DISSERTATION

NATURAL LIGHTING and SHADING

(EXCLUDING FENESTRATIONS)

Submitted by:
SHAIK MAHAMMED AZARUDDIN

Department of Architecture and Planning

MANIT, BHOPAL

MAULANA AZAD NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

BHOPAL
MAY 2014

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to gratefully and sincerely thank Dr. Nakul Dhagat for his guidance,
understanding, patience, and most importantly, his friendship during my dissertation research
study. He encouraged me to grow as an instructor and an independent thinker. I am not sure
many graduate students are given the opportunity to develop their own individuality and selfsufficiency by being allowed to work with such independence.
The writing of this dissertation has been one of the most significant academic
challenges I have ever taken. Though the following dissertation is an individual work, I could
never have reached the heights or explored the depths without the help of books published by
various authors, the e-books available on the internet, the research papers published by
various authors and the various organizations and websites providing information related to
my dissertation topic. This work is an outcome of an unparalleled infrastructural support that
I have received from Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology.
My very special thanks to my family members whom I owe everything I am today,
Thank you for everything.
Last but not the least; I would like to thank my friends who also became the backbone
of my support while researching on my dissertation for nights after nights restlessly.

Shaik Mahammed Azaruddin

Table of Contents
Table of figures ................................................................................................................................... 5
Chapter-1. ............................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1

Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 7

1.1.1

Background ..................................................................................................................... 7

1.1.2

Justification ..................................................................................................................... 7

1.1.3

Need ................................................................................................................................ 8

1.1.4

Applicability..................................................................................................................... 8

1.2

Aim .......................................................................................................................................... 9

1.3

Objectives................................................................................................................................ 9

1.4

Scope of work.......................................................................................................................... 9

1.5

Methodology ......................................................................................................................... 10

Chapter-2.

Understanding Natural light ......................................................................................... 12

2.1

Definition of Natural Light .................................................................................................... 12

2.2

Need for Natural Light .......................................................................................................... 12

2.3

Evolution of Means of Providing Natural Light in Buildings ................................................. 13

2.3.1

Early History .................................................................................................................. 13

2.3.2

History of English Natural Light..................................................................................... 14

2.3.3

Dutch, Venetian, and Japanese Design Developments................................................. 20

2.3.4

History of American Natural Lighting............................................................................ 21

2.4

Characteristics of Natural Light ............................................................................................. 23

2.4.1

Defining the parts of Natural Light - Sunlight and Skylight ........................................... 23

2.4.2

Dynamics of Natural Light ............................................................................................. 24

2.5

Environmental Factors Affecting Natural Light ..................................................................... 24

2.5.1

Sunlight Effect ............................................................................................................... 24

2.5.2

Change and Variety ....................................................................................................... 26

2.6

Effect of Building Orientation on Lighting............................................................................. 27

2.6.1

Introduction .................................................................................................................. 27

2.6.2

Significance ................................................................................................................... 28

2.6.3

Design Procedure: ......................................................................................................... 28

2.7

Summary ............................................................................................................................... 29

Chapter-3.
3.1

Understanding Building Mass and Punctures ............................................................... 30

Defining Building Mass.......................................................................................................... 30

3.2

Additions and subtractions in building mass ........................................................................ 31

3.2.1

Subtractive Forms ......................................................................................................... 31

3.2.2

Additive Forms .............................................................................................................. 33

3.3

Defining Punctures in Building Mass..................................................................................... 35

3.4

Categorization of Punctures in a Building ............................................................................. 36

3.4.1

Within planes ................................................................................................................ 36

3.4.2

At corners ...................................................................................................................... 37

3.4.3

Between Planes ............................................................................................................. 39

3.5

Summary ............................................................................................................................... 41

Chapter-4.
4.1

Effect of Building Mass and Punctures on Lighting....................................................... 42

Study of Lighting in Different Styles of World Architecture through History ....................... 42

4.1.1

Egypt ............................................................................................................................. 42

4.1.2

Greece ........................................................................................................................... 42

4.1.3

Rome ............................................................................................................................. 43

4.1.4

Early Christian ............................................................................................................... 43

4.1.5

Byzantine....................................................................................................................... 44

4.1.6

Gothic ............................................................................................................................ 44

4.1.7

Renaissance................................................................................................................... 44

4.1.8

Baroque ......................................................................................................................... 45

4.2

Case Studies of Todays Existing Buildings ............................................................................ 45

4.2.1

Le Corbusier .................................................................................................................. 46

4.2.2

Louis I. Kahn .................................................................................................................. 48

4.2.3

Tadao Ando ................................................................................................................... 49

4.3

Summary ............................................................................................................................... 50

Chapter-5.

Observations and Discussions ....................................................................................... 51

5.1

Conclusions from the Case Studies ....................................................................................... 51

5.2

Observations about the Void Massing Determinants ........................................................... 56

5.3

Conclusions about Void Building Form ................................................................................. 57

5.4

Observations of Void Buildings from Existing City Grids....................................................... 58

References ............................................................................................................................................ 61

Table of figures

FIGURE 2-1 DOORWAYS- NATURAL LIGHTING FROM ONE SIDE OF A ROOM .............................................. 14
FIGURE 2-2 INTERIOR VIEW-NORMAN WINDOW ....................................................................................... 15
FIGURE 2-3 THESE SMALL; DEEPLY SPLAYED WINDOWS ON LARSEN HALL AT HARVARD ARE REMINISCENT
OF NORMAN WINDOWS, ALTHOUGH THERE IS PRESUMABLY LESS FEAR OF ATTACK .......................... 15
FIGURE 2-4 (LEFT) THE TOWER OF LONDON'S INTERIOR DEMONSTRATES THE "TONAL GRADING"
PRODUCED BY A SUCCESSION OF VAULTS. (RIGHT) THIS BUILDING AT YALE, BUILT IN THE 1930'S,
HAS REFERENCES TO OLD ENGLISH WINDOW DESIGN. ..................................................................... 17
FIGURE 2-5 A GOTHIC -STYLE WINDOW AT YALE SHOWS EXTERNAL SPLAYING OF STONE ELEMENTS, WHICH
INCREASES INTERIOR ILLUMINATION ............................................................................................... 18
FIGURE 2-6 (LEFT) THESE SHUTTERS FOLD BACK INTO THE REVEALS OF THE WINDOW. THEY ARE ALSO
ADJUSTABLE LIKE VENETIAN BLINDS. (RIGHT) BOTH TYPES OF BAYS ARE SEEN ON THIS FACADE ON
BOSTON'S BEACON HILL. ................................................................................................................ 19
FIGURE 2-7 DUTCH WINDOWS - ELEVATION (LEFT)................................................................................ 20
FIGURE 2-8 ALTHOUGH THESE ARE NOT THE ORIGINAL DIAMOND -SHAPED LIGHTS, THEY REFER BACK TO
EARLY 17TH CENTURY WINDOWS. .................................................................................................... 22
FIGURE 2-9 LIGHTING THROUGH PALLADIAN WINDOWS .......................................................................... 22
FIGURE 2-10 BEAMS OF DIRECT SUNLIGHT CAN BE MAGICAL .................................................................. 23
FIGURE 2-11 THE SUN IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE........................................................................... 26
FIGURE 2-12 WELL ORIENTED BUILDINGS ............................................................................................... 28
FIGURE 3-1 BUILDINGS OF DIFFERENT SIZES ......................................................................................... 30
FIGURE 3-2 THE SPHERE, THE PYRAMID AND THE CUBOID RETAINS THEIR IDENTITY EVEN IF THE BASE
PORTION OF THE SOLIDS IS REMOVED. ............................................................................................ 32
FIGURE 3-3 A PORTION IS SUBTRACTED FROM EACH OF THE CUBOIDAL FORM AT THEIR PROFILE EDGES. 32
FIGURE 3-4 THE IMAGINARY LINES FORMING THE ORIGINAL PROFILE..................................................... 32
FIGURE 3-5 HOUSE AT STABIO, SWITZERLAND, 1981, MARIO BOTTA ..................................................... 33
FIGURE 3-6 PHYSICAL ATTACHING OF TWO CUBES IN PLAN ..................................................................... 33
FIGURE 3-7 TWO FORMS COMBINE TO FORM A MIXED GEOMETRY ........................................................... 33
FIGURE 3-8 TWO CUBES ATTACHED AT ONE OF THEIR CORNICES............................................................. 34
FIGURE 3-9 TWO SOLIDS ATTACHED BY OVERLAPPING FACES .................................................................. 34
FIGURE 3-10 TWO SOLIDS OVERLAP ONE ANOTHER BY THEIR VOLUME .................................................... 34
FIGURE 3-11 DIFFERENT CONFIGURATIONS OF ADDITIVE FORMS ........................................................... 35
FIGURE 3-12 PUNCTURES PROVIDED WITHIN PLANES ............................................................................ 36
FIGURE 3-13 USE OF TIMBER FRAMES FOR OPENINGS OR ARTICULATED MASONRY TRIM WORK ................ 36
FIGURE 3-14 CLUSTERED AND STAGGERED OPENINGS CREATING VISUAL MOVEMENT ON THE PLANES
SURFACE ........................................................................................................................................ 37
FIGURE 3-15 GRADUAL INCREASE IN THE SIZE OF AN OPENING ............................................................... 37
FIGURE 3-16 OPENINGS ON A PLANE CREATING CONTRAST WITH ADJACENT SURFACES ........................... 37
FIGURE 3-17 PUNCTURES PROVIDED AT CORNERS OF A PLANE ............................................................... 38
FIGURE 3-18 DIRECTIONAL OPENINGS CAN BE USED FOR CAPTURING VIEWS OR TO BRIGHTEN A DARK
SPACE............................................................................................................................................. 38
FIGURE 3-19 OPENINGS TO TURN THE CORNERS ..................................................................................... 38
FIGURE 3-20 THE LIGHT WASHES THE SURFACE OF THE PLANE ADJACENT AND PERPENDICULAR TO THE
OPENING ........................................................................................................................................ 39
FIGURE 3-21 PUNCTURES PROVIDED BETWEEN PLANES.......................................................................... 39

