense, narrow and broad moder;
found
to be the
one
moderately everything,
real type.
the Single
Type Theory
The sample problem shows well two extreme views which may
be taken of the varieties of human natures, of the same sex, race
and degree of maturity, in respect to any combination of traits.
On the one hand is the theory of multiple types, a theory which
separates men more or less sharply into classes, and describes a
Educational Psychology
196
man by naming
hand
all
is
men one
On
human
which joins
type, a theory
the other
and describes a
"^
C/l
a
a;
c u
O
3 o
3-^:
c
>
a
o
en
41
Tl
T3 .5
>
cj
cs
t"
4;
.a
"
>>
-?
'
en
en
9^
-;
<_
O O
a
O X
a
-M
C3
--'
o^
rt
bo
3
y
*j
O
-0
c
3
O
Id
at
tn
O o
a
tn
.2
01
tn
1>
y
y
y
fl
2 fo C
c4
4-5
bO > y y
3 O'
y a
u o
tn ^
y ^ O
o
y >.
(n
(LI
rtl
55
a.
T3
3
tn
3
1
tn
tn
ja "O
5^
*"
O
tn
T3
m a
>.
-^
vo
bo
y a
bo.ts
3
y
tn
.
13
Sg
na
y
G
y
ii
cS
."2
'>
y 3 > 2
S-S
tn
bo ^ y
ua
;3
o
a
y
>
O;
3
bo
bo
y
u
a
c3
y
tn
O y
tn
o
y
rt
rj
y y ^
^O SSi
cd
^^
tn
43
tS
man by
amount of
197
his divergences
from
By
'
'
Fig. 66.
of combinations of
the extremes)
by
its
all
The
11
Each
location, the
measured
traits.
amounts of the
11 traits in
sum
(drawn only
at
cross-line represents,
one individual.
By
natures,
is
much
less.
Educational Psychology
198
and that of one type something like Fig. 67. All the cross-lines
of Fig. 66 can be represented as minor divergences from five
typical cross-lines, far better than can all the cross-lines of Fig.
67.
by one typical
different
traits.
Each
cross-line
represents the
amounts of the
11
traits
in
one
individual.
total
complex.
Suppose 3
mode
to be the
Conof amounts
in each trait.
There
will be
to be represented
by a spot
of,
say,
.01
sq.
in.
on a surface.
Suppose further that the center spot of the map represents the
series 33333 (the traits being now and later always taken in
order a, b, c, d and e).
Suppose that around this center spot
and adjoining it are placed all the spots or areas representing
those series diverging from the 33333 series by only one unit,
e-g- 23333, 43333. 32333. etc.
Suppose that the next ring is
made up
etc.
199
series
till,
by two
in the
units,
e.g.
outermost ring,
22^2,2, 43433.
we have
53333,
areas repre-
senting the series 55555, iiiii, 11555, 51 115, etc., which have
the greatest possible divergence from the modal series.
Now
series
men
appear in
base.
Consider the
By
one spot
By
our
illustration,
several spots.
would be
less
By
and
it
it
centric ring.
with,
But
since, in general,
writers about
human
nature openly or
assume the truth of the multiple type theory in a pronounced form, and are governed by it in their methods of research, of interpretation and of practical control, it will be useful
tacitly
*This would be the case in the special form that the theory would almost
certainly take in the case of combinations of 5 traits, each unimodal, with
the
mode
at mediocrity.
200
Educational Psychology
to consider briefly
some of
type theory.
The
first is
much
But
increased in number,
little
the fact remains that the single type theory arose from exact
measurements, while
its
opposite
came from
speculative
pre-
possessions.
The second
is
desirable traits
Fig. 68.
combination of two
correlated.
Fig. 69.
The
traits,
if
these
are very
is
antagonistic
or
inversely
combination of two
traits, if
We
know
that
'
and the crosslines are drawn for a thousand individuals, they will not go as
So also for scales for quantity of
in Fig. 68 but as in Fig. 69.
work and quality of work, and so on through the list.
the eye
'
and
'
ability to learn
through the
ear,'
The
third
is
201
and that
In so far as such
linear.
mode
of the correlations
may
is
mode
or
peak with less and less frequency the more they diverge from
The mode for the combination will be a nature
that mode.
which is at the mode in all the single traits.
The
fourth
is
who
are strongly in
harmony with
in
facts
Meumann
in
for instance
it,
yet find so
vol.
['07,
I]
it.
much
But
in concrete particulars
He
I,
he rarely
pp. 331-332]
illustrates
"
By
it.
establishing types
we
ences,
in
and
if
....
universal
life,
'
'
in
some
cases, admits.
Lastly,
may mention
existence of a distribution of
human
in
case,
minded perusal of
nature
falls,
is
human
frequent than the supposed types, and that there are far more
202
Educational Psychology
all
the
'
types
'
put
all
that Stern says in favor of the multiple type theory in his five
on Sensitivity, Perception,
Apprehension ['oo, pp. 40-77].
chapters
On
p.
43
f.
pitch,
in
delicacy
between the
On
perception."
color
of
the
in
book-worm
contrary,
the
of
the
non-musical
'
Stern mentions (p. 46) " the types of the external observer
(the experimental scientist, possibly) and of the introspective
(the mathematician or metaphysician, possibly)."
thinker
are
these
not
contrasting
distinct,
more
But
The experimental
types.
man
likely to be a
In-
and dream
is
spoken
The more such extreme developany one sense-sphere exists in a man, the more " the
ment of
placable functions."
(p.
located.
content
'
type in their
men
'
into a
'
and a material or
or mental dealings with
formal
Anschauung
'
'
'
'
'
music
easily,
The formal
203
The content
"The former
*
difficulty.
all
With
background.
it
just the
is
is
But here
57).
(p.
anility
The supposed
really direct
types are two extreme and rare divergences from the real single
type,
'
form
'
'
who
Who
This
is,
again,
Under types
classification
and
of apprehension or apperception.
