Classification of DC machine

DC machines (i.e. DC generators or DC motors) can be classified on the basis of their excitation winding. Field
winding may be connected to armature winding (in series or parallel) or it may be separately excited. This
divides DC machines in two main types. You will understand further classification of DC machines from the
diagram below.

DC Generator
A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into direct current electricity. This
energy conversion is based on the principle of production of dynamically induced emf.

Construction:

Above figure shows the constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC generator. A DC generator consists two
basic parts, stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC generator are described below.
1.

Yoke: The outer frame of a generator or motor is called as yoke. Yoke is made up of cast iron or steel.
Yoke provides mechanical strength for whole assembly of the generator (or motor). It also carries the
magnetic flux produced by the poles.

2.

Poles: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of screws or welding. Poles are to support field
windings. Field winding is wound on poles and connected in series or parallel with armature winding or
sometimes separately.

3.

Pole shoe: Pole shoe is an extended part of the pole which serves two purposes, (i)to prevent field
coils from slipping and (ii)to spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.

Armature core (rotor)

4.

Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a generator. Armature core is cylindrical in shape on
which slots are provided to carry armature windings.

5. Armature winging: Basically armature winding of a DC machine is wound by one of the two
methods, lap winding or wave winding. The difference between these two is merely due to the end
connections and commutator connections of the conductor.
In lap winding, the finishing end of the coil is connected to a commutator segment and starting end of the
following coil.
In wave winding, a conductor under one pole is connected at the back to a conductor which occupies an
almost corresponding position under the next pole which is of opposite polarity.
The diagram below will help you to differentiate between lap winding and wave winding.

5.

Commutator and brushes: As emf is generated in the armature conductors terminals must be taken
out to make use of generated emf. But if we can't directly solder wires to commutator conductors as they
rotates. Thus commutator is connected to the armature conductors and mounted on the same shaft as
that of armature core. Conducting brushes rest on commutator and they slides over when rotor (hence
commutator) rotates. Thus brushes are physically in contact with armature conductors hence wires can be
connected to brushes.

Commutator

Working Principle:

According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, when a conductor moves in a magnetic field (thereby
cutting the magnetic flux lines), a dynamically induced emf is produced in the conductor. The magnitude of
generated emf can be given by emf equation of DC generator. If a closed path is provided to the moving
conductor then generated emf causes a current to flow in the circuit.
One of the main functions of commutator is to convert generated AC emf into DC. As you can see in the above
image, direction of generated emf will change across every conductor when it rotates (see the direction across
conductor conductor ABCD in case 1 and case 2 in above image). It can be understood from the image,
comparing both cases, that even though the generated emf across the conductors is AC the output of a DC
generator is converted to DC with the help of commutator. The output voltage waveform of a DC generator is
as shown below.

EMF equation of DC generator

Let = flux/pole in Wb (weber)
Z = total no. of armature conductors
P = no. of generator poles
A = no. of parallel paths in armature
N = rotational speed of armature in revolutions per min. (rpm)
E = emf induced in any parallel path in armature
Now,

Armature Reaction
In a DC machine, two kinds of magnetic fluxes are present; 'armature flux' and 'main field flux'. The effect of
armature flux on the main field flux is called as armature reaction.
The effect of armature reaction is well illustrated in the figure below.

Now, consider there is no current in armature conductors, and only field winding is supplied (as shown in the
first figure in above image). In this case, the magnetic flux lines due to field poles are uniform and symmetrical
to polar axis. And the 'Magnetic Neutral Axis' (M.N.A.) coincides with the 'Geometric Neutral Axis' (G.N.A.).
Magnetic neutral axis may be defined as the axis along which no emf is produced, as the armature conductors
moves parallel to the field flux lines.
The second figure in above image shows the armature flux lines due to armature current.
Now, in case the machine is running, both the fluxes (flux due to armature conductors and flux due to field
winding) are present. The armature flux superimposes with the main field flux, and hence disturbing the flux
lines of main field flux (as shown in the third figure of above image). This effect is called as armature reaction
in DC machines.

The Adverse Effects Of Armature Reaction:

1.

Armature reaction weakens the main flux. In case of generator, weakening of the main flux reduces the
generated voltage.

2.

Armature reaction distorts the main flux, hence the position of M.N.A. gets shifted (M.N.A. is perpendicular
to the flux lines of main field flux). Brushes should be placed on M.N.A., otherwise it will lead to sparking
at the surface of brushes. So, due to armature reaction, its hard to determine the exact position of M.N.A.