FIGURE 3-22 VERTICAL OPENING CAN BE IN THE MIDDLE OR AT THE CORNER AND EXTENDS FROM THE
FLOOR TO CEILING PLANE............................................................................................................... 39
FIGURE 3-23 THE LIGHT WASHES THE SURFACE OF THE WALL PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO IT AND
ARTICULATE THE PRIMACY OF THAT PLANE IN THE SPACE. .............................................................. 40
FIGURE 3-24 HORIZONTAL OPENING CAN BE IN THE MIDDLE OR AT THE CORNER AND EXTENDS ACROSS A
WALL PLANE ................................................................................................................................... 40
FIGURE 3-25 THE CEILING PLANE IS LIFT VISUALLY FROM THE WALL PLANES, AND CREATES A FEELING OF
LIGHTNESS. .................................................................................................................................... 40
FIGURE 3-26 LIGHT COMING FROM THE OPENING IN THE CEILING PLANE WASHES THE SURFACE OF THE
WALL .............................................................................................................................................. 41
FIGURE 4-1 EXTERIOR VIEW FROM THE SOUTHWEST OF CHAPEL OF NOTRE DAME DU HAUT ................. 47
FIGURE 4-2 INTERIOR VIEW OF THE CHAPEL LOOKING TOWARDS THE SOUTH ENTRANCE ........................ 47
FIGURE 4-3 EXTERIOR VIEW FROM THE NORTHWEST OF KIMBELL MUSEUM ........................................... 49
FIGURE 4-4 CHURCH OF THE LIGHT BY TADAO ANDO ............................................................................ 50
FIGURE 5-1 VOID BLOCKS: MINIMUM BLOCK SIZES FOR 40-48 LATITUDE ............................................ 57
FIGURE 5-2 VOID BUILDINGS FOR BLOCKS IN EUGENE, OREGON............................................................ 58
FIGURE 5-3 VOID BUILDINGS FOR BLOCKS IN PORTLAND, OREGON ........................................................ 58
FIGURE 5-4 VOID BUILDINGS FOR SHORT BLOCKS IN SEATTLE, WASHINGTON ......................................... 59
FIGURE 5-5 MULTIPLE VOIDS, ALLEYS- MULTIPLE VOIDS ON ALLEYS, ALLEYS- MULTIPLE VOIDS............... 59
FIGURE 5-6 SINGLE VOID- PARTIAL BLOCK, VOIDS- STEPPED BUILDING, MULTIPLE VOIDS- E TYPE .......... 60
FIGURE 5-7 SINGLE VOID, CROSS ALLEYS- SINGLE VOID, SINGLE VOID ON ALLEY ..................................... 60
FIGURE 5-8 L TYPE- EDGE BUILDINGS, L TYPE- OPEN EDGE, PARTIAL E ................................................. 60

Chapter-1.
1.1

Introduction
An architectural space makes the users to automatically formulate an unconscious

value judgment as to the quality of that space good or bad. One of the primary reasons
why many good places are thought of as such is that the natural light present has specific
qualities, which are significant in perception of these places. Introducing effective natural
lighting strategies has become an essential goal for any sustainable building. However, since
it is difficult to evaluate its quality and quantity in non-standard spaces through simple rules
of thumb, the use of natural light simulations has considerably increased as a necessary step
to accurately evaluate natural light in buildings. (Golstein, 1976)
The present dissertation presents how the lighting effects of the Sun can be applied
by fairly predicting the intensity and direction of light, its visual impact on the forms, and
spaces by the provision of punctures in the planes of a built mass.
1.1.1 Background
There are many architectural precedents which evidence an understanding of the
sensitive use of natural light. But most of the literature relevant to the subject of natural light
in architecture falls into a few general categories. These include technical natural lighting
manuals, studies of effects of light (or the lack of it) on people, or historical investigations of
architectural elements, such as glass or windows. The problem nearly with all of these
sources is that nowhere is there a simple, practical explanation of the subject as related to
architectural design. There has been a range of conceptions concerning this topic; this project
is but one approach. It is a modern set of observations and recommendations, relating to the
design for natural lighting excluding the fenestrations.
1.1.2 Justification
Sun is the rich source of natural light for the illumination of forms and spaces in
architecture. While the suns radiation is intense, the quality of its light, manifested in the
form of direct sunlight or diffuse light, varies with the time of day, from season to season,
and from place to place. At some point, only light form of energy is required whereas at the
other point, both solar as well as light form of energy is needed.

Natural light is as essential as clean air and clean water. Natural lighting has been
advanced since the dawn of time, and depends upon it for survival. Modern structures often
separate us from this basic need. Buildings with adequate natural light can promote
happiness, contentment, and productivity, all of which are greatly improved with high quality
natural light. A well-thought-out lighting plan requires more than just windows and skylights
on a building. Therefore, it is very necessary to understand natural lighting so that we apply
these studies in designing the buildings. Natural lighting is strongly linked with the aesthetics
of faade design. It is important, therefore, to review the facade design elements in order to
understand the changes in natural lighting of a building.
1.1.3 Need
Since the beginning of civilization, Natural light has had important positive
associations with mans religion, health and culture. Architecture cannot exist but with light.
Environmental responsibilities have become key issues facing the building professions
nowadays. There is growing evidence that buildings, which adopt passive design solutions
such as natural light and natural ventilation show higher occupants satisfaction.
Natural lighting is the controlled admission of lightdirect sunlight and diffuse
skylightinto a building. By providing a direct link to the dynamic and perpetually evolving
patterns of outdoor illumination, natural lighting helps create a visually stimulating and
productive environment for building occupants. Implementing natural light on a project goes
beyond simply listing the components to be gathered and installed. Natural light requires an
integrated design approach to be successful, because it can involve decisions about the
building form, siting, climate, building components (such as windows and skylights), lighting
controls, and lighting design criteria.
Natural light provides high illuminance and permits excellent color discrimination and
color rendering. These two properties mean that natural light provides the condition for good
vision. However, natural light can also produce uncomfortable solar glare and very high
luminance reflections on display screens, both of which interfere with good vision. Thus, the
effect of natural light on the performance of tasks depends on how the natural light is
delivered. All of these factors need to be considered in designing buildings.
1.1.4 Applicability
Architectural natural light is not solely dependent on sunlight quantity or on the
number of sunny days per year; it can also take advantage of diffuse skylight (predominantly

found in overcast climates). As such, direct solar resource is not the sole determinant for
natural light feasibility. A viable option for most building types and locations, it is important
to consider that the architectural response to natural light differs by building type, climate,
and glare tolerability. The study can be applicable to all building types as well, including
commercial office buildings, most spaces within a school (i.e. classrooms, gymnasiums,
media centers, cafeterias, and offices), retail stores, hospitals, libraries, warehouses, and
maintenance facilities.
Some of the Earlier studies serves the purpose to see if it is possible to demonstrate a
clear relationship between the presence of natural light and human performance in buildings.
The implications of the results of this study extend beyond the educational sector. It is
believed that the conclusions can be transferable to other types of buildings, such as offices
and factories, since it is really human performance. If natural light enhances the performance
of students in schools, it is not too large a stretch to suppose that it might also enhance the
performance of adults in office buildings.

1.2 Aim
To study the effect of change/ play with the built mass and punctures (other than
openings) on lighting in a building.

1.3 Objectives
1. Understanding natural light and its characteristics for designing a building.
2. Analyzing the environmental factors affecting the natural light.
3. Defining building mass and punctures, and their categorization.
4. Identifying the effect of building mass and punctures through the history of different
styles in world architecture.
5. Analyzing the effect of building mass and punctures on lighting in todays existing
buildings.
6. Suggesting a set of general guidelines for designing with a renewed sensitivity towards
natural light.

1.4 Scope of work

Natural light strategies depend on the availability of natural light, which is determined
by the latitude of the buildings location. These are also affected by climate and it is

important to identify seasonal variations, prevailing climatic conditions, particularly ambient

temperatures, and sunshine probability. Knowing the climate is an essential first step in the
designing for natural light. In those latitudes where natural light is at a premium, there have
been serious attempts to maximize the amount of this natural light that enters buildings.
(ECBCS and SHC, 2010). On the other hand, in more subtropical latitudes, it is both
impractical and uncomfortable to admit a great deal of direct sunlight in buildings, but the
need for recognition of the existence of the sky is not denied.
The scope of this study is to design buildings in subtropical climates by providing
punctures for lighting. For all the other climates, where it could be extremes this may or may
not be applicable.
The project proposes an illustration of an integrated approach to the study of
providing luminous productive work environment in large scale buildings by understanding
the role of punctures, and faade elements other than openings in context with the effective
use of natural light. This is not intended to be complete, detailed design handbook. Through
the use of existing research and through the observation of natural lighting provision in
different buildings, the outcome of this project will suggest some guidelines to design with
different examples.

1.5 Methodology
The literature is collected from different sources the journals of ASHRAE, earlier
studies on natural light, case studies on the buildings in which natural light was given
importance while designing, philosophies and Interviews of different architects who play
with forms for the provision of natural light in buildings, books of different authors who
worked on natural light like Dereck Philips. All the collected data is analyzed and
categorized. Different objectives were developed and explained. Suggestions and conclusions
were drawn from the different examples or case studies necessary for the provision of natural
light.

Chapter-2.

Understanding Natural light

Light is as much a "material" for building as the stones, bricks, and other components used in
construction; for, although there would be no wall without its structural components, the wall has no
real existence for us unless it corresponds to a sensual impression, gained with our eyes and
substantiated with our minds. - (Phillips, 2004)

2.1 Definition of Natural Light

Natural light is a dynamic and ephemeral tool for expressing the quality of space.
Whether its used in the diffuse illumination of a museum gallery or as a dramatic and
variable figure within an enclosed space, the formal and architectural intentions of natural
light should be directly associated with the evaluation of its quality.

2.2 Need for Natural Light

Natural light is free and abundant. Its qualities are recognized and varied. Since the
beginning of civilization, it has had important positive associations with man's religion,
health, and culture. The need for natural illumination in interiors has been investigated by
lighting engineers, Physicians and psychologists for several centuries and thus had a
profound effect on natural light, the science of natural Illumination. Research on the effects
of the deprivation of light, the need for view, and effects on biological process have
confirmed the factual bases for this need. Studies have been conducted on the preferences of
office workers and home dwellers for natural light and sunlight. As one might expect, the
desire for sunlight is strongest where its duration is most limited. Furthermore, this desire
may be proportional in some way to the degree of physical confinement in which particular
activity takes place.
There seems to be relation between sky and weather conditions, and human notices.
Overcast days, for example, make many people depressed, especially when the cloud cover
persists for several days. The long-term version of this sky condition gives rise to what is
known as the "winter blues"; a longer period of depression. By contrast, when one discovers
that the over- cast sky has broken end the sun has come out, the mood usually changes to
optimism and general well-being.

The characteristics of natural light produced are recognized by these two basic sky
conditions, and those of different times of day, based on the growing awareness of weather
and its implications for clothing, shelter, and activities. Louis Kahn expressed his awareness
of this when he stated that the cloud that passes over gives the room a feeling of association
with the person that is in it, knowing that there is life outside of the room.