Is
given the
scholarly,
made by Binet
['97]
on the basis of
their written
ers, observers,
made
(also
many samples
Leclere
also, are
of each child's
'
['98]
got,
not at
in
a single experi-
all distinct.
apprehensions
'
or
'
Of
course,
apperceptions
'
many
tell
204
Educational Psychology
sor Binet can pick out certain papers that are distinctly different,
common judgment
The above
give,
if
is all
that
Tempo
is
Work, would
The same
lack would
Meumann and
their
students.
is
combinations of original
ing.
One form
duce
in
than in
traits
traits
produced by
train-
of training
every individual
who
subjected to
is
it
certain
large
All
others.
all
its
much
alike
among
much from
themselves, that
is,
to
one
trait,
traits,
may
cause
large
factors
'
'
'
form of
traits, as in
is
traits.
in the case of
There
is
many combinations
The
Knowledge of
of traits.
latter
just
may
very
what does
many
individ-
Individual Differences in Combinations of Traits
Amount
205
of a
Combination of Traits
trait
A
Marking A's
a-t words
"
hexagons
"
grays
"
misspelled words
and
1.8, -.2
-i.i
+1.0
-1.4
+7.
-.6
+1.2
.0
-.2
-1.7
+1.4
3.1 respectively.
abstract
A=
A=
is,
in
scientific
From
the combination of
all
discrimination.
thousand habits,
is
like,
curacy, quickness,
trait,
in sensory
each of a
rate of learning.
Ac-
measurement on
condition in a group
traits.
ship,
list
2o6
Educational Psychology
many
many
For
all
traits, if
represented in
full,
concrete detail.
traits,
tastes of
like,
men may
be divided into an
ordinary and an expert class, they will not be, in respect to ac-
Similarly, though,
knowledge of the Latin language, men may fall into two groups,
an ignorant group and a group varying around some knowledge,
in knowledge of languages in general, they do not.
in
'
CHAPTER XI
Extreme Individual Differences
From
Exceptional Children
Chapter VIII
it is
possess so
little
will
defectives
'
in
it,
as well as a
*
'
'
'
'
tionally gifted.'
mental
If the
which we
trait in
question
call intelligence,
we
is
compound
the
whom
of
many
traits
'
'
'
'
if it
be ability to learn to
musical
ability,
find few,
sion,
if
though there
will as truly
trait as in respect to
general intelligence.
will
in the case of
any
in-
'
'
(207)
Educational Psychology
2o8
home
when
They
cities.
also,
certain
The
private tutors.
any
special attention
all
we need
which determine
an individual's station in each, of the symptoms by which we may
conveniently find out any one's station in each, and of the agencies,
educational, hygienic and medicinal, which alleviate or in-
we
the
stations.
1.
will tell
of stimuli
action
differential
The
study of
upon individuals of
different
upon
consideration of the distribution of intelligence which
us what the frequencies of different degrees of low mental
For
capacity are.
from their original station to a lower station by accident, disease, unwise training, and the like.
3. A study of the physical and mental symptoms which enable
us to measure a person as very, very low in intelligence.
individuals
study of the influences of climate, food, operative surgery, medicines, manual work, school work, good and bad example, etc., which make the mental condition better or worse.
4.
know,
frequency of
to disturb the
home,
pity or derision
ability,
imbecility
resist
(about
intellects so defective as
in 500).
We
know
that, in all
prob-
'
probability
'
distribution,
with some
209
germs
produced by one's ancestry decides one's position that the ordinary circumstances of life in which people differ do not much
alter one's position compared with his fellows, but that many
;
and the
scarlet fever,
Some
tion.
On
soil
may
of
many
originally
ness
Nor can
it
nor can
its
off as
we may hope
future.
upon
all
fertile
may
individuals of
them, idiocy
like,
to
be in the
life as it
should
or with precision.
As
all
we
of the best
quality.
But
tal
if
other
men-
exceptional
commonly used
is
and we must be content with (i) a series of rather disconnected and ill-proportioned comments representing the present
state of knowledge and opinion on matters which concern educational theory and practice and (2) an outline which will suggest what we ought to know but do not.
tion
Exceptional Supe:riority
It is a corollary
from the
and that the greater the degree of superiorthe more exceptional it is. Some of the obvious and practi-
combination of
ity,
cally
traits,
important
efficiency
cases
are:
total
intelligence,
mental
balance,
breadth of mental processes, strength or intensity of mental processes, abstract power, permanence of memories, mathematical
14
210
Educational Psychology
musical
ability,
insight,
The list
The cause
ability, ability in
of exceptional superiority
or minus a displacement,
commonly
is
slight,
due
to environmental
influence.
to
a great
of
may
cine,
which we
call intelligence
inferior
all lines is
tionally
they never do
much energy
for
it
is
only by
in a
impossible.
The symptoms
trait itself
the concentration of
inally
but medi-
good
It is
easy to
tell
when
the
an excep-
many mental
traits
When
The development
in individuals of a trait in
211
Exceptional Inferiority
The
determined
all
Some
very deficient in
are
home
or in institu-
To
nervous control
memory
very deficient in
will
or abstract power or
many
human
appropriate here.
traits.
is
tion
the senses
tion
Atten-
defects of atten-
a very great
amount
of a trait
a defect,
is
what one
desires
e.g.,
;
where
cruelty or the
tisms,
play here a
more important
role.
studied only in the case of defects of sight, hearing and general intelligence, nervousness, choreic disturbance,
defects with
is
deals.
To
the medical
liter-
here.
212
Educational Psychology
Such
additional iiiformation
some
also at
is
hand
The
reader
diseases
We
is
imbecility.
forms of training upon those mental defects which medical pracLeaving to one side such means as should
tice has disregarded.
be prescribed and administered by a physician, we may make
the following recommendations
For nervousness
outdoor life, much absolute rest, freedom from competitive work and the exciting features of school
and social life, but not from participation in both physical and
:
mental work.