DC MOTOR
Construction of a DC motor is same as that of a DC generator. A same DC machine can be used
interchangeably, as a motor or generator, at least theoretically.

Working Principle Of A DC Motor

We know, a motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Theprinciple of working of a DC motor is that "when a current carrying conductor moves in a magnetic field,
it experiences a mechanical force". The direction of this force is given by Fleming's left hand rule and it's
magnitude is given by F = BIl (Newton).
Fleming's left hand rule: if we extend index finger, middle finger and thumb of our left hand, perpendicular to
each other, and direction of magnetic field is represented by index finger, direction of current is represented by
middle finger, then the thumb represents the direction of the force experienced by the current carrying
conductor.

Above diagram simplifies understanding the working principle of a DC motor. When armature windingsare
connected to supply current sets up in the winding, also field magnets are excited. In this case, current carrying
armature conductors experiences force due to the magnetic field, according to the principle stated above. Thus,
this force causes motor to run.

Back EMF
According to fundamental laws of nature, no energy conversion is possible until there is something to oppose
the conversion. In case of generators this opposition is provided by magnetic drag, but in case of motors there
is back emf. Back emf can be given by the emf equation of DC generator.
When the armature of the motor is rotating, the conductors also are cutting
the magnetic flux lines and hence according to the Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction, emf induces in the armature conductors. And the
direction of this induced emf is such that it opposes armature current (Ia) .
The circuit diagram below illustrates the direction of the back emf and
armature current.

Characteristics Of DC Motors
Generally, three characteristic curves are considered for DC motors which are, (i) Torque vs. armature current
(Ta - Ia), (ii) Speed vs. armature current and (iii) Speed vs. torque. These are explained below for each type of
DC motor. These characteristics are determined by keeping following two relations in mind.
Ta .Ia and N Eb/

Characteristics Of DC Series Motors

Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
This characteristic is also known as electrical characteristic. We know that torque is directly proportional to
armature current and flux, Ta .Ia. In DC series motors, field winding is connected in series with armature.
Thus, before magnetic saturation of the field, flux is directly proportional to Ia. Therefore, before magnetic
saturation Ta Ia2. At light loads, Ia as well as is small and hence the torque increases as the square of the
armature current. Therefore, the Ta-Ia curve is parabola for smaller values of Ia.
After magnetic saturation of the field winding, flux is independent of armature current Ia. Therefore, the
torque varies proportional to Ia only, T Ia.Therefore, after magnetic saturation, Ta-Ia curve becomes straight
line.
The shaft torque (Tsh) is less than armature torque (Ta) due to stray losses.
In DC series motors, (prior to magnetic saturation) torque increases as the square of armature current, these
motors are used where high starting torque is required

Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

We know the relation, N Eb/
For small load current (and hence for small armature current) change in back emf Eb is small and it may be
neglected. Thus, for small currents speed is inversely proportional to . As we know, flux is directly
proportional to Ia, speed is also inversely proportional to Ia.
When armature current is very small the speed becomes dangerously high. That is why a series motor should
never be started without some mechanical load.
But, at heavy loads, armature current Ia is large. And hence speed is low which results in decreased back emf
Eb. Due to decreased Eb, more armature current is allowed.

Speed Vs. Torque (N-Ta)

This characteristic is also called as mechanical characteristic. From the above two characteristics of DC
series motor, it can be found that when speed is high, torque is low and vice versa.

Characteristics Of DC Shunt Motors

Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
In case of DC shunt motors we can assume the field flux to be constant. Though at heavy loads,
decreases in a small amount due to increased armature reaction. But as we are neglecting the change in the
flux , we can say that torque is proportional to armature current. Hence the Ta-Ia characteristic for a dc shunt
motor will be a straight line through origin.
Since, heavy starting load needs heavy starting current, shunt motor should never be started on a heavy
load.

Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

As flux is assumed constant, we can say N Eb. But, back emf is also almost constant, the speed remains
constant. But practically, as well as Eb decreases with increase in load. But, the Eb decreases slightly more
than , and hence the speed decreases slightly. Generally, the speed decreases by 5 to 15% of full load speed
only. And hence, a shunt motor can be assumed as a constant speed motor.