2.3 Evolution of Means of Providing Natural Light in Buildings

The history of architecture is the century-old struggle for light, the struggle for the window.
- Le Corbusier
2.3.1 Early History
The quantity and quality of the natural light that enters a room are determined initially by the
window through which it passes. The placement of the window with respect to orientation,
proximity to exterior walls, outside obstructions, and sky exposure all have particular effects
upon the light as it enters. It would seem valuable, at this point in the discussion of sensitivity
to natural light, to investigate the evolution of the window, taking notice of various functions
it was called upon to perform, and effects of gradually increasing sophistication in
manufacturing techniques and structural systems. In the early houses that primitive man built,
the light came from two directions: from the top, via the smoke -hole, and from the side,
through the doorway. McGrath has suggested that these early light-admitting voids,
determined only by necessity, were first steps in an evolutionary process that I say have led,
directly or indirectly, to the open courtyard house and the window, respectively.
The development of the inner court may well have been contributed to by the smoke
outlet via the light -well, and is this connection it is noteworthy that the classic house consisted of a
series of chambers one floor in height grouped round a central court, the external walls surrounding
the group having a few small windows but the main lighting being provided by the doors from the
chambers to the court, a system which persisted is Mediterranean countries for a considerable time.

(Raymond Mcgrath, 1937)

The doorway Opening seems to have become the standard void -in -the -wall,
admitting light from one side of a room. The door itself originally acted as a filter or barrier
in the opening, allowing or prohibiting light, physical access/ egress, and penetration of
weather. Over time the half -door, or Dutch door, came into evidence, still providing those
three elements, but with more flexibility -- it was now possible to prevent access while still

admitting light and air. The vestigial form of this half -door can be seen in the existence of
the half -glazed door, which gives one poor compromise of those three qualities.

Figure 2-1 Doorways- natural lighting from one side of a room

The word window is derived from the Norwegian word vindauga, meaning
wind eye, and early windows served simply that purpose, to limit the infiltration of
weather. The only filters of incoming elements were shutters of various types. It wasn't until
the Romans that an attempt was made to use transparent glazing materials to keep out the
weather. In the first century A.D, thin sheets of lapis specularis (probably talc) were used
for glazing. According to evidence from excavations in Pompeii and Herculaneum, it has
been determined that some rich Romans had small pieces of real glass for their greenhouses.
This primitive glass was apparently cast in a mold consisting of a flat stone, out of which had
been carved a shallow depression. The public baths in Pompeii also had windows of plate
glass which had been slightly ground on one
side to prevent passersby from looking in. In spite of this evident use of glass as a glazing
material, other substances were more commonly employed in Rome. These included linen,
shells, alabaster, and sheets of mica. Windows of this time in the Par East were occasionally
glazed with mother-of-pearl or tortoise shell.
2.3.2 History of English Natural Light
Of all the civilizations of the modern world, the British seem to have been most publicly
concerned with natural light. They have done the most research, established the most precise
standards and design criteria, and written the greatest number of natural light manuals. Their
concern has included legal statements of man's need for natural light: the principle of "ancient

light." A series of parameters defining PSALI, or Permanent Supplementary Artificial

Lighting of Interiors, has been developed, further emphasizing their conviction that natural
light should be the primary source of interior illumination. In PSALI, natural light is the
dominant interior light source up to 40 feet from the window. Beyond this distance, it is used
as a supplement to the artificial light, in order to add interest and variety, as well as visual
contact with the outside world. It is in the context of this attitude towards natural light that the
history of English natural light is now discussed. The stone -casting technique of making
glass panes was carried by the Romans to Britain, and was practiced there sporadically for
several hundred years. In Roman Britain, window glass was usually 1/8 -inch thick, with
irregular surfaces, and green or blue in color. This latter characteristic created a feeling of
coolness in some interiors, thus aggravating the perceived sensations of the traditionally
damp English climate. By the fifth and sixth centuries A.D., the French had progressed
further with glass making that the British. In fact, it became such a lost art in England that, in
675, the Abbott of Wearmouth sent to France for craftsmen to make glass for his church.
(Richard Sheppard, 1948). There ensued a revival of the art in England which lasted 200
years, only to be forgotten again from the eighth through the thirteenth centuries. In Norman
and Saxon England, windows were no larger than small slits net near the top of the wall,
sometimes closed by wooden shutters. The restricted size was determined by the prevalence
of violent attacks by rival lords. Glass, even if it had been available, would have been out of
the question as a window material. Needless to say, the diminutive size of Norman windows
greatly reduced the quantity of light entering the interiors of the castles. In order to maximize
this quantity, window reveals were deeply splayed, thereby reducing glare and expanding the
illuminated zone of the room.

Figure 2-2 interior

view-norman window

Figure 2-3 these small; deeply splayed windows on Larsen

Hall at Harvard are reminiscent of Norman windows,

although there is presumably less fear of attack

In walled towns of this era, windows were somewhat larger, obviously because of the
reduced need for protection from attack. The inhabitants used oiled linen or parchment strips
to seal out the weather. Later they employed ground pieces of horn, set in strips of lead. It
was clear that only those structures that were immune to invading armies were those in which
glass could be used as windows. The only buildings that fit this requirement were churches.
Since the English had lost the techniques of glass manufacturing, during the eleventh and
twelfth centuries most glass in their cathedrals came from France. Every attempt was made to
maximize the penetration of the characteristically gentle British natural light into the
churches.
The initial use of glass in churches was known as "plate" tracery, and was created by
punching holes in plates of stone, and then filling them with small pieces of glass. "Bar"
tracery was the next step in the evolution of windows in the eleventh and twelfth century
stone churches: members of the window frame were built up of separate pieces. This
structure led ultimately to the glazing bar or mullion.
Two external events after the twelfth century had a significant effect on window size
and quality in England. first, coal replaced wood in the glass manufacturing process, reducing
the cost while improving quality. Secondly, law and order became more widespread in the
country, so people were less concerned with protection from attack, and therefore could
consider larger windows for their homes and other buildings.
The glass -making industry continued to grow and produce more refined products,
and cost decreased with higher output, but the size of glass panes remained small.
Nevertheless, Gothic churches increased the intricacy of their glazing, and the light thus
transmitted to the interior became clearer and less colored due to fewer impurities in the
glass.
The richly colored stained glass that is familiar from churches and other religious
buildings originally began as painted glass. As glass- making methods improved, the colors
were impregnated into the glass through selective use of mineral impurities. Medieval
Christianity has been associated7with masses of vivid colored glass depicting significant
religious scenes. As the political and religious intensity of this period declined, so too did the
use of such decorative glass.

Figure 2-4 (left) The Tower of London's interior demonstrates the "tonal grading" produced by a

succession of vaults. (Right) This building at Yale, built in the 1930's, has references to old English
window design.

With the expansion of technological knowledge arising out of the Renaissance

came more concern for purity and quantity of natural light in interiors. "The decline of
Catholicism and the influence of the Renaissance can be no better illustrated than in this
insistence on light at the expense of decoration -- less obscurity but also less brilliance, more
reason, it might be said, but less significance." The Gothic period was the next important
phase in the development of glass as a building material. As Gerhard Rosenberg stated in the
R.I.B.A. Journal of 18 January 1936, 'Without glass, indeed, there could have been no
Gothic."9 The quality of light in Gothic buildings, especially cathedrals, was determined
primarily by the available glass, by the intention of the architect to use as much glass as
possible, and, hence, the structure thus necessitated. By using a structural framework
consisting of massive masonry piers that provided primary support of the building, the space
between these piers could be one huge window. Exterior and interior reveals were splayed in
both plan and section, resulting in better spreading of the light. Glass "lights" were made no
larger than eight inches square, and so were held together by lead strips, producing the
intricacy we recognize. Moldings, also splayed, were needed to keep off the rain because
these lead Joints leaked badly. They also "captured" more natural light, and reflected it into
the interior spaces. The pointed arch from the vaults of the Church itself was carried
consistently in the window; a gable carried the runoff from the window head. Since the glass
was small, and lead -framed, there was a problem of rigidity. As a result, lead glazed panels
could not be more than 2'6" square. This finally determined the minimum spacing of the
stone mullions that held the tracery together. The perception of these windows was not as a

void, as there would have been had the panes been much larger, as is common today. "The
beauty of the Gothic window, so far as the exterior is concerned is that it presents a textured
surface sufficiently individual to emphasize the window opening and sufficiently patterned to
curtain the void."' After the War of the Roses in the late fifteenth century, there was no longer
in England the worry of attack, and thus the necessity for fortification was far less pressing.
Windows were free to be as large as was desired and practical.

Figure 2-5 A Gothic -style window at Yale shows external splaying of stone elements, which increases

interior illumination

Demand for glass continued to grow, and more foreigners, especially Frenchmen,
were brought over to England to impart their skill to the English manufacturers. It was with
the advent of the sliding sash window and the availability of larger panes of glass, that
English windows underwent their most significant metamorphosis. Window bars began to
shrink. It was no longer necessary for reasons of structure, rigidity, or formality to take up as
much as 30% of a window opening with hers. The trend moved towards minimal glazing
bars, still separating small panes, but producing greater illumination inside a room. In the
midst of the growth in the use of windows and the corresponding increase in interior natural
lighting, the unique English Window Tax of 1697 was enacted. This levy proved to be a
significant restraint on the trend in progress, and more of a burden on the lower classes, who
were already behind the rich in quantity of fenestration. Due to the expense of glass, window
size had become a matter of prestige: large windows implied wealth and influence. The
window tax was imposed on homes with more than six windows, and was worth over at
5/year.
This tax checked the use of windows, but did not alter their design. Existing windows
were bricked up; new houses were built with depressions in the brickwork, corresponding to the
windows that would have been there if the owner had felt inclined to meet the tax, or ready for

piercing if the tax should be removed; but it remained until 1851 -- a severe and unhealthy limitation
on house design.

It is important to note that the tax was on the number of windows, not on their
area. As a result, the English architect found ways of circumventing the law, even within the
restrictions it imposed, and thereby advanced the evolution of the window.
Windows on ground -floor rooms became taller, rising from skirting level and
terminating just below the cornice line: ... This deliberate attempt to admit light as near the ceiling as
possible on ground- floor rooms suggests that Georgian architects were anxious to make the most use
of available natural light.

Georgian architects developed further another aspect of window design that adds to
the quality as well as quantity of natural light in a room: the splay- ed reveal. As we saw in
the example of the Norman window, this device not only further spreads the light entering a
room, but it aids in the reduction of sky glare by "grading" the contrast between the window
and the adjacent dark wall, and by reducing one's direct view of the sky. The internal shutters
of- ten used in darkening the window were integral to the design, folding back in- to these
reveals.
Bay windows had been introduced as early as 1401 in England, and went through
several stages of evolution during the ensuing 400 years. During the eighteenth century they
became increasingly popular, and were often used in one of two forms: semi -hexagonal (late
Victorian) or curved (Regency).

Figure 2-6 (left) These shutters fold back into the reveals of the window. They are also adjustable like

venetian blinds. (right) Both types of bays are seen on this facade on Boston's Beacon Hill.

The Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century improved glass quality to the point that,
due to increased size, strength, and clarity, mullions became unnecessary:
This technical achievement provided an opportunity for an entirely new approach to
window design; but Victorian architects continued to think of windows as a pattern of apertures in an

elevation, they were obsessed by the conventional idea of fenestration, interpreting that term in a
purely drawing -board sense, and rejecting the possibilities contemporary industry disclosed.

The Victorians were not the only architects to stick to traditional modes of building in
spite of technological advances: the Classical Revivalists did likewise. In fact, the same was
true in this country and continues to be the case wherever an earlier style is emulated or
revived, even though the raisons d'etre for the style are no longer extant nor even
comprehended.
2.3.3 Dutch, Venetian, and Japanese Design Developments
The Dutch were sensitive to the issue of natural light, and were responsible for
some major design developments in this area. Due to its proximity to the sea, much of
Holland's land area was created by reclamation. As cities like Amsterdam grew, the structure
found most efficient for housing and occupying the ground area was a tall, narrow row house
with a gabled roof. The natural result of such design was that all the day- light in these houses
had to come from the gable ends of the building, front and rear. The lower floors were for
living purposes only, and had high ceilings, often as much as 14 feet. The upper floors were
primarily for the storage of goods. Early in the history of Dutch windows, glass was used
sparingly due to extreme expense. In all cases, however, its use was designed so as to
maximize the penetration of natural light. In the sixteenth century, only the upper half of the
windows was glazed; the lower was closed by shutters.

Figure 2-7 Dutch Windows - Elevation (left)

Later, the lower half was glazed with inward -opening casements, but the shutters remained.
Often, the upper part also had shutters, which opened inward. All of these light -control
devices were combined with heavy drapes and curtains to produce a four -framed window
with an almost infinite number of possible configurations. Each time of day, type of weather,
and variety of task being performed demanded a particular type of lighting, and this
extremely flexible system provided this variety. Several characteristics of these Dutch

windows are of particular importance in this discussion of designing with daylight. First,
these windows extended right up to the ceiling, providing even light over the entire room.
Second, the windows often stretched from one load -bearing side wall to the other: since the
end walls did not support anything but their own weight, this was a very efficient use of
structural infill. The light thus produced/ filtered/ controlled has particular qualities that are
familiar to 'many of us through the paintings of Vermeer and Rembrandt. One always sees the
light playing over the Objects and figures in the painting, and senses the source, but the
window itself is rarely seen. Each painting has a special kind of light, and it is possible to
deduce for each one precisely which combination of open and closed shutters produced that
specific illumination pattern.
This "Dutch lighting" was characteristically high on the wall and, combined with lightcolored side walls and ceilings, gave good modeling, as well as reasonable light penetration
to the rear of the room.
Other cultures have specific attitudes about natural light that provide contrasts to the
preceding examples. The Japanese have aided the penetration of natural light into the deeper
parts of their houses through the use of translucent sliding screens. Clearly, acoustical privacy
is not as important there as is symbolic physical privacy. The "sharing" of light, in this case,
both divides and unifies the interior space.
2.3.4 History of American Natural Lighting
In the early years of the American colonies, the use of windows paralleled their use in
England. The quality of light that is associated with early Colonial houses was largely
dictated by the prevailing styles of architecture in the British Isles, and by the availability of
window glass. The first "lights," or panes of glass, came from the mother country in 1638,
and were small, diamond -shaped, and low in quality. Much of this early American window
glass was blue or purple, and contained many impurities.
Most colonists used oiled parchment as window closure. And, if they wanted glass
(and could afford it), they had to bring it over themselves. Even in 1629, glass windows had
not yet reached any of the more remote parts of England, so it is no wonder that immigrants
to this country were advised to transport their own glass.

Figure 2-8 although these are not the original diamond -shaped lights, they refer back to early 17th

century windows.

The most common type of window was the hinged casement: these casements
were usually grouped in pairs except at the ends of the house. Dormers, when used during the
seventeenth century, were present in proportion to the number of roofs on the top floor of the
house; in end chimney houses, 1 dormer; in central -chimney houses, 2 dormers. In central
chimney saltboxes, people generally put windows wherever they needed light indoors,
without regard for symmetry on the out- side. Sash windows had replaced the tiny -paned
casement.. but only the lower part of the window moved; the upper portion remained fixed."
Whereas window placement in early American homes was based on local need for
light, architects of the Georgian and Federal periods were more concerned with regularity and
symmetry of the window arrangement. Most windows of this time were square -headed, and
were used singly in building facades. The only exceptions to these square -headed windows,
before 1750, were occasional arched windows, placed alone, often over stair landings.

Figure 2-9 lighting through palladian windows

Palladian windows then began to appear, marked by a large, arched -head central window,
and two smaller side lights. These disappeared, for the most part. By 1800, and the only use
of triple windows was with square -headed central windows.

2.4 Characteristics of Natural Light

Reinforced concrete, as a material of construction, offered structural advantages that
brought in a host of possibilities to the design of different spaces. The plasticity of concrete
was used to mold it into different shapes thus bringing new forms to be seen in modern
architecture. In this homogeneous structural envelope, architects found new ways to carve out
openings for light that could transform the quality of spaces inside a built form. The
monochromatic surface provides a neutral ground to study the characteristics of natural light
which are highlighted to an even greater degree as there is little deviation in the reflective
properties of a built space while comparing different projects.
2.4.1 Defining the parts of Natural Light - Sunlight and Skylight
The natural light chat enters a room from the sky consists of two basic parts. They are
(1) Direct sunlight (insolation) and
(2) Diffuse sky-light.
People often assume that sunlight and skylight can be used synonymously. In
reality, they have very different physical properties and different effects on design. The most
important differences are their intensity, their color, and the extent to which their light is
scattered, or diffused.
The sun is considered a point source of light, often referred to as beam sunlight,
because it is highly directional. Light from the sky, on the other hand, arrives from a large
area and is more or less diffuse, meaning scattered and arriving from all directions.

Figure 2-10 beams of direct sunlight can be magical

Beam light will cast a shadow; diffuse light will not cast a distinct shadow. The
intensity of sunlight varies with time of year and location on the planet. It is most intense at
noon in the tropics when the sun is high overhead and at high altitudes in thin air, and least

intense in the winter in the arctic, when the suns light takes the longest path through the
atmosphere. On a clear, sunny day, the "warmth" of sunlight plus the "coolness" of skylight
give correct color rendering. By carefully orienting a window or a roof -light, one can allow
for the penetration of both elements of natural light, if so desired. (Golstein, 1976)
2.4.2 Dynamics of Natural Light
Another quality of natural light that distinguishes it from artificial lighting is its
dynamic nature. Shifting clouds that momentarily obscure the sun, sudden thunderstorms, the
slowly setting sun, all remind us of the uncontrollable, continually changing weather. This
characteristic that is found so pleasant is also what provided constant impetus for the
development of controllable, predictable artificial light sources. It is argued that because of
its limited duration (1/2 day), and its variation during the seasons, natural light is not an
economically effective light source. These dynamics also prove to be a problem from the
point of view of precise rendering of colors; the eye can recognize colors under different
kinds of natural illumination, but it is not suitable for precise scientific work involving color.
Of course, we may all agree that its advantages far outweigh its dis- advantages; indeed, the
characteristics that are interpreted as one or the other may be the same! Nevertheless, all of
the problems with natural light led one lighting expert to state in 1964 that "Natural lighting
is becoming a lax- It must be noted that this opinion was consistent with the American trend
of placing more importance on high quality, evenly -distributed artificial lighting than on the
quality of interior illumination. This stance has become inappropriate if we desire livable
environments with energy conservation.

2.5 Environmental Factors Affecting Natural Light

The environment (natural) is contrasted with the built environment, which comprises
the areas and components that are strongly influenced by humans. Various aspects of the
environment which affect the lighting of a building are sunlight, change/ variety of
environment and building orientation. It is the purpose here to illustrate these aspects in more
detail.
2.5.1 Sunlight Effect
In his major work Sunlight as Form giver for Architecture, Bill Lam asks the
question . . . The Sun: Problem or Opportunity? And then proceeds to show how the answer

can really be both, depending very much on the location of the building. Clearly in hot
climates where the sun is overhead for much of the day the problem is not so much one of
welcome, but of exclusion.
In Britain where the sun is all too rare the answer must clearly be one of welcome
and an early decision when an architect is planning the orientation of his building is to
encourage the entry of sunlight. Sunlight adds to the overall level of light when it is available,
and adds to those other environmental factors such as variety and change, modeling and the
creation of delight. There is a different level of experience when getting up in the morning to
a sunlit world, as experienced from the interior of a building, and it is important that an
element of sunlight is available for some part of the day.
Architects have used the sunlight effect in buildings to create a specific atmosphere,
as for example the shafts of light entering the south side of our great cathedrals; and on a
much smaller scale the use in houses of natural light and sunlight entry from above to provide
necessary functional light to interior areas, where otherwise little natural light would be
available.
The impression of sunlight is also important seen from windows which themselves
admit no sunlight, but where the view of a sunlit landscape or buildings may be enjoyed.
Whenever sunlight is available there is a strong desire to perceive it, and disappointment
when it is unnecessarily excluded.
To sum up, the need for the admission of sunlight is important; the architect must
consider this as a first requirement in planning the location and layout of the building, but in
certain circumstances controls will be needed. (Phillips, 2004)
Knowledge of sun paths for any site is fundamental in designing building facades to
let in light and passive solar gain, as well as reducing glare and overheating to the building
interior. It is important to remember that the position of the sun in the sky is dynamic,
changing according to time of day, time of year and the sites latitude. We observe the sun in
the northern hemisphere with regards to its paths. The tilt of the earth causes the seasons
which constitutes the difference in the sun paths.
The sun paths are different due to factors such as the:
1) Location (local latitude)
2) Rising and setting position (based on the time of the year)
3) Duration of the day and night

Figure 2-11 the sun in the northern hemisphere

The ever changing path of the Sun is a result of our seasons. The earth as a whole
receives the same amount of sunlight every day and every year. The apparent movement of
the sun around the earth is relative and due to the earths rotation and orbit. The seasonal
differences in the daily path of the sun are due to the tilt of the earths axis.
2.5.2 Change and Variety
Perhaps the most obvious and certainly the most important aspect of natural light
is its capacity for change, leading to the infinite variety in appearance of the natural light of
the interior. Change is at the heart of natural light, the human body has a capacity for
adaptation, particularly in vision, and the need to exercise this response. Perception reacts to
a degree of change; it is the natural order of things that the appearance of interior spaces alter
with time; and if we have confidence in their continuing reality, it is because change in their
lit appearance allows us to continue an exploration of the spaces we inhabit; an entirely
different measure of experience to the static qualities of spaces lit entirely by artificial
sources of light during the day; or where there is no access to the natural light outside. There
is a natural process of renewal in the photochemical processes of the eye as it adapts to
accommodate changes in natural light. First there is the natural change from day to night,
from first light until dark and the need for artificial sources to take over when natural light
fades. Then there are the changes associated with changes of the weather; from bright sunny
days to dark and cloudy or rainy days, there is little doubt that the human spirit soars when
rising in the morning on a bright day, an experience which is less likely to happen when it is
dark and gloomy outside.