For hysteria
ment, calm but
:
outdoor
life,
insistent training in
good
habits, the
example of a
industry and
human
For general
affairs,
life.
weakness removal to a special institution, a stimulating physical and mental environment (though
not for the few cases complicated with great nervous irritability),
stirring
intellectual
physical
play,
outdoor
systematic
life,
stimulation
of
The
symptoms and
relief
all
are
all
Their causes,
The psychology
imbeciles and
length by
causation,
many
the
feeble-minded)
students.
The
The aim
213
not be to review the facts and opinions that have been stated, but
idiots, imbeciles
and
This
intellect.
common
certain
it is
accompanying them,
e.g.,
some on the
paralytic
into
classification
idiocy,
some on the basis of causation, e.g., a classification into congenital and acquired.
The fact is that the varieties of human nature referred to by
the words idiot, imbecile and feeble-minded, are numerous, that all
sorts of combinations of mental qualities, accompanying diseases,
causes and physical stigmata occur, and that no simple classificaepileptic idiocy, syphilitic idiocy, etc.
To grade
idiots before
may
be best
be wise
may
and
on through
so
may
possible
classifications
for
treatment,
and for
classifica-
prophecy of amelioration,
for
educational
psychological analysis.
I
due to original
nature, who hold the position in the scale of intelligence which
the make-up of their germs decreed, and (2) those who by accident
or disease have been displaced downward from their original
i )
The
is
condition of
members
Educational Psychology
214
of the
first
early diagnosis
mon and
class should, as
;
would be
relatively
inefficient,
medical treatment
hygienic control
present
surgical treatment
training
in general.
Roughly
it
The
To
and from estimating the efficiency of partial causes by the coefficients of correlation between them and their supposed effects.
In the case of the symptoms of these conditions also, precise
Amongst
tion, insight
215
The
first
type of connections
The
may
so-called
kindergarten and manual-training methods are therefore particu(4) Mental defect often involves a
sluggishness of action on the part of the nervous system which
larly suited to
defectives.
is
By
appear peculiar
in dress or
like.
They should
encouraged
not be
made
in eccentric habits.
Intellectual Defect
2i6
Educational Psychology
traits.
functions.
all
And
it is
But
the main
and so
verify, refute or
mind.
The question
say, memory of
of whether a child
list
is
more
to select from ten dominoes the one like a sample shown, is somewhat subtle and cannot be answered by simply measuring his
abilities in the two cases.
Suppose that, of ten words spoken once,
he remembers 5, and that in selecting a domino (the ten with the
fewest spots being used) he takes nine seconds, making no errors.
From these records alone we do not know whether he is inferior.
But even if it is known that the average person of his sex and
age remembers 7 such words in such a case and matches the
domino in 5 seconds, the question of the defective child's relative
inferiority in the two traits is still unanswered.
Two words less
than seven and four seconds more than five are not commensurate.
They may be made commensurate by expressing each as a
Thus
tion.
if
men
memory
mferiority in
men
is
is
in general
from the
1.2
men
is
in general
to be
may
be taken as the
measured, he
Now
the variability of
in all traits,
The
is
men
in general,
is
though far
4/1.67,
in memory.
from equal
is
'
'
'
'
'
'
is
in height as far
all
below
those
men who
below, in
217
memory
may
memory
and so on.
Thus in Table 21 (arranged from data given by Norsworthy
['06, pp. 54-67]) the measures are all in terms of the median
deviation of the age and sex in question for the trait in question.
Each row gives the measures in the case of one individual. Each
column gives the measures in one trait.
Each entry reads
'Individual .... is .... times as far below* the central tendency
of American children in general of his age and sex as is the 25th
child from the bottom out of 100 children.'
inferior in
as in weight,
TABLE
21.
Mem-
Mem-
ory of
ory of
lists of
sentences.
words,
Controlled association,
Part
whole,
Genus
species.
Opposites.
II.
I.
6.00
4.80
1300
2-49
5-41
3-54
133
A.
.11
B.
Q.
D.
4.01
E
F
G.
+1.11
H.
3.69
4. II
6.54 4.42
2.23
I.
1. 71
2.73
5-98 3-75
5-30
4-87
X
in discrimination of weight.
2i8
Educational Psychology
'
the
'
as the 25 percentile
12^
tendency) or the
'
25 percentile.
In
memory
25 percentile,
In giving opposites of words
25 percentile,
it is
is
the
intellectually
Of
the others
some
From
am
seems to be
Sensitivity, in which, on the whole, 25 per cent
are above -i P. E. Speed and precision of sensori-motor connections, in which on the whole 20 per cent are above -i P. E.
Speed
tions
The experimental
universally
true
analysis
of
the
condition
which
relegates
On
the contrary,
power of connection
is
219
much
relatively
which attention
easily given.
is
unexplained their
It also leaves
in
If
one
is
to
enormously within
tellectual
beads or
children
itself,
They
may
he
are
weak
in
the
number, delicacy,
whatever sort
be connected
especially so
is
an
idea.
of the
members
to
in the analysis or
They
of a situation.
many
relics
of
many
selected associations
situation or problem.
instinct
and
who
of
own
mental
sake.
in stupid
They
are also
activity,
They
in
the
represent the
is
own
They
very
its
ideal ends,
and
sake.
much
so
is
due
mental
thing further, and their more frequent failure to analyze out color,
whose
partial aspects they are.
They are inferior in movement, but
their appearance of very great inferiority in it is due in part to
their failure to connect movements with percepts and ideas or to
analyze out and get control over portions of movement-series and
recombine them anew. They are very inferior in attentiveness
from the point of view of one to whom attentiveness means power
size,
220
Educational Psychology
power of
attention
The
To
this
'
like,
fact.
totals, intellectually
'
lack of
facts given
characterization
there
real explanation.
numerous
are
this
exceptions.
power of connection,
may
be (though
And
so on with
it
subject to
all
usually
many
show abundantly
analysis
is
may
and even of
selection.