Characteristics Of DC Compound Motor

DC compound motors have both series as well as shunt windings. In a compound motor series and shunt
windings are connected such that series flux is in direction with shunt flux then the motor is said to be
cumulatively compounded. And if series flux is opposite direction as that of the shunt flux, then the motor is
said to be differentially compounded. Characteristics of both these types are explained below.
(a) Cumulative compound motor
Cumulative compound motors are used where series characteristics are required but the load is likely to be
removed completely. Series winding takes care of the heavy load, whereas the shunt winding prevents the
motor from running at dangerously high speed when the load is suddenly removed. These motors are generally
employed a flywheel, where sudden and temporary loads are applied like in rolling mills.
(b) Differential compound motor
Since in differential field motors, series flux opposes shunt flux, the total flux decreases with increase in load.
Due to this, the speed remains almost constant or even it may increase slightly with increase in load.
Differential compound motors are not commonly use, but they find limited applications in experimental and
research work.

Starting Methods Of A DC Motor

Basic operational voltage equation of a DC motor is given as
E = Eb + IaRa and hence

Ia = (E - Eb) / Ra

Now, when the motor is at rest, obviously, there is no back emf Eb, hence armature current will be high at
starting.
This excessive current will1. blow out the fuses and may damage the armature winding and/or commutator brush arrangement.
2. produce very high starting torque (as torque is directly proportional to armature current), and this high
starting toque will produce huge centrifugal force which may throw off the armature windings.
Thus to avoid above two drawbacks, starters are used for starting of DC machine.

Thus, to avoid the above dangers while starting a DC motor, it is necessary to limit the starting current. For
that purpose, starters are used to start a DC motor. There are various starters like, 3 point starter, 4 point
starter, No load release coil starter, thyristor starter etc.
The main concept behind every DC motor starter is, adding external resistance to the armature winding at
starting.

1. 3 Point Starter
The internal wiring of a 3 point starter is as shown in the figure.

When motor is to be started, the lever is turned gradually to

the right. When lever touches point 1, the field winding gets directly connected across the supply, and
the armature winding gets connected with resistances R1 to R5 in series. Hence at starting full resistance is

added in series with armature. Then as the lever is moved further, the resistance is gradually is cut out from the
armature circuit. Now, as the lever reaches to position 6, all the resistance is cut out from the armature circuit
and armature gets directly connected across the supply. The electromagnet E (no voltage coil) holds the lever
at this position. This electromagnet releases the lever when there is no (or low) supply voltage.
When the motor is overloaded beyond a predefined value, overcurrent release electromagnet D gets activated,
which short circuits electromagnet E , and hence releases the lever and motor is turned off.

2. 4 Point Starter:

The main difference between a 3 point starter and a 4 point starter is that the no voltage coil is not
connected in series with field coil. The field gets directly connected to the supply, as the lever moves touching
the brass arc. The no voltage coil (or Hold on coil) is connected with a current limiting resistance Rh. This
arrangement ensures that any change of current in the shunt field does not affect the current through hold on
coil at all. This means that electromagnet pull of the hold-on coil will always be sufficient so that the spring does
not unnecessarily restore the lever to the off position.
This starter is used where field current is to be adjusted by means of a field rheostat.

3.

DC series motor starter:

Construction of DC series motor starters is very basic as shown in the figure. A start arm is simply

moved towards right to start the motor. Thus at first maximum resistance is connected in series with
the armature and then gradually decreased as the start arm moves towards right.
The no load release coil holds the start arm to the run position and leaves it at no load.

ELECTRICAL BRAKING
A running motor may be brought to rest quickly by either mechanical braking or electrical braking. The
mechanical breaking is applied by means of mechanical break shoes. Hence the smoothness of mechanical
breaking is dependent on the surface and physical condition of brakes. Smooth breaking of a motor can be
achieved by electric breaking.

Electric Breaking
The electric breaking of a DC motor is of three types, (i) Rheostatic or dynamic braking, (ii) Plugging or
reverse current braking and (iii) Regenerative breaking.

(i) Rheostatic or dynamic breaking:

In case of DC shunt motors, armature is disconnected from the supply and a rheostat (variable resistor) is
connected across it. The field winding is left connected across the supply. Obviously, now armature is driven by
the inertia and hence machine starts acting as a generator. Thus the machine will now feed the current to the
connected rheostat and heat will dissipate at the rate of I2R. Breaking effect is controlled by varying the
resistance connected across the armature.
In case of DC series motor, motor is disconnected from the supply and field connections are reversed and a
rheostat is connected in series. The field connections are reversed to make sure that the current through field
winding will flow in the same direction as before.

(ii) Plugging or Reverse current breaking:

In this method, armature connections are reversed and hence motor tends to run in opposite direction. Due to
reversal of the armature terminals, applied voltage V and back emf Eb starts acting in the same direction and
hence the total armature current exceeds. To limit this armature current a variable resistor is connected across
the armature. This is similar for both series and shunt wound methods.
Plugging gives greater breaking torque as compared to rheostatic breaking. This method is generally used in
controlling elevators, machine tools, printing presses etc.