Closely associated with changes in the weather are those of the changes of season,
from the winter snows to summer sunlight; each season will have its own character, which as
human beings we accommodate to in our own way (Error! Reference source not
found.Error! Reference source not found.); but what is important is that the world outside,
as experienced through the window, provides necessary information of the variety of the
exterior world; whilst leading to subtle changes in the appearance of the interior. (Phillips,
2004)

2.6 Effect of Building Orientation on Lighting

The importance of orientation in a building must be considered at the outset, when the
architect is planning the location of the building on the site, the aim being to ensure the
maximum availability of useful natural light and sunlight to the interior. There may of course
be severe restrictions where the building is set into a rigid street pattern, or where there are
severe external obstructions; but even in these circumstances the best use of the natural light
available should be considered. The architect will have the greatest flexibility to get the
building orientation right on a Greenfield site, where he can plan the site layout to take
advantage of the sun path and the availability of the natural light.
2.6.1 Introduction
Taking an example from residential buildings in the northern hemisphere, and using
the simple fact that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west, it would be normal to ensure
that those rooms which might benefit most from early morning light, such as a kitchen,
morning room or even bedrooms, are placed on the east side, whilst those more likely to be
used in the afternoon or evening such as living rooms face south or west.
There will of course be debate about the desirability of selecting a specific orientation
for a particular use of room and it will be up to the architect to discuss this with his client,
and there may also be conflict with the orientation of a room when associated with the ability
to enjoy a particular view.
As with all architecture a compromise will need to be established which best fits the
needs of the interior function. What is essential is that the orientation of a building and the
interior layout takes most advantage of the natural light available and is a factor taken into
consideration at the outset of the building design.

Each architectural programme whether an office, school or church, will have its own
specific needs of orientation, and this is of special significance where the interior function is
one requiring the inhabitants to sit in fixed positions, often the case in offices or classrooms.
Another aspect of orientation and one where the mere presence of natural light is reassuring,
is the subconscious desire of people when inside a building to keep in touch with the outside
world, whether to know the time of day or the nature of the weather.
2.6.2

Significance

Well-orientated buildings maximize natural light through building facades reducing the
need for artificial lighting. Some typologies especially housing can be zoned to ensure
different functional uses receive sunlight at different times of the day. Buildings that
maximize sunlight are ideal for the incorporation of passive solar collection techniques that
can reduce carbon use and enhance user comfort. A careful strategy can also mitigate
overheating and glare when sunlight is excessive. You should know how the sun interacts
with your building in high summer and the depths of winter.

Figure 2-12 well oriented buildings

2.6.3 Design Procedure:

Step 1: There is no single design procedure to design for orientation. However, you
need to model your proposal in a package such as Google SketchUp.

Step 2: Ensure the building is properly placed on its site in relation to north and the
location either geographically or in terms of latitude or longitude is entered.

Step 3: Use a sun or shadow tool to model the building at seasonal extremities.

Step 4: Remember orientation is about protection and mitigation of sunlight in

buildings as well as accommodating solar gain.

2.7 Summary
This chapter focuses on understanding of natural light. Throughout the history of architecture,
natural light has been dealt in different ways to achieve the desired effect inside a built form.
New materials have been used in innovative ways while experimenting with color, texture,
and reflective properties of the surface to create an interesting play of light and shadow.
Reinforced concrete is one such medium that brought in a new kind of flexibility in dealing
with the overall form, design, and placement of the different openings while exploring the
effect of natural light inside a building. In pursuing this investigation, this chapter addressed
five major subtopics. First, is to define the natural light and the need for it. Second, is to
understand the characteristics of natural light by defining the parts and dynamics of natural
light to illuminate different spaces. Third, is to explore environmental factors affecting the
natural light and the effect of building orientation on lighting.

Chapter-3.

Understanding Building Mass and Punctures

Architecture is the masterly, correct and magnificent play of masses brought together
in light. Our eyes are made to see forms in light; light and shade reveal these forms; cubes,
cones, spheres, cylinders or pyramids are the great primary forms which light reveals to
advantage; the image of these is distinct and tangible within us and without ambiguity. It is
for that reason that these are beautiful forms, the most beautiful forms.

3.1 Defining Building Mass

When a building is entered, floor, supports, walls, and a ceiling are seen, all of
which can be studied and perhaps enjoyed, while the space, in the sense that one is
accustomed to think of it, is void: the absence of mass, filled by air. Mass combines with
shape to define form. Mass refers to the size or physical bulk of a building, and can be
understood as the actual size, or size relative to context. This is where scale comes into play
in our perception of mass.

Figure 3-1 Buildings of different sizes

The apparent mass of a building is determined by the actual size of the building, and
whether or not the building shapes and facades are simple or broken into more varied
formsa building should appear to be proportional, or in scale, with other buildings in the
neighborhood.
The exterior of a single building, particularly one that is isolated from other
architecture, does not create a space. It occupies the space of nature. Thus, it may be
experienced as sculpture, in terms of the play of the exterior of a single building, particularly
one that is isolated from other architecture, does not create a space. It occupies the space of
nature. Thus, it may be experienced as sculpture, in terms of the play of masses in a void. The
aesthetics of masses, like that of spaces, is rooted in ones psychology. When a tall tree or a

mountain is called majestic and a rocky cliff menacing, human attributes are being projected.
Man inevitably humanizes inert matter and so gives the architect the opportunity to arouse
predictable patterns of experience.
The appreciation of mass, like that of space, depends on movement, but this movement
must be physical. It cannot be experienced in anticipation, because, no matter where one
stands to observe even the simplest building, part of it is out of sight. The mass of a complex
building is differently composed from every point of view. The 20th-century art critic
Sigfried Giedion, emphasizing the need for movement in experiencing modern architecture,
suggested that architecture may be four-dimensional, since time (for movement) is as
meaningful as the spatial dimensions. in a void. The aesthetics of masses, like that of spaces,
is rooted in ones psychology. When a tall tree or a mountain is called majestic and a rocky
cliff menacing, human attributes are being projected. Man inevitably humanizes inert matter
and so gives the architect the opportunity to arouse predictable patterns of experience.

3.2 Additions and subtractions in building mass

Structure is the generator of form and space. The structural form needs to be
conceived in a manner that it takes into consideration the internal layout and spatial
configuration rather than just dominating the building design. The outer wall, or the structural
membrane, needs to be planned from the interior as well as the exterior in terms of shaping
space and bringing in daylight.
3.2.1 Subtractive Forms
Generally people search for regularity and continuity in the forms/ masses they see
within the field of vision. If any of the primary solids is partially hidden from the view of a
person, he tend to complete its form and visualize it as if it were whole because the mind fills
in what the eyes do not see (Figure 3-2). In a similar manner, when regular forms have
fragments missing from their volumes, they retain their formal identities if they are perceived
as incomplete wholes. These mutilated forms are referred as subtractive forms.

Figure 3-2 the sphere, The pyramid and the cuboid retains their identity even if the base portion of the

solids is removed.

Because they are easily recognizable, simple geometric forms, such as the primary solids,
adapt readily to subtractive treatment. These forms will retain their formal identities if
portions of their volumes are removed without deteriorating their edges, corners, and overall
profile.

Figure 3-3 a portion is subtracted from each of the cuboidal form at their profile edges.

Ambiguity regarding the original identity of a form will result if the portion removed from its
volume erodes its edges and drastically alters its profile.

Figure 3-4 the imaginary lines forming the original profile

Spatial volumes may be subtracted from a form to create recessed entrances, positive
courtyard spaces, or window openings shaded by the vertical and horizontal surfaces of the
recess.

Figure 3-5 House at Stabio, Switzerland, 1981, Mario Botta

3.2.2 Additive Forms

While a subtractive form results from the removal of a portion of its original volume, an
additive form is produced by relating or physically attaching one or more subordinate forms
to its volume. The basic possibilities for grouping two or more forms are by:

Figure 3-6 physical attaching of two cubes in plan

3.2.2.1 Spatial Tension

This type of relationship relies on the close proximity of the forms or their sharing of a
common visual trait, such as shape, color, or material.

Figure 3-7 two forms combine to form a mixed geometry

3.2.2.2 Edge To Edge Contact

In this type of relationship the forms share a common edge and can pivot about that edge. In
the Figure 3-8 shown below two cubes are attached at one of their edges to form mix
geometry.

Figure 3-8 two cubes attached at one of their cornices

3.2.2.3 Face To Face Contact

This type of relationship requires that the two forms corresponding planar surfaces which are
parallel to each other.

Figure 3-9 two solids attached by overlapping faces

3.2.2.4 Interlocking Volumes

In this type of relationship, the form interpenetrates other's space. The forms need not share
any visual trait.

Figure 3-10 two solids overlap one another by their volume

Additive forms resulting from the accretion of discrete elements can be characterized by their
ability to grow and merge with other forms. To perceive additive groupings as unified
compositions of formas figures in our visual fieldthe combining elements must be
related to one another in a coherent manner. These diagrams categorize additive forms
according to the nature of the relationships that exist among the component forms as well as
their overall configurations.

Centralized form- a number of secondary forms clustered around a dominant, central

parent form.

Linear form- a series of forms arranged sequentially in a row.

Radial form- a composition of linear forms extending outward from a central form in
a radial manner.

Clustered form- a collection of forms grouped together by proximity or the sharing

of a common visual trait.

Grid form- a set of modular forms related and regulated by a 3-dimensional grid.

Figure 3-11 different configurations of additive forms

3.3 Defining Punctures in Building Mass

Building mass and Space is a very large and abstract concept. It is also difficult to
define architectural space. It is not the opposite of volume. It is not a void, and a void without
light is not a black space. It is not sufficient to make a hole in the envelope of a void to turn it
into space. It is the light coming in through the puncture/ hole that turns the void into a space,
because the space is the light. Space and light are synonyms. The way light is seen is the way
that space is perceived and felt. Of course, in the organization of a building there are other
concepts like sequences, transitions, and many others. But even spatial sequences can be seen
as sequences of light, and of transitions of light. Building forms that serve as containers can
be read as masses that define volumes of space. (Ching, 1996)

3.4 Categorization of Punctures in a Building

Punctures/ voids that can be provided in a buildings mass are categorized based on its
provision in the planes, at corners and those between the planes. This changes the quality of
the light inside the spaces and the effect produced.
3.4.1 Within planes
A puncture can be located wholly within a wall or roof plane and be surrounded
on all sides by the surface of the plane. It often appears as a bright figure on a contrasting
field or background. If centered within the plane, the opening will appear stable and visually
organize the surface around it. Moving the opening off -center will create a degree of visual
tension between the opening and the edges of the plane toward which it is moved.