Learning
The experimental
other divergences.
data
They
is
Some
commonly used.
a number of different
work because of defects
feeble-minded, as
composed of
fail in
school
fail
Some
to allow for.
Some
are extremely
Some
in con-
on the border
line
the principal can pick out from twenty to forty such children,
who
to their parents.
Even
221
The group
before.
thus
left
extent that
its
Norsworthy
Height.
1.
2.
Weight.
3.
at the mouth).
4. Pulse.
Rate
5.
seconds (two
of
trials);
tested, (a)
lines of
a maze;
the
test.
8.
tested
by the
a-t test.
9.
drawing a
ID. Efficiency in
test of perception
Memory
of unrelated words;
viz.,
made with
the
depres-
of ten after
a single hearing (two trials) red, dog, day, tree, buy, never, sick, song,
boy, box, long, green, arm, inch, true, run, dress, break, friend.
12. Memory of related words; number remembered out of ten after a
single hearing (two trials)
school, teacher, book, desk, pen, read, write, add,
spell, word, river, water, broke, flow, ice, cold, winter, snow, sled, skate.
morning
14.
go to school.
After school
play.
At night
go to bed.
222
Educational Psychology
(E) to write the opposites of a list of words, the converse of the list used in
A, after the correct responses for A have been read to the class.
The
very
is
mouth
little
in the
is
perfectly clear.
to trait
The
in only
60
-4-3-2-1012346
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3
Fig. 70.
The
tests.
-2,
diagram) and 19
girls
(lower diagram).
The
(upper
old,
is
trifle
lower.
traits to tests of
The
difference increases as
movement, then
we
to tests of verbal
last
memory and
But
The one
chief
and
is
223
such a
way
as to
let
number
what
of and respond to one by one, but they can not think in symbols
Nor can
they
is
human
members
type.
of a
Besides
Moral Defectives
There are no general conclusions based upon exact measurements
of moral deficiency and its causes and accompaniments. There is
an abundance of ineffective detail stored up in medical comments
upon so-called moral insanity and morbid impulses, in prison
The
reports and in the minds of experienced schoolmasters.
greater
complexity
psychology of
of
the
feeble-minded.
The one
is
that
all
sorts of
control
and
moral
instability,
shown by
susceptibility
to
224
Educational Psychology
cruelty,
anger
hysterical
of
and
temptations
all
the
petty
with tears,
with
peevishness,
an
untrustworthiness,
(4)
because
Children
sort.
the
of
may have
more
intense
live a
tramp
life,
to
fairly
;
or to
Of
course there
is
no rigid adherence
to these types.
Combi-
conditions.
Woods
['06]
and Pearson
['07]
between
The brightness and
the correlation
find
who
an undefined
slowness of growth, but for a slowness in growth which will later be made
I shall therefore replace the two uses of the single term by the two
up.
terms sloiv growth and delayed groivth.
*
is
rate of
As we
find
them
in
225
belongs to a distinct
made
be
clear
by giving the
total distribution
scheme
as well as
As
are
etc.,
Precocity
There
is
a popular opinion
who
children
in
early life
much encouraged by
grow mentally very
come
to grief,
less
is
physicians that
rapidly and so
precocious fellows.
human
thinking that
an
if
evil,
we
For,
it is
On
ness oftener
prophetic of
than brightness
to
inefficient
15
is
later.
first
be
men
precocious
are.
in
Havelock
childhood
than
Ellis ['04, p.
ordinary,
136
fif.]
more
dull
writes:
or
226
Educational Psychology
"The
chief feature
the
in
brought
shown by
ability
out
the definition of
precocity
'
'
It
requires a
more
little
careful con-
it
sometimes receives
'
who
child
ability.
is
at the
'
open
to a
He may
(i)
much
may
less
for acquiring
tude for ordinary school studies, but be at the same time engrossed
in
following up his
own
make allowance
more
may
in
cious,
latter
absorbed
as
'
many
in their
precocious
'
own
lines of
as the others
....
those
mental activity,
;
Many
who
are already
and are
thus Cardinal
of the
really just
Wiseman
boy
Byron
romance,
as a
'
and
at ten
little later
227
letters at eight,
while
won
is
is
achievement
lines of
in
which success
is
eventually to be
easily perceived
very incomplete.
is
it
is
It is specially
cocious
'
'
It
pre-
['04, p. 142.]*
whom
coefficients,
human
social relations,
Now
these
is
often taken to
morbid and may therefore well go with an unstable mental organiBut they are
zation and so be somewhat prophetic of disaster.
For the few
not per se indicative of superior mental growth.
supernormal children who exercise their gifts on such questions,
there are many who are ahead in school, play, leadership and
accomplishments.
One
Ellis.
The same
result
228
Educational Psychology
gifts
erally
word
It
then
'
'
The
many much
mind not
quiet
Lack of inhibition and impertinence are prophetic of poor mental growth in the future because they are indicative of it in the past and present as well.
Finally it must be said that the average medical man in his ignorance of the subtle hereditary and environmental causes of mental
breakdown grasps at any cause he can. If the child is dull, mental
weakness is to blame if he is bright, precocity
strength of
to say them.
Slozv
Growth
the
to just
absence
of
what extent
is
not known.
obvious illustration
may mature
An
So
far in
is
advance of
traits in
an indi-
much
It
The
may mean
acceleration after
it.
supposed
ill
229
may
due
to lack of inhibition
mental growth.
in
be
races to inferior
of children
centage
is
due
Inefficiency
lack-wits.
to
in
those
An
first
diagnosis can be
made by using
Motor control
Memory
making
maze
crosses,
tests).
Perception {A
geometrical forms
test).
memory (memory
Logical
and
sys-
Preception of relations
lowing)
(filling
up the blanks
we do
we do not
In everything that
we
ful
are
quick
than to be quick
things
do
well
improve.
