Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Project Report
Group Member
Registration No
Rasikh Tariq
ME 113006
ME 113126
M.Taha
ME113085
M. Ali
ME 113115
Shoaib Rasheed
ME 113061
Abdur Rehman
ME 113072
Table of Contents
Introduction to Crankshaft ............................................................................................................................ 3
Forces Imposed on a Crankshaft ................................................................................................................... 3
Crankshaft Materials ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Forging and Casting .................................................................................................................................. 4
Machining ................................................................................................................................................. 4
Crankshaft Diagram Terminology ................................................................................................................ 5
Balancing Holes ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Connecting Rod Journals (Pins) ................................................................................................................ 5
Counter Weights ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Crankshaft Bolt Hole ................................................................................................................................ 5
Flywheel/Flexplate Bolt Holes ................................................................................................................. 6
Key and Keyways ..................................................................................................................................... 6
Main Journals Bearing & Connecting Rod Journals (Crankpin Journals) ................................................ 6
Oil Passages .............................................................................................................................................. 6
Pilot Bearing or Bushing Hole .................................................................................................................. 6
Radius or Rolled Fillet .............................................................................................................................. 6
Rear Flange ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Seal Surface .............................................................................................................................................. 7
Snout ......................................................................................................................................................... 7
Thrust Bearing .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Crankshaft Manufacturing using Conventional Machining Processes ......................................................... 7
Crankshaft Machining Step-by-Step ............................................................................................................. 7
General Cutting Machines Terminology................................................................................................... 7
Requirements With Regard to the Ceratizit Inserts................................................................................... 8
Basic Characteristics Of Ceratizit Inserts ................................................................................................. 8
Steps in The Machining Of A Crankshaft ................................................................................................. 8
Riffle/Gun Drilling.................................................................................................................................... 8
Surface Treatment Processes on Crankshaft ................................................................................................. 8
Crankshaft Balancing .................................................................................................................................... 9
Harmonic Balancer ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Other Processes of Crankshaft Manufacturing ............................................................................................. 9
Casting ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
Forging .................................................................................................................................................... 10
Page 1 of 13
Billet Steel:...................................................................................................................................... 11
Page 2 of 13
Introduction to Crankshaft
The crankshaft, sometimes abbreviated to crank, is responsible for conversion between
reciprocating motion and rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating
linear piston motion into rotational motion, whereas in a reciprocating compressor, it converts
the rotational motion into reciprocating motion.
Crankshaft (red), pistons (gray) in their cylinders (blue), and flywheel (black)
It is typically connected to a flywheel to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the four-stroke
cycle, and sometimes a torsional or vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce the
torsional vibrations often caused along the length of the crankshaft by the cylinders farthest from
the output end acting on the torsional elasticity of the metal.
Crankshaft used in high production automotive engines may be either forged or cast. Forged
crankshafts are stronger than the cast crankshaft, but they are more expensive. Casting materials
and techniques have improved cast crankshaft quality so that they are used in most production
automotive engines.
A piston engine is a vibration machine. It generates horizontal and vertical shaking vibrations,
fore and aft rocking moments, and torsional excitations galore. The torsional component of the
output is the subject of this discussion.
There is a rotating mass associated with each crankpin, which must be counteracted.
Crankshaft Materials
The steel alloys typically used in high strength crankshafts have been selected for what each
designer perceives as the most desirable combination of properties.
The alloying elements typically used in these carbon steels are manganese, chromium,
molybdenum, nickel, silicon, cobalt, vanadium, and sometimes aluminum and titanium. Each of
those elements adds specific properties in a given material. The carbon content is the main
determinant of the ultimate strength and hardness to which such an alloy can be heat treated.
Page 4 of 13
Balancing Holes
When the crankshaft rotates, at high RPMs, vibration can occur. Balancing the crankshaft, which
requires that weight is either removed or added to the crankshaft, is often accomplished.
Connecting Rod Journals (Pins)
Connecting rod journals, often referred as pins are the part of the crankshaft where the
connecting rods attach to. There is one rod journal for each piston/connecting rod in the engine.
These journals have a machined surface so the connecting rod bearings can move smoothly as
the crankshaft rotates. To maintain adequate timing, the connecting rod journals maintain a
specific degree apart from each other, which does vary for specific engines and ignition firing
orders.
Counter Weights
Counterweights adds weight to the crankshaft so that it reduces vibration at any RPM or position.
Crankshaft Bolt Hole
The crankshaft bolt, or as is commonly referred to as a balancer bolt, is used to secure the
harmonic balancer (damper) to the crankshaft.
Page 5 of 13
Page 6 of 13
Seal Surface
The seal surface on a crankshaft is responsible for helping to keep oil within the engine.
Snout
The crankshaft snout, or nose as many people refer to it as, provides a location for the crankshaft
timing gear sprocket and harmonic balancer to attach to. The crankshaft snout contains a keyway
and key so that the sprocket and balancer may be accurately positioned to ensure proper timing
and balance.
Thrust Bearing
A crankshaft must also have a limited amount of backward and forward motion, which is
commonly referred to as endplay. Most crankshafts are installed with .005-.010 of endplay, and
the thrust surface of the crankshaft is what prohibits excessive endplay.
Main bearing and webs are machined at the same time with two planetary milling cutters
Due to the length and the relatively small diameter of the crankshaft, machining stability
is low.
Riffle/Gun Drilling
Gun drilling is a process that produces deep, straight holes in a variety of materials. A gundrill
tool differs from a conventional twist drill by its unique head geometry; a standard gundrill has a
single effective cutting edge. Guide pads burnish the hole while drilling, allowing the hole to
maintain straightness. The result of this burnishing activity is a very round hole with a precision
diameter.