Figure 3-12 Punctures provided within planes

The shape of the opening, if similar to the shape of the plane in which it is located, will
create a redundant compositional pattern. The shape or orientation of the opening may
contrast with the enclosing plane to emphasize its individuality as a figure. The singularity of
the opening may be visually reinforced with a heavy frame or articulated trim work.

Figure 3-13 use of timber frames for openings or articulated masonry trim work

Multiple openings may be clustered to form a unified composition within a plane, or be

staggered or dispersed to create visual movement along the surface of the plane. The
dispersed/ staggered openings can be used to create rhythm by providing the openings at
regular intervals which results in visual movement along the surfaces.

Figure 3-14 clustered and staggered openings creating visual movement on the

planes surface

As an opening within a plane increases in size, it will at some point cease to be a figure
within an enclosing field and becomes instead a positive element in itself, a transparent plane
bounded by a heavy frame.

Figure 3-15 gradual increase in the size of an opening

Openings within planes naturally appear brighter than their adjacent surfaces. If the contrast
in brightness along the edges of the openings becomes excessive, the surfaces can be
illuminated by a second light source from within the space or a deep-set opening can be
formed to create illuminated surfaces between the opening and the surrounding plane.

Figure 3-16 openings on a plane creating contrast with adjacent surfaces

3.4.2 At corners
A puncture can be located along one edge or at a corner of a wall or ceiling plane. In either
case, it will be at a corner of a space. These openings can be a single one or can be a group/
cluster of openings provided at the corner of a plane along one edge/ two edges.

Figure 3-17 Punctures provided at corners of a plane

Openings that are located at corners give a space and the planes in which they are located a
diagonal orientation. This directional effect may be desirable for compositional reasons, or
the corner opening may be established to capture a desirable view or brighten a dark corner of
a space.

Figure 3-18 directional openings can be used for capturing views or to brighten a dark space

A corner opening visually erodes the edges of plane in which it is located and articulates the
edge of the plane adjacent and perpendicular to it. The larger tie opening, the weaker will be
the definition of the corner. If the opening were to turn the corner, the angle of the space
would be implied rather than real and the spat field would extend beyond its enclosing planes.

Figure 3-19 openings to turn the corners

If openings are introduced between the enclosing planes at all four corners of a space, the
individual identity of the planes will be reinforced and diagonal or pin wheel patterns of
space use, and movement will be encouraged. The light that enters a space through a corner
opening washes the surface of the plane adjacent and perpendicular to the opening. This
illuminated surface itself becomes a source of light and enhances the brightness of the space.
The level of illumination can be enhanced further by turning the corner with the opening or
adding a skylight above the opening.

Figure 3-20 the light washes the surface of the plane adjacent and perpendicular to the opening

3.4.3 Between Planes

A puncture can extend vertically between the floor and ceiling planes or horizontally between
two wall planes. It can grow in size to occupy an entire wall.

Figure 3-21 Punctures provided between planes

A vertical opening that extends from the floor to the ceiling plane of a space visually
separates and articulates the edges of the adjacent wall planes.

Figure 3-22 vertical opening can be in the middle or at the corner and extends from the floor

to ceiling plane

If located at a corner, the vertical opening will erode the definition of the space and allow it
to extend beyond the corner to the adjacent space. It will also allow incoming light to wash
the surface of the wall plane perpendicular to it and articulate the primacy of that plane in the
space. If allowed to turn the corner, the vertical opening will further erode the definition of
the space, allow it to interlock with adjacent spaces, and emphasize the individuality of the
enclosing planes.

Figure 3-23 the light washes the surface of the wall plane perpendicular to it and articulate

the primacy of that plane in the space.

A horizontal opening that extends across a wall plane will separate it into a number of
horizontal layers. If the opening is not very deep, it will not erode the integrity of the wall
plane. If, however, its depth increases to the point where it is greater than the bands above
and below it, then the opening will become a positive element bounded at its top and bottom
by heavy frames.

Figure 3-24 horizontal opening can be in the middle or at the corner and extends

across a wall plane

Turning a corner with a horizontal opening reinforces the horizontal layering of a space and
broadens the panoramic view from within the space. If the opening continues around the
space, it will visually lift the ceiling plane from the wall planes, isolate it, and give it a feeling
of lightness.

Figure 3-25 the ceiling plane is lift visually from the wall planes, and creates a feeling of lightness.

Locating a linear skylight along the edge where a wall and ceiling plane meet allows
incoming light to wash the surface of the wall, illuminate it, and enhance the brightness of the
space. The form of the skylight can be manipulated to capture direct sunlight, indirect light or
a combination of both.

Figure 3-26 light coming from the opening in the ceiling plane washes the surface of the wall

3.5 Summary
This chapter focused on the use of natural light in its different manifestations inside the built
environment in the context of the provision of punctures/ holes. It also dealt with the
combination/ subtraction of masses in the manner in which the natural light was controlled to
create different effects inside a built environment.

Chapter-4.

Effect of Building Mass and Punctures on Lighting

Concrete and steel brought in much needed freedom to the form and design of
different spaces. Openings for light were no longer restricted to a horizontal plane, as the case
was with the traditional windows, but would exist based on the relation between the exterior
and the interior bringing in varied light from all different planes. Openings of different sizes
and orientations were used to transform the natural light as it was brought inside the building
that gave these spaces a unique character.

4.1 Study of Lighting in Different Styles of World Architecture through History

The ancient civilizations reveal some of the most interesting transitions in the way
light is brought inside a space. The use of openings both large and small helped in creating
different effects that revealed the intensity with which light was made to enter a building.
4.1.1 Egypt
In ancient Egypt, the openings of light were restricted by the limited freedom offered
by the structure as well as the harsh climate. This brought in soft and diffused sunlight
through the thick walls of masonry, as in the process of transformation the rays of sun would
go through multiple side reflections. Clerestory openings with carved grills would bring in
soft light deep inside the large temples thus reinforcing the geometrical sequence of spaces
inside. (Moore, 1985)
According to Baker and Steemers, the Egyptian temples depict innovative use of light
on a grand scale that shows deep understanding of the effects of sunlight in the desert
landscape. The intensity of the sunlight has been used to reveal the three dimensional forms
by the contrast of light and shadow inside the built space. The building form and the
sequence of spaces were planned in a manner that accentuates the processional movement
from light to dark. (Baker, 2002)
4.1.2 Greece
The mild climate of Greece made it possible to bring in strong narrow shafts of light. The
temples oriented towards the east allowed the rays of the rising sun to enter through the
doorway and shine brightly over the statues. Diffuse sky light and reflected ground light
would reveal the decorated and ornamented forms of the structure. The planning principles

revolved around the use of sundial so that winter sun could penetrate deep inside the spaces.
(Moore, 1985)
Baker and Steemers point out the use of strong daylight in the Greek temples to reveal
the depth of the faade. The shadows created by the layers of closely spaced columns in the
front of the stone walls further accentuate this effect. The sharply fluted channels on the
column shafts are revealed in profile through the change in the light and shade patterns of the
vertical lines. (Baker, 2002)
4.1.3 Rome
The structural limitations of the post and beam construction made it impossible to have
large openings so most of the interior spaces were dimly lit. This changed with the
advancements made in Roman Period. Whereas the use of sunlight in the Egyptian and Greek
monuments was to reveal the exterior form and surface modeling through the play of light
and shade, the Roman and Gothic monuments depict the integrity of the structure and the way
light is brought inside a space. (Baker, 2002)
The architectural developments in Rome show a careful understanding of the principles
involved in natural lighting and solar passive heating. The structural advantages gave way to
large column less interiors and window openings that could bring in sheets of light deep
inside a space. Skylight and concealed clearstory windows were used to make the path of
light visible inside a space. The Pantheon stands as a strong example that illustrates this
effect. (Moore, 1985)
4.1.4 Early Christian
The basilica building type during the Early Christian architecture was one of the prominent
forms that came to be associated with a particular building type, religious in this case. It was
an attempt at improvisation with the timber trusses replacing the roman concrete vaulting that
resulted in reduced wall area for the clerestory windows. The low levels of light inside the
building served to enhance the mystical nature of the spatial layout by reinforcing the linear
perspective towards the altar and religious functions, which were associated with the apse
that received greater visual emphasis due to the windows surrounding its semicircular plan.
(Moore, 1985)

4.1.5 Byzantine
The Byzantine architecture was characteristic of the use of dome supported at only four
points covering a rectangular plan form. This allowed small stained-glass light openings at
the base of the dome making it appear to float above the supporting structure. During the
Romanesque period minor changes took place in the layout of the basilican church plan.
Windows were relatively small thus keeping the mystical quality of the space intact. (Moore,
1985)
4.1.6 Gothic
Baker and Steemers provide a detailed account of how the symbolism and imagery of
light and dark were used as ideal vehicles to express religious mysteries and to inspire
devotion. They support this view by a quote from Watkin (2005, p.126), The elimination of
the massive wall structure and the frontality of Romanesque churches in favor of a lighter and
more diaphanous structure with an emphasis on diagonal lines and views. The use of stained
glass to create a colored and mysterious quality of space can be seen as a predominant effect
to achieve an association of God with light.
The Gothic period saw a tremendous improvement in the structural sophistication of
stone masonry. The wall was freed of its traditional role of supporting the roof allowing for
large expanse of stained glass openings. The east west orientation of the gothic cathedrals
resulted in higher levels of illumination with the light entering through the windowed faade
on the south. (Moore, 1985)
4.1.7 Renaissance
The experimentation with light quality continued through the Renaissance period. The
thick walls and ceilings allowed for deeply recessed light openings thus allowing for dramatic
quality of light that was used to emphasize forms not previously seen. The dome structure
was made of two different shells thus carving out a complex path for daylight to enter
through the upper portion of the dome. (Moore, 1985)
The association of light was more in terms of a metaphysical link between the object
and soul and as an enhancement of the sense of life. The symbolic association of light
defining the eternal grew obsolete. The emphasis was on the qualities of nature that formed
the basis for linking and evoking emotional response to light. There was a revival of interest

in the visual harmony and proportion that resulted in the effective manipulation of daylight to
emphasize form and dramatize space. (Baker, 2002)
4.1.8 Baroque
The series of investigations beginning with the premises of Borromini had light as their
central concern. The extremely refined technique of fusing incident and reflected light in the
same spatial enclosure demonstrated the increasing control of light in relation to the achieved
effect. In the last decades of the eighteenth century, light was brought into the space from the
openings that were regulated based on the modular proportioning of the faade.
The architecture in Baroque was characterized by a sculptural exuberance and
dynamic spatial qualities. There was a considerable emphasis on the articulation of the form
that provided greater control of light as it entered the space through the overlapping layers of
enclosure. The mysterious quality of light introduced from the perforated vaults in an
indefinite spatial enclosure was used to signify transcendence from the earth to the heaven.
The use of large number of deeply recessed openings to diffusely illuminate the interior
created an atmosphere of illusion and mystery. Most of the sculptural decorations were
illuminated through the use of oblique light rays emphasizing the three dimensional forms
through light and shade. (Baker, 2002)

4.2 Case Studies of Todays Existing Buildings

The architectural research focused on light as the central theme in the period that is
known as Expressionism that spanned before and after the First World War. Until this point,
light was associated of a dialectic nature, emerging from the shadows and having
metaphysical connotations. This changed with the early works of Corbuiser and Gropius, as
the efforts to build a new society were achieved by means of production. The theme of
transparency and light became predominant in a vocabulary that followed from the reduction
of architecture to a figurative art. Gropius Bauhaus, Rietvelds Schrder House, the Villa
Savoye by Le Corbusier, three of the most celebrated models of functionalism, share the
same conception of light, understood as universal light that describes the geometric
consistency of the architectural object: an ideal midday light, inclined at 45, which
penetrates the interior without changing quality, since all divisions between the interior and
exterior are temporary and occasional, and do not separate different worlds, but at most
distinguish zones, separate a microclimate within the same environment.