.
well
careful
we can not
who
care-
It is better to be careful
others.
get
all
the one
can do
we can
be the best,
tested
it
is
in B, the
difficulty.
lower
dull.
it is
is
that he will
grow out
is
in
he
A
is
of his
and the
essentially
Educational Psychology
230
Arrested Development
The phrase
mean just what
'
development
is used in medicine to
Bodily organs, including the brain, may
arrested
'
says.
it
we
mental
life
and distinguish
who
whom
span of
life
leaves
still
we now
progressing, as
idiot
post-mortem
in
the allotted
distinguish be-
'
It
arrested develop-
ment
'
latter,
force.
definite
may
It
be general or specialized.
In every
men
ferences amongst
its
date.
which
is
'
There
normal
is,
'
its
of us.
it.
mean
The
date
perma-
The
dif-
for
are not in
all
trait
is
variable,
for
any
trait
and abnormality
APPENDIX
List of Authors and Titles
Betts, G.
Referred to Specifically
'09,
the Text
in
Binet,
'97,
Psychologic individuelle:
cription d'un objet,
chologique,
vol.
La
des-
L'annee psypp.
3,
296-332,
and.
235-243Binet, A.,
and Simon, Th
'09,
psychologique, vol.
Brown,
'09,
Some
15, pp.
Experimental
1-147.
Results
in
Correlation.
Bruner, F.
'08,
Burris,
W. P
'03,
11.
Abilities In-
Columbia Contributions to
Psy. and Ed., vol. 11, No.
Phil.,
2,
pp.
16-28.
Burt,
'09,
telligence,
chology, vol.
Cattell, J.
McK
'03,
3,
pp. 94-177-
PP- 359-37706,
Cornman, O. P
'02,
1906.
An
Investigation.
(23O
7,
Educational Psychology
232
Courtis, S.
'09,
Davenport, C.
De
Candolle,
'10,
Eugenics.
'73,
(Second edition,
'85), Histoire
des
Earle, E.
'03,
Learn
vol. II,
Ellis,
'94, '04,
No.
2,
pp. 41-44.
(Fourth edition,
'04),
Man
and
Woman.
Fay, E.
Galton,
'04,
A Study
'98,
'69, '92,
of British Genius.
Hereditary
into
(first
its
An
Genius:
Inquiry
edition
'69,
second edition
References are
'92).
A merica.
to
second
edition.
Human
Faculty and
'83,
Inquiries into
'87,
'89,
Natural Inheritance.
Researches on the Mental and Physical Development of School-Children; Studies from the Yale Psy-
its
Development.
79-82.
Gilbert.rj.
'94,
2,
pp.
40-100.
Heymans,
G.,
and Wiersma,
E.,
'06 (a),
Zeitschrift
'06 (b),
iiir
Psychologic,
81-127, 258-301.
Zeitschrift
ftir
Psychologic,
321-373-
Zeitschrift
ftir
Psychologic,
Zeitschrift
fiir
321-333.
Psychologic,
'87,
233
Jacoby,
'81,
Johnson, G.
'95,
'95,
pp. 246-301.
Kelly, R.
'03,
Psycho-physical
Tests
of
Normal
Com-
Re-
'06,
Kuhlmann, F
'04,
50-1
14-
in Mental
American Journal of
Experimental Studies
Deficiency,
Psychology, vol.
Learoyd, M.
'96,
The Continued
Journal of
pp. 86-90.
Leclere,
'98,
'03,
American
Story,
Psychology,
vol.
7,
Lobsien,
391-446.
15, pp.
Einige
4,
pp. 379-389-
Untersuchungen
iiber
das
Die Kinderfehler,
vol. 8, pp.
157-
Loewenfeld,
Meumann, E
'03,
'07,
Norsworthy,
'06,
chology, No.
Odin,
'95,
'04,
Pearson,
Archives of Psy-
fran(ais modernes.
Biometrika, vol.
pp. 131-190.
3,
Part II,
Educational Psychology
234
Pearson,
'07,
On
acters,
Biometrika, vol.
5,
pp. 105-
146.
Pedersen, R.
'05,
und
Erin-
akustischen
Psychologic, vol.
Rice, J.
pp. 520-534.
4,
'97,
'02,
Educational Research:
Arithmetic,
The Forum,
Test in
vol.
34,
Forum,
'03,
of a Test in Language,
'04,
The Forum,
New
The Forum,
in Education,
Basis
vol.
Richardson,
'02,
'08,
Segal, J
7,
pp. 9-14.
das
Reproduzieren
Simon, Th
Spearman, C
'09,
'04 (a).
American Journal
Two
Things,
of Psychology,
'04 (b),
"
(with F. Krueger),
'06,
Die Korrelation zwischen verschiedenen geistigen Leistungsfdhigkeiien, Zeitschrift f{ir Psychologic, vol.
Stern, L.
'00,
Authors and
Stone, C.
'08,
Titles
235
Arithmetical
and Some
Abilities
Thompson, H. B
'03,
Norms
Psychological
Women,
in
University
Men and
Chicago
of
Thorndike, E.
'03,
No.
I.
Heredity, Correlation
bia
University
Phil., Psy.,
'04,
'05,
'08,
'09,
Contributions to
and Ed.,
No.
vol. 11,
2.
An
American Journal of
Psychology, vol. 20, pp. 364-369.
Handwriting,
Teachers
College
telligence,
10,
Record, vol.
Ward, L.
Wiersma,
Wissler,
The
Correlation
vievF
'03,
June,
90 1.
'06,
of Mental and
Physical Tests, Psychological Re-
16,
Woods, F.
2.
'01,
(See
No.
Applied Sociology.
11,
'06,
pp. 81-88.
Mental
Moral Heredity in
and
Royalty.
Woodworth, R. S
'10,
New
171-186.
Wylie, A. R.
'00,
Time of
the
4,
No.