Nitriding
Induction Hardening
Deep-Case Nitriding
An older heat-treating process that hardens the material to a greater depth. Deep casehardened cranks often cant be repaired.
Hard Chroming
Page 8 of 13
An electrolytic process that deposits chromium on metal. Hard chroming creates a 0.010to 0.030-inch-thick surface that improves wear, corrosion, and heat resistance.
Crankshaft Polishing
This is a necessary step to prepare the crankshaft for the assembly of an engine.
Crankshaft Balancing
As the cylinders in engine fire, they move up and down, generating torque that's transferred into
the crankshaft. Each time a cylinder fires, a force acts upon the crankshaft, causing it to twist.
But this force also causes vibrations in the crankshaft, and at certain frequencies, the shaft can
resonate, which makes the vibrations even worse.
These vibrations from the engine can become too much for the crankshaft to bear, causing it to
fail. So, it is very important that a crankshaft must be balanced properly, this is the reason that
the counterweights are added or crankshaft is grinded very precisely to make it perfectly
balanced.
Harmonic Balancer
Harmonic balancer is a circular device, made of rubber and metal, is bolted at the front end of the
crankshaft to help absorb vibrations. It's usually connected to the crank pulley, which drives
accessories like the air conditioner. The rubber inside the pulley is what actually absorbs the
vibrations and keeps them at a safe level. In essence, the device is designed to help prevent
crankshaft failure. It's also sometimes called a "dampener."
However, the rubber material can deteriorate over time. So if your harmonic balancer is going
bad, you could get rough engine vibrations, a cracked crankshaft, or even a serpentine belt
(multi-vee, or multi-rib belt) that gets thrown off its track. Replacing one is excellent
preventative maintenances.
Page 9 of 13
cast iron, not really because it is cast. It is cast because the material is very castable, but is
impossible to forge.
Forging
Forged part is made from a chunk of metal. It is then usually heated, and it is pounded into shape
in a forging die. The extra metal oozes out from between the forging dies and must be ground
off. This is why there is a wide parting line on crankshaft when forged. A forged crank is
stronger because of the steel it is made from. It could be an alloyed 4340 steel with .40% carbon,
or a weaker 1020 steel that is not alloyed and has less (.20%) carbon. The steel used to make a
forged part must have good forgability. It is forged because the material is not very castable. The
forging process does add grain flow and add strength to the part as above, but it is primarily the
higher material Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) and Yield Strength (YS) that make it strong.
Now a forged part generally is more ductile than a cast part. 4340 steel is probably the most
common material for connecting rod and crank forgings. One of the reasons is its balance of high
tensile strength, ductility, and cost. It also responds positively to heat treating, so the surface
hardness and the overall material tensile strength can be increased after machining. It is cheaper
to machine the part when soft, then heat treat it hard.
Comparison of Forged Crankshaft versus Cast Crankshaft
A forged crankshaft is recommended for high power transmission and high rpm
applications whereas a cast crankshaft can tolerate less power
Cast cranks are more economical, but are more brittle and susceptible to breakage
Cast cranks are generally lighter than a comparable forged one
A cast crank will have a narrow parting line whereas a forged one will have a wide
parting line
Forged crankshaft has higher cost than casted one
In fatigue loading the crack growth rate of the forged steel crankshaft is slower than the
ductile cast iron crankshaft
At 106 cycles the fatigue strength of forged steel crankshaft is 36% higher than the
fatigue strength of the ductile cast iron crankshaft
Page 10 of 13
Introduction to CAM
A cam is a mechanical device used to transmit motion to a follower by direct contact. The driver
is called the cam and the driven member is called the follower. In a cam follower pair, the cam
normally rotates while the follower may translate or oscillate. A familiar example is the camshaft
of an automobile engine, where the cams drive the push rods (the followers) to open and close
the valves in synchronization with the motion of the pistons.
Cam Shaft
A shaft having one or more cams attached to it, and used to operate the valves of an internalcombustion engine. Combustion engines, rotating shaft with attached disks of irregular shape
(the cams), which actuate the intake and exhaust valves of the cylinders. The cams and the
camshaft are usually formed as a unit, with the cams set at angles so as to open and close the
valves in a prescribed sequence as the cams rotate. A separate camshaft for each row of cylinders
is driven by gears or chains from the crankshaft.
Chilled Iron Castings: this is a good choice for high volume production. A chilled iron
camshaft has a resistance against wear because the camshaft lobes have been chilled,
generally making them harder. When making chilled iron castings, other elements are added
to the iron before casting to make the material more suitable for its application.
Billet Steel: When a high quality camshaft is required, engine builders and camshaft
manufacturers choose to make the camshaft from steel billet. This method is also used for
low volume production. This is a much more time consuming process, and is generally more
expensive than other methods. However the finished product is far superior. When making
the camshaft, CNC lathes, CNC milling machines and CNC camshaft grinders will be used.
Different types of steel bar can be used. These types of camshafts can be used in highperformance engines.
Importance of Cam
Since the inception of the automobile industry, high speed has always been an important
requirement of the vehicles. Due to this fact, where on one side manufacturers focus on fuel
efficiency and environmental impact, they are also bound to meet the demands of extremely high
power for certain applications. The problem that we are concerned about here is the induction of
oscillations in the camshaft when engine is running at steady high speed of 5000 rpm and above,
like in racing cars, for a significant vehicle mileage. These oscillations are caused by cyclic
variations in the resisting torque acting on the