Although there were a number of architects that made significant contributions, it is

not possible to list each of their work individually. This section of the literature review
attempts to delve deep into the works of Le Corbusier, Louis I. Kahn and Tadao Ando. It is
aimed at providing a better understanding of the existing literature on the way these three
master architects manipulated the effect of natural light inside their buildings.

4.2.1 Le Corbusier
The works of Le Corbusier are described in many books as a way that light becomes the
language expressed in his architecture. Transparency retained its symbolic value in the early
projects by Corbusier such as Geneva Apartment building in which clarity of light has been
used to provide meanings of form to different objects. Transparency and light in the
functionalist code are, however, intellectual symbols that aim not at evoking impressions,
sensations and emotions, but merely at confirming an affirmation of a principle that identifies
light with hygiene and habitability, and with the moral call to the necessity that nothing
remain mysterious and hidden in the development of social relationships, in the operation of
great machine of human society. (Portoghesi, 1994)
The earlier work of Le Corbusier, that found a common expression with other
architects working under the banner of International style, can be associated with the concept
of luminosity and clarity of a space. This was in direct contrast to the dialectic nature of light
that was aimed at expressing a space through contrast of light and shadow rather than a
uniform blanket of white light impoverishing the effects of light. Portghesi (1994) lists art
deco as one of the important movements in the 1920s that aimed at the improvisation of the
traditional models to the current function and taste of modern society, which finally led to the
revival of interest in the varied effects of light and shadow from the universal, technological
and absolute light of the International style.
The period after the Second World War saw some of the great examples that were to
bring back all that was lost in the sole pursuit for achieving the transparent light effects. The
four buildings, Le Corbusiers chapel at Ronchamp, Altos church at Imatra, Eero Saarinens
chapel at M.I.T., and the first Unitarian Church in Madison by Frank Llyod Wright, all
religious in character, were attempts at exploring the mystical character of the space through
the light-shadow dialectic.
At Ronchamp, Le Corbusier lets light enter from slits that seem carved out by the light
itself, interpreted as a crystalline pyramidal block, or better, as beams of glass blades spread

apart, which cut the wall, making its inertia and materiality stand out in contrast If, with
the perforated wall, Le Corbusier seems to have wanted to symbolize human light descending
from on high but reaching us and describing the qualities of our world, another light, divine
light, seems to be symbolic referent of the luminous flux channeled down from those sorts of
hatches rising above the roofing. To the observer looking from below, the light, filtered
through vertical slits, appears pearly and distant, coming from an unfathomable region: a
transcendent, but not triumphant light and binding light, like that of Baroque glorie: a light
projecting the divine within the confines of an existence lived in frustration and desire.
(Portoghesi, 1994)

Figure 4-1 Exterior view from the southwest of Chapel of Notre Dame du Haut

Plummer (2003) lists the chapel at Ronchamp as one of the greatest metaphysical work
of the century which can be seen in light of Le Corbusiers famous dictum that architecture
is the masterly, correct and magnificent play of forms in light.

Figure 4-2 Interior view of the chapel looking towards the south entrance

Another building that defines the new culture of light in which there exists a continuous
relationship between the two dialectic factors, light and matter and light and space, is convent
at La Tourette built by Corbusier in the year 1952-1960. The form work on concrete becomes
all the more evident in the presence of light-shadow dialectic. The surface thus is removed of
the oneness of material as the light in its quest for luminosity reveals a hidden material that
finds co-existence in the imprinted texture of wood on concrete. The building stands as a
testimony to the principles of contemplation and a permanence in the way of life that
followed a precise ritual for which architecture is just the medium. (Portoghesi, 1994)
The Dominican monastery of La Tourette is more severe in its expression with the use of
a single material, and the strength expressed by unfinished concrete coated at times with
plaster. Each basic void is characterized by its own unique light and shadow that brings in
atmospheric richness to a character of total poverty (Plummer 2003). Light and shadow are
loud speakers in the convent at La Tourette as well: they in fact amplify the character of an
uninterrupted chain of different spaces tied to one another by a sort of complementarity, and
underline its extraordinary metric and proportional qualities, realized through the subtle
experience acquired in the theoretical (Portoghesi, 1994) toil of the Modulor.
4.2.2 Louis I. Kahn
For Louis Kahn light is at the base of every architectural effect. It is the very essence
that provides character to a space. The meeting between light and silence could be the
most exact definition of Kahnian space, a space built from carved out volumes and put into
function by the light which joins and blends the separate unities, drawn near each other as in
an ideal inventory. Kahnian light is synonymous with unity, and with space, if this word is
understood as the visible and traversable interior and exterior extension created by
architecture, which like a boundary delimits and identifies it. (Portoghesi, 1994)
Kahn treated light to achieve different effects, especially in the last decade of his life.
Most of the buildings depict the way Kahn treated mass and space; two entities that he
considered as fundamental and apparently antithetical elements out of which architecture was
made. For Kahn, mass was related to the structure in ways similar to space and natural light.
The way structure and light were dealt with in a space defined the basic compositional
element of architecture the room.
The room is the beginning of architecture. It is the place of mind. You in the room with
its dimensions, its structure, its light respond to its character, its spiritual aura, recognizing

that whatever the human proposes and makes becomes a life. The structure of the room must
be evident in the room itself. Structure, I believe, is the giver of light. (Kahn, 1969)
The integration between structure and light is evident from one of his earlier projects,
Trenton Bathhouse, in which the light is washed into the building from the opening between
the wooden pyramidal roofs and the concrete-block walls, though on a smaller scale. The
experiments continued on larger buildings in an even more complex manner with the use of
perforated screens and towering light rooms. The use of silverlit barrel vaults in Kimbell
Museum, the interfingering light patterns in the Exeter library, the luminous coffer of the
Yale Center for Bristish Art, and the glowing pylons of the monument for the Jewish
martyrs, are examples of ways in which Kahn brought the light inside a space.

Figure 4-3 Exterior view from the northwest of Kimbell Museum

4.2.3 Tadao Ando

As we grow less aware of darkness, we forget spatial reverberations and the subtle patterns
created by light and shade. When this happens, everything is uniformly illuminated and
object and form are limited to simple relations. The remedy to this situation is a restoration of
richness to space. (Ando, 1995).
The quote above suggests the struggle in the architecture of Tadao Ando, one which is
aimed at restoring the delicate relation between the light and the dark to give meaning
through depth perceived through the formation of shadows. Modern architecture reached a
stage where the freedom of the form from the structural envelope made way for the use of
structural glazing, thus creating a uniform blanket of light in the interior. Natural light lost its
significance as it hardly differed from the artificial light, both comparable in terms of a
uniform luminance pattern inside a spatial enclosure.

Most of the projects done by Tadao Ando can be seen to serve as innovative design
solutions in light of the present discussion. The perception of the tangible (concrete) and
intangible (light) elements of design, as expressed in his works, can be done in a number of
ways. But a more holistic approach is to understand the underlying design issues in relation to
the overall perception of the built form. This is to analyze the play of form, geometry and the
way light is made to interfere with the physical objects. Most of his projects offer a unique
opportunity to study the realm of architectural lighting in a vocabulary that is pure to the core
in terms of the material and the expression (Ando 1995).
As in the traditional Japanese architecture, the role of light has always been kept the most
sacred especially when it is made to enter the tea house. Paper partitions allow diffused light
to enter the space in a way that reinforces the silence inside. This is the power of light that
can transform an ordinary space into one that invokes strong response from the user. Tadao
Andos architecture restates this phenomenon though on a level where it seems all the more
mystical, and the space is freed of its physical dimensions (Ando 1995).

Figure 4-4 Church of the Light by Tadao Ando

4.3 Summary
Although there were a number of architects who made significant contributions, it is
not possible to list each of their work individually. This chapter attempts to the study of
lighting in different styles of world architecture through history and delve deep into the works
of Le Corbusier, Louis I. Kahn and Tadao Ando. It is aimed at providing a better
understanding of the existing literature on the way these three master architects manipulated
the effect of natural light inside their buildings. Also, the focus is on the use of concrete as a
common material of expression, and the way it is manifested in the overall expression of the
built form.

Chapter-5.

Observations and Discussions

This dissertation discusses the provision and characteristics of natural light in to the
buildings. Throughout the history of architecture, natural light has been dealt in different
ways to achieve the desired effect inside a built form. Reinforced concrete is one of the
mediums that brought a new kind of flexibility in dealing with the overall form, design, and
placement of the different openings while exploring the effect of natural light inside a
building.

5.1 Conclusions from the Case Studies

In pursuing this investigation, the study addressed three major objectives. First, is
to identify the characteristics of natural light to provide inside the building. Second, is to
understand the use of natural light and ways for its provision in the buildings. Third, is to
explore the design considerations for its provision. Following these objectives, the study
developed two hypotheses on the basis of a literature review. The first hypothesis examined
the link between the design of a built form in relation to the quality of natural light inside a
space. The second hypothesis highlighted the way natural light, both direct and diffused, has
been used inside a spatial envelope to provide it as a design element.
To test these hypotheses, the effect of natural light was studied in three buildings
made in the late twentieth century. These three buildings are Chapel of Notre Dame du Haut
Ronchamp by Le Corbusier, Kimbell Art Museum by Louis I. Kahn and Church of the Light
by Tadao Ando.
The results of the analysis show that the three projects employ similar design
principles to achieve some of the common effects of light, and that the listed characteristics
of light in relation to the overall perception of the space do not vary to a great extent when
moving from one project to another. The characteristics of natural light were listed as: (a)
Orientation, (b) Contrast, (c) Color and (d) Variation.