3;
Study
No. 4;
Feeble-Minded,
Memory
ibid.,
vol
5,
of the
No.
ibid., vol. 5,
the
No.
2.
APPENDIX
List and Descriptions of
Test:
II
in
the
Marking A 's.
sheet printed with capital letters,
individual
who
is
being measured
is
as
shown below,
instructed
'
to
is
mark
used.
as
The
many
A's
as he can,' or 'to
'to
mark
all
the
time (or the time required for the entire sheet to be gone over) and
the number of omissions.
OYKFIUDBHTAGDAACDIXAMRPAGQZTAACVAOWLYX
WABBTHJJANEEFAAMEAACBSVSKALLPHANRNPKAZF
YRQAQEAXJUDFOIMWZSAUCGVAOABMAYDYAAZJDAL
JACINEVBGAOFHARPVEJCTQZAPJLEIQWNAHRBUIAS
SNZMWAAAWHACAXHXQAXTDPUTYGSKGRKVLGKIM
FUOFAAKYFGTMBLYZIJAAVAUAACXDTVDACJSIUFMO
TXWAMQEAKHAOPXZWCAIRBRZNSOQAQLMDGUSGB
AKNAAPIvPAAAHYOAEKLNVFARJAEHNPWIBAYAQRK
UPDSHAAQGGHTAMZAQGMTPNURQNXIJEOWYCREJD
UOLJCCAKSZAUAFERFAWAFZAWXBAAAVHAMBATAD
KVSTVNAPLIIvAOXYSJUOVYIVPAAPSDNLKRQAAOJLE
GAAQYEMPAZNTIBXGAIMRUSAWZAZWXAMXBDXAJZ
ECNABAHGDVSVFTCIvAYKUKCWAFRWHTQYAFAAAOH
a
A.
esto seria necedad, porque hombre vale
hombre. Todas clases hombres merito;
resumidas cuentas, sulpa suya vizconde; pero dire sobrina puede
contar dote veinte cinco duros menos, tengo apartado pardiez tamado
siempre
tanto
corao otro
(236)
Descriptions of Measurements
237
feriste
sola
sobrina
Quise contradecir,
doncella.
Voto
pero
matar alcanzarte
billete
porque e tregas defensa peligro lugar huir mujer, harto debil duda pero
algun desgracia tuviese luchar sentimientos semejantes tuyos, lejos
ceder ellos cobardemente moriria pero triunfaria. Tendras menos
Vamos, Carlos, amigo
valor tendre darte lecciones valor energia.
creeme sentimiento, profundo razon pueda subyugar, desgracia grande
pueda soportar veneer nuestro corazon. Ofrezco apoyo eres creo sequiras
Quiere casarte Isabel. Isabel, prima
Bien, hable usted.
consejos.
Preciso persuadirselo hare
quiere otro, vizconde amigo.
espero pero conservare
nada
jurado
jamas
para
partidos
habra
otros
siempre entero este amor ella ignora unos juramentos recibido. Enhorabuena otro medio asequarara tranquilidad, uya destino ofrecido
imposible;
Rducational Psychology
238
used.
s,
p, u,
Instructions are:
I,
e, r, d, 0, v, j,
it
in
n,
each
the alphabet.'
tree,
room,
toy,
name,
and h
letter,
in
a cokimn
game, plant
write, after each
dish, boat,
Instructions are:
'to
Jish in a column is used.
word, a word which means some kind of the thing named by the printed
word.' The score is kept as in the Alphabet test. The words may
be given to the subject, and the replies made by him orally. A harder
and
list is
Geometrical
Forms
Test:
Marking
Circles,
Maze
Tests.
or a
is
Hexagons,
used.
etc.
t test.
Lines.
The instructions
72, or similar mazes, are used.
along the pathway as quickly as possible without
draw a
touching the
line
sides.
The
score includes
amount done
as:
can.
Misspelled
On
Instructions and
test.
2.
time, Captain B
and myself walked acros the
shad of a tree. There we herd the trunipett of an
elephant; we reshed acros the rice-fields up to our knes in mud, but
all in vain, thogh we came upon the trak of one of the animels, and
then ran five or six hundredd yards iutoo the jungle.
After waiting
som
rice-fields to the
Descriptions of Measurements
on mh
D'
n r\^'
<]vgAoa^i:^
pRny anySHMn^Poo
LJ>iA^nC
iRo^p^
<
O H<\a
1^7
<^
e3HRB D
DPsOQ
n<i0o ooDdD[5d
oC^
dooc
239
240
Educational Psychology
Descriptions of Measurements
241
After varius false allarms, aud vane endevors to discuvor the obgects
went into the jungle, and Captin B
3.
and myself into bed of the stream' where we had sen the traks; and
here it was evedent the elaphents had passed to and fro. Disapointed
and impasient, we allmost determined to giv up the chace and go
home; but shots fird just before us reanimated us, aud we proceded,
and found the collecter had just firred twicce.
Of we went throuh
4.
last, at
foerst,
momant
We
excitment!
of
wer
The
scatered.
all
collector
had
Captain
5.
al fired at
the
my
Sheets printed with words in a column are used, one list being: good,
outside, quick, tall, big, loud, white, light, happy, false, like, rich, sick,
glad, thin, empty, war,
little,
soft, black,
Harder
lists,
clumsy,
to
Another
list is:
bad,
and enemy.
to
respect, frequently,
and
bar-
permanent, repulsion,
to respect,
genuine,
separate, deceitful.
(or, if
The
score
the test
is
Part-Whole Test.
To
give the
word
is
name
of that
a part.
The
deficient individuals
page, engine,
and
list
is:
door, pillow,
leaf,
glass.
Word Test.
To write words conforming
16
letter,
and
g.'
'to
contain
APPENDIX
III
Terms
dis.)
tendency.
(P. E. dis.) or
measure of variability)
the
central tendency.
Measures of Reliability.