(iii) Regenerative breaking:

Regenerative breaking is used where, load on the motor has very high inertia (e.g in electric trains). When

applied voltage to the motor is reduced to less than back emf Eb, obviously armature current Ia will get
reversed, and hence armature torque is reversed. Thus speed falls. As generated emf is greater than applied
voltage (machine is acting as a DC generator), power will be returned to the line, this action is called as
regeneration. Speed keeps falling, back emf Eb also falls until it becomes lower than applied voltage and
direction of armature current again becomes opposite to Eb.

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MACHINE

Speed Of A DC Motor
We know, back emf of a DC motor Eb is the induced emf due to rotation of the armature in magnetic field. Thus
value of the Eb can be given by the EMF equation of a DC generator.

Eb =

/60A

PNZ

(where, P= no. of poles, =flux/pole, N=speed in rpm, Z=no. of armature conductors, A=parallel paths)
Eb can also be given as,
Eb = V- IaRa
thus from above equations

N=

/PZ

E 60A
b

but, for a DC motor A, P and Z are constant

K Eb/

(where, K=constant)

thus, it shows speed is directly proportional to back emf and inversely proportional to the flux per pole.

Speed Control Methods Of DC Motor

Speed Control Of Shunt Motor

1. Flux Control Method

It is seen that speed of the motor is inversely proportional to flux. Thus by decreasing flux speed can be
increased and vice versa.

To control the flux, a rheostat is added in series with the field winding, as shown in the circuit diagram. Adding
more resistance in series with field winding will increase the speed, as it will decrease the flux. Field current is
relatively small and hence I2R loss is small, hence this method is quiet efficient. Though speed can be
increased by reducing flux with this method, it puts a limit to maximum speed as weakening of flux beyond the
limit will adversely affect the commutation.

2. Armature Control Method

Speed of the motor is directly proportional to the back emf Eb and Eb = V- IaRa. That is when supply voltage V
and armature resistance Ra are kept constant, speed is directly proportional to armature current Ia. Thus if we
add resistance in series with armature, Ia decreases and hence speed decreases.
Greater the resistance in series with armature, greater the decrease in speed.

3. Voltage Control Method

A) Multiple voltage control: In this method the, shunt filed is connected to a fixed exciting voltage, and
armature is supplied with different voltages. Voltage across armature is changed with the help of a suitable
switchgear. The speed is approximately proportional to the voltage across the armature.

B) Ward-Leonard System:

This system is used where very sensitive speed

control of motor is required (e.g electric excavators, elevators etc.) The arrangement of this system is as
required in the figure beside.

M2 is the motor whose speed control is required.

M1 may be any AC motor or DC motor with constant speed.
G is the generator directly coupled to M1.
In this method the output from the generator G is fed to the armature of the motor M2 whose speed is to be
controlled. The output voltage of the generator G can be varied from zero to its maximum value, and hence the
armature voltage of the motor M2 is varied very smoothly. Hence very smooth speed control of motor can be
obtained by this method.

Speed Control Of Series Motor

1. Flux Control Method
A) Field divertor :

A veritable resistance is connected parallel to the

series field as shown in fig (a). This variable resistor is called as divertor, as desired amount of current can be
diverted through this resistor and hence current through field coil can be decreased. Hence flux can be
decreased to desired amount and speed can be increased.

B Armature divertor:
Divertor is connected across the armature as in fig (b).
For a given constant load torque, if armature current is reduced then flux must increase. As, Ta

Ia

This will result in increase in current taken from the supply and hence flux will increase and
subsequently speed of the motor will decrease.

C) Tapped field control:

As shown in fig (c) field coil is tapped dividing number of turns. Thus we can select different
value of by selecting different number of turns.

D) Paralleling field coils:

In this method, several speeds can be obtained by regrouping coils as shown in fig (d).

2. Variable Resistance In Series With Armature

By introducing resistance in series with armature, voltage across the armature can be reduced.
And hence, speed reduces in proportion with it.

3. Series-Parallel Control
This system is widely used in electric traction, where two or more mechanically coupled series
motors are employed. For low speeds, motors are joined in series, and for higher speeds
motors are joined in parallel.
When in series, the motors have the same current passing through them, although voltage
across each motor is divided. When in parallel, voltage across each motor is same although
current gets divided.