Table 5-1: Orientation

Chapel of Notre Dame du

Haut Ronchamp by Le
Corbusier

Kimbell Art Museum

by Louis I. Kahn

Church of the Light

by Tadao Ando

The chapel is oriented along The Museum building is The church is oriented along
an

east-west

axis

that composed

of

16

cycloid a north south axis with the

connects the confessional in shells oriented along a north- altar placed in front of the
the west wall to the altar south axis.

south wall.

placed in front of the east

wall.
The south and east walls act The movement of the sun is The openings for light are
as receptors for the majority along

the

east-west

axis oriented towards the south,

of sunlight that enters the which is perpendicular to the west, and north direction
chapel

through

the

gap main axis of the spatial with the east wall devoid of

between the roof and the envelope. Thus, the quality of any opening to the exterior.
vertical

surfaces

in

an natural light entering from The different light openings

attempt to break the static the opening on the top of the act as visual accents that help
nature

of

the

enclosed vault remains constant except in

connecting

different

interior space, whereas the for the intensity of light that spaces that define a strong
north and west walls act as changes

with

time.

This circulation

pattern.

This

containers that define the creates a diffused interior creates a unified experience
sacred from the profane in a space where the visitor can of the space.
manner that removes any easily focus on the artwork.
immediate connection with
the outside environment.

Table 5-2: Contrast

Chapel of Notre Dame du

Kimbell Art Museum

by Louis I. Kahn

Haut Ronchamp by Le

Church of the Light

by Tadao Ando

Corbusier.

`There is a good amount of There is a significant amount The

contrast due to the significant of
difference
brightness
foreground

between
ratios

of

to

contrast

between

difference

the brightness

ratio

in

the

of

the

the objects being displayed as openings and the exposed

the seen against a restrained concrete surfaces creates a
the monotone background.

strong visual contrast inside

background. This is due to

the chapel. The geometry of

the

the

the openings is highlighted in

openings that result in a

the extreme bright light that

shallow surface penetration

provides for a greater visual

leaving the interiors dark and

emphasis seen against the

devoid of a good amount of

grey

natural light.

exposed concrete.

limited

size

of

colored

surfaces

in

The strong contrast creates a The use of artificial sources The emptiness of the space is
heightened awareness of the of light directed towards seen to be pierced by the
penetration by natural light, these

objects

creates strong rays of light entering

thereby creating a hierarchy additional emphasis in terms through

these

openings

of spaces from the darkest in of the higher brightness ratio creating a twofold dialectic
the center to the extreme when combined with the between the bright and the
bright on the periphery.

natural light that renders the dark, and light and shadow.
entire spatial envelope in a
uniform manner.

Table 5-3: Color

Chapel of Notre Dame du Kimbell Art Museum

by Louis I. Kahn
Haut Ronchamp by Le

Church of the Light

by Tadao Ando

Corbusier.

The interiors of the chapel The

are painted in white lime that

dominant

background

dominant

boundary inside the spatial boundaries

provides a clean, pure, and envelope

neutral

visual The

is

the

are

surface
expressed

vaulted through the use of exposed

to ceiling which renders the concrete. The grey color of

observe the effects of light at entire space in a silvery light the surfaces appears to be
is

passes

through

clear, as it is reflected off the grey dark when projected with the

colored, and painted glass in exposed concrete to all the long shadows.
the different openings on the different directions.
south wall.
The use of primary colors This

creates

soft

and The low light levels inside

painted on the glass creates monotone imagery inside the the chapel make it hard for
interesting

pattern

of museum

providing

shadows especially on the peaceful

splayed openings in the south setting
wall.

The

appearance

of

and
to

for

a the grey color to act in a

satisfying dominant manner. Instead,

appreciate

the the monochromatic surfaces

sporadic works of art that have been appear to fade in the dark
color

in put on display.

interior space dissolving in a

different openings creates a

fashion that brings out the

magical effect where the eye

white

is not able to read as regular

dominate inside the spatial

pattern in the way light

envelope.

renders different openings.

bright

light

to

Table 5-4: Variation

Chapel of Notre Dame du Kimbell Art Museum

by Louis I. Kahn
Haut Ronchamp by Le

Church of the Light

by Tadao Ando

Corbusier.

The morning light can be The variation in the light The

variation

inside

the

seen to create a silhouette; quality inside the museum is chapel can be seen in terms
south light creates subtle due to the difference in the of the movement of shadows
effects

like

the

colored intensity of the light at that help in relating to the

shadows projected onto the different intervals of time. source of light inside the
splayed openings that change The change in the light levels spatial

envelope.

The

in brightness as the sun due to the movement of the intensity of the light varies
moves

across

the

sky. sun across the sky especially throughout the entire length

Finally, the setting sun brings in the presence of a thick of the day and is at its peak
in its own characteristic light cloud cover can be seen once the sun is overhead.
into the chapel placed in the inside the museum.
vertical tower that stands
towards the west end of the
north wall.

The

emphasis

subspaces

is

on

the This

creates

subtle The hue of the grey color of

continuously dynamism inside the spatial the exposed concrete appears

changing thereby breaking envelope.

to fluctuate with the changing

the

light levels inside the spatial

static

chapel.

nature

of

the

envelope, thereby creating a

strong pattern of movement
in terms of the shadows.

The results summarize each of the characteristic that are seen to affect the overall
perception of the spatial envelope in each of the three projects. This validates the first
hypothesis. There was a considerable amount of contrast that helped in distinguishing
between the light and the dark as well as the background and the foreground. The relatively
low light levels in each of the three spatial envelopes created a strong visual focus on the
source of natural light. The source of natural light was used as a visual accent to maintain
strong connectivity in the overall pattern of movement inside the spatial envelope. This
helped in creating a much more unified space thereby validating the second hypothesis, that
the overall character of a space can be enhanced by emphasizing the source of natural light as
a visual element. The results of the analysis show that the three projects employ similar
design principles to achieve some of the common effects of light, and that the listed
characteristics of light affect the overall perception of the space. The emphasis on the source
of natural light was a common and recurring theme in all of the three buildings. The results
support both hypotheses and also demonstrate that the character of an interior space is
dependent upon the way a designer brings natural light into the space.
Finally, it should be noted that due to the limited scope of the dissertation a relatively
small number of examples were selected that are not representative of all those architects that
have worked in the context of the present study.

5.2 Observations about the Void Massing Determinants

Historically, buildings were designed with shallow plan depths to allow the
penetration of daylight and cross ventilation to all rooms. In dense urban contexts, buildings
took on alphabet plan configurations as large buildings intersected with street grids. The
most land-efficient of these forms was the O-shaped building, which developed into the
modern void type. Voids and light courts can be used to admit light deep into buildings and
achieve high development densities. If the design intention is to use natural light as the
buildings primary light source, voids impose functional constraints on building form and
bulk. For a given building height, two major elements of voids in buildings determine their
form:
a) The size and proportion of the void.
When the void is used as a lighting device for adjacent spaces, it must be
proportioned carefully. It depends on the aspect ratio (L x W/ H2) of the void and the
average light factor that is to be provided (%) inside the building.

b) The thickness of the buildings wings.

Once the general building size and height are known, the void may be sized. The
other major massing determinant, the thickness of the building between the void and
the exterior wall, must also be determined. From a natural lighting perspective, these
two elements determine the void buildings basic form.

5.3 Conclusions about Void Building Form

There should be a simple, approximate relationship between building thickness from
light court to outside wall. That the design of Void as lighting fixtures has serious
implications for the most basic concept of the buildings form, especially for tall
buildings and buildings at high latitudes. Minimum plan sizes for void buildings were
proposed in matrices that varied by building height and latitude.

Figure 5-1 Void blocks: minimum block sizes for 40-48 latitude

Once the general building size and height are known, the Void may be sized. The other
major massing determinant, the thickness of the building between the Void and the exterior
wall, must also be determined. From a natural lighting perspective, these two elements
determine the Void buildings basic form.
The penetration of light from the Void and the street side will generally be limited to
about 2.5 times the height (h) of the natural light opening above the floor. Therefore, the
buildings minimum thickness (T) is 5h, being 2 x 2.5h. The 2.5H RULE is a generalization.

5.4 Observations of Void Buildings from Existing City Grids

In order to study the patterns generated by the intersection of Void building forms with nonideal city grids, urban patterns of blocks and streets from three cities are overlaid with
combinations of void building modules. The major void building types possible in these cities
are shown in Figures below.

Figure 5-2 Void buildings for blocks in Eugene, Oregon

In an existing city, the block dimensions are usually already set, thus only certain
buildings can be built efficiently on them. Some (perhaps a tall building at a high latitude)
will be too large and will not fit on the block. Others will be too small and will not make
efficient use of the available land.

Figure 5-3 Void buildings for blocks in Portland, Oregon

Figure 5-4 Void buildings for short blocks in Seattle, Washington

Three basic patterns are evident for void buildings in grid cities:

Buildings that fill an entire block, with either single void or multiple voids.

Buildings that fill a partial block, leaving open space.

Hybrid buildings that combine void and sidelight or shorter void forms to fill an entire
block.
Void buildings can fill an entire block, sometimes with multiple voids in the
same building (full block/multiple voids). On narrow blocks with alleys, the void can
be located on the alley (alley block/coincident multiple voids). For wider alley blocks,
the half block between the alley and the street can be occupied by a full void building
(full alley block).

Figure 5-5 multiple voids, alleys- multiple voids on alleys, alleys- multiple voids

Taller buildings requiring larger voids will often fill only a partial block (partial block/single
void). The leftover space is not enough to repeat another void module of the same building
height but may be large enough for a shorter building module (stepped height/multiple voids).

Low rise, multiple- voids buildings on wider blocks can generate hybrid void/ sidelight types,
with E-type edges on one side (E-type/multiple voids).

Figure 5-6 single void- partial block, voids- stepped building, multiple voids- E type

Small, square blocks are ideal for single-void buildings (full block/ single void). Square
blocks divided by cross alleys require shorter single-void buildings (single void/ cross alleys).
Square blocks with an alley in only one direction generally require a single void coincident
with the alley (alley block/ single coincident void), except on very large blocks.

Figure 5-7 single void, cross alleys- single void, single void on alley

The lower three diagrams (L type/Edge Buildings, L-type/Open Edge, and F-type (Partial E))
can be used for sidelight buildings, especially for taller buildings on blocks where the size of
the block restricts void size.

Figure 5-8 L type- edge buildings, L type- open edge, partial E

Finally, it should be noted that due to the limited scope of the dissertation a relatively
small number of examples were selected that are not representative of all those building types
that are very common in context of today.

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