The average deviation of the true central tendency from that obtained
from a random selection of n measures (A. D. ^j_ ^^ q
A
~D
x^~
"
dis
l/n
Similarly,
_
P
P tr.-ob.C.T.=
P-E-
^,
7=- and
yn
P. E. dis.
^ D.
S. J.
j^_^^ (,^
S.
D.
dis.
V^
etc.,
"
"
Let ^ x.y be the sum of the products xiyi, X2y2, xsya, X4y4,
" squares xi^, x^, x^, Xi\ etc.
"
"
Let i' x2 " "
"
"
"
"
"
"
Let y y2
yi2, y22, y^, yi\ etc.
Then
etc.
x.y
For other measures of relations see the author's Mental and Social
Measurements, Chapter IX, and Empirical Studies in the Theory of
Measurement, 5 to
9, inclusive.
(242)
INDEX OF NAMES
M. W.,
Barr,
Betts,
McDougall, W.,
Mayo, M. J., 52
Mendel, G., 98.
102.
H.,
G.
183,
195.
Burt,
W.
C,
Meumann,
119, 121
f.,
ff.,
121.
H., 36. 49
182,
96,
135.
f.,
224.
Ranke,
Rice,
55.
J.,
J.
Richardson, H.,
225
A.,
Pearson, K., 43
Ellis,
221.
184.
Courtis, S. A.,
194, 201.
184.
McK., 35
Cornman, O.
E., 183,
182,
Odin,
Cattell, J.
57-
ff.
57-
P., 96.
181,
56,
ff.
103.
f.
61
f..
94
ff.,
f.,
121,
ff.
^'^"'''
^- ^-
^'
59.
56.
C
T
Segal,
J., 194.
1
Fay, E. A.,
Fox,
W.
TJ.
A., 40.
Galton, P., 65
119
ff.,
121,
70,
f.,
78,
f.,
40,
Heymans,
Jacobs,
215.
Jacoby,
P.,
Johnson, G.
94,
215.
Gilbert, J. A., 30
J.,
93,
79,
121.
105
9'2;
ff-,
93
Ii3-
Sollier,
P.,
219.
185, 188.
Thompson, H.
B.,
20
Thorndike,
L.,
89,
E.
ff.,
32,
96,
37, 42.
I3S,
E., 215.
182, 184.
Kuhlmann,
F.,
215.
Ward,
L. F., 121.
Wiersma,
E.,
Learoyd, M. W.,
Loewenfeld, R.,
5.
79, 227.
(243)
124, 224.
ff-
165,
;;
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
Ability, inheritance of, 80
flf.
Abnormal.
See Exceptional.
Achievement, relative versus absolute,
138
Addition,
144
individual
46
morals, 223
in,
mental
in
with,
traits
See Inheritance.
Arithmetic,
183
school
of
differences
of in-
inferior
in
f.
129,
131
80
ff.
30
in,
ff.
f.
the
218;
in,
in-
inheritance
of,
83
in,
of,
f.
Defectives.
Measurement.
See Measurement.
97
Deviations.
the
in
traits
adult,
Amounts
of
and Varia-
Trait,
bility.
Averages.
f.
ff.
sex
differences in, 44 f.
Attenuation of resemblances, 80 f.
Average Deviation. 13 f. See also
in, 181
See Exceptional.
Determiners of
in,
ff.
Athleticism,
ff.
inheritance
sex differences
44
Continuity of variations, 149 f.
Correlations
See Relations.
ff.
ff.
Conscientiousness,
89
See Senses.
Combinations of traits, 3 f., 193 ff.
Compensations in mental relations,
ff.
cient
f.
Color.
Ancestry.
in,
exceptionally
dividuals
ff.
differences
f.
Age, changes
105
ff.
in,
ff.
of individuals, 142-206
Classification,
83.
Sensory
See
Discrimination.
f.,
Dis-
61
See Senses.
genius,
racial
Distribution
differences
in,
traits,
IS
of
f.,
amounts of mental
as affected by
ff.
142
ff.
Central Tendency,
12.
Chance form of
193
ff.
in,
160
44
number of
modality
distribution,
the
of, 152
ff.
ff.
cases,
ff.
159;
multi-
the probability
ff.
(244)
;;
;;
Index of Subjects
group
f.,
length,
64,
33,
f.,
women,
adddiscrimination
of
in
150,
adult
ing, 144
151
28
differences,
of
66;
memory
in
144,
in
of digits,
marking
151, in
mark-
A's, 151, in
151
/,
of,
213
219
221
245
f.
f.
f. ;
measurements
f.
symptoms
f.
Extreme individual
of individuals, in
combinations of
194
traits,
ff.
of
of,
228
ff.,
215
of,
f.
differences, 207
ff.
f.,
157.
in,
44
in
scholar-
ff.
154
f.
126
ff.,
122
f.,
134
f.
in
ff.,
in
ability
in
spelling,
achievement,
scientific
is,
in
individual's
blances
part,
selected by an
nature,
117;
resem-
as causes of individual
in,
78,
mental
in
traits,
action of
is
passim;
83-93
differential, 116 f
the
;
the
119
Genius, inheritance
ences
inferiority,
211
ff.
intellectually,
213
ff.
in,
35
78
of,
61
in,
ff.
f.
sex
racial
differ-
f.
Growth.
See Maturity.
formation of
f.
individuals excep-
in
all
not measures
of
natures,
137
capacity, 67
ity,
153
f.
f.
relation to multimodal;
susceptibility
environmental influence,
of
141.
sex differences
Heredity.
History,
in,
44
to
ff.
f.
See Inheritance.
sex differences
in
scholar-
in, 31.
in
in morals, 223 f.
213 ff.
Exceptionally defective
individuals
intellect,
Dis-
ship
ff.
Exceptional
See Distribution,
and Variability.
Frequency.
as a cause
ff.
differences
105
in,
f.
ff.
in, 31.
129,
tributions,
in scholar-
31.
in,
classification
Idiocy.
Individuals.
Illusions,
sex differences
in,
30
f.
;;;;
Educational Psychology
246
Imagery,
193
individual
differences
in,
Imbecility,
Defective Individuals.
Immaturity, tests
of, 229.
ff.
extreme, 207
ff.
ff.
single
in
maturity
traits,
cause
as
measurement
of,
ancestry as a cause
as a cause of,
of,
of,
ff.
of,
ff.
104
ff.
remote
ff.
sex
51
operation
109
of,
f.
differences
in
28.
upon
of
influence
analysis of, 97
ff.
individual
ff.
the in-
iioff.
104,
in
variability, 27
tions, 172
ff.
blance, 71
and
224
fluence of
ff.
ff-
rela-
of relative inferiority
ff.
of individual
of mental
216
in different traits,
in, 28.
in
exceptional
differences,
142
ff.
sex
Information,
amount
18
differences
31.
Maturity,
the
sex
in,
6g
Mathematics,
scholarship
ff.
f.
of resem-
of variability, 15
ff.
education, 138
ity,
99
ff.
ff.
and responsibil-
delian, 98
ff.
of ability, 80
ff.
of
of
yy i.
artistic faculty, 80; of assertiveness,
to learn to
ability
80
ff.
of
spell,
athletic
of
83;
ability,
of eye-color, 76
of genius, 78
f.
tellect,
84
ff.
popularity, 80
ness, 80
ff
80
per,
of
in,
80
ff.
80
ff.
223
92
ff.
inherit-
in.
in,
44
differences
in
31.
exceptional inferiority
in,
86
ff.,
inheritance of, 80
sex differences
105
ff.
sex, 2y, 30
in,
differences
ability,
44
in,
differences in,
f.
ff.,
ff.
due to
due to
in individuals excepf.,
f.
ff.
Negritos,
ff.
ability
forms, 60
Negroes,
195
ff.,
ff.
powers
Nurture.
of,
of
in
matching
f.
and
compared
whites
;
in
intellectual
ff.
52
according to Galton, O5
scholarship,
f.
ff.
ff.
in,
30
in, 28,
racial differences
ship
of
12.
traits,
f.
f.
sex
science,
Multimodality, 152
f.
f.
221
sex differences
ff.
ff.
of, 78,
58
of tem-
vivacity,
ance
Mode,
Moral
age,
ff.
sex differences
scholarship
of self-conscious-
specialization of, 93
Intellect,
Mental
Motor
of stature, y6
;
.
ff.
of, 182
of
of morals, 84
ff.
See Environment.
f.
;;;
Index of Subjects
Objective measurements, 5 f.
Opposition of traits.
See Relations,
inverse.
247
Resemblances, attenuation
dilation of, 81
of,
71
83
f.,
80
of,
f.
measurement
ff.
of
151
89
ff.
inheritance
of
ability
in,
differences
30
in, 27,
41
f.,
ized in inheritance, 97
special-
f.
Precocity, 225
sex
ff. ;
f.
f.
134
School
sex
progress,
difference
in
in,
in,
ff.
influence of on the
114
ff.
distribution,
167
form of
ff.
f.
218, 222
reducible
differences,
quantitative,
f.
sex differences
to
80
in, 31.
inheritance
sex differences
modality, 154 f.
Races, the interpretation of the differences of, in achievement, 64
in,
f.
151
ff.
sex differences
of ability
distribution
in, 27,
30
sex
dif-
traits
171
ff.
common
comparison
178
f.
in,
of,
inverse,
183
ff.
of
form,
174
ff.
Reliability
ff.
rectilinear, 177
186
curvilinear,
ff.
200; measurement
ff.,
II
individual,
179
ff.
ff.
ff.
signi-
through identity
variability
ferences
144
in,
f.,
ff.
151
inferiority
218
f.
f.
See
of,
ff.
as a cause of multi-
modality, 154.
Sex
f.
of, 172
same
the
in
differences in the, 27
ff.
also Senses.
ff.
in,
ff.
See Senses.
sensitivitjf.
of,
44
Senses, age differences in the, 105
4.
ff.
Range of
in,
f.
Self-consciousness,
Qualitative
negroes
sex differences
ff.,
31-
ff.
compared, 52
ff.
of whites and
Scholarship,
122
See Senses.
Pressure.
variability in, 41
See Senses.
Pitch.
ff.
correlation,
74 fif., 180 f.
Perception, distribution of individuals
in,
84
in,
See Senses.
Pearson coefficient
Pain.
20
differences,
ff.
in
18
ff.
in
abilities,
Shyness,
sex
differences
44
in,
f.
ff.,
sex differences
in,
27.
ff.
195
f.
ff.
ff.
in,
181
f.
;
;
Educational Psychology
248
Specialization, of heredity, 93
mental
186
traits,
ff.
of
differences
different
sex differ-
school classes
in,
ences
in,
126
in,
31
ff.
127
f.
ability to learn,
yy
Twins, resemblances
96
ff.
ff.,
119
ff.
Types
of
ff.,
and
intellect
193
character,
ff.
com-
sex
;
.
age, 105
differences
due to
in
ff.
in,
defectives, 218.
Subjectivity, of measures, 5
ff.
171
f.
89
inheritance
72
of,
of
specialization
Spelling,
See Senses.
See Environment.
Touch.
Training.
flf.
266
f.
traits,
loi
of
ff.
of
different
See Senses.
Temper, inheritance
in,
181
f.
Taste.
differences in, 44
of races, 53
of,
80
ff.
sex
f.
sex differences
44 ff.
Temperature, of individuals exception19s
in,
also
f.
See
Senses.
ZZ
ff-
,"
ff.
of the sexes,
reduction of in individuals of
See also
Individual Differences and Distribusimilar
ancestry,
y2.
tion.
Vivacity,
inheritance of, 80
differences
in,
44
ff.
sex
f.
Tests.
flF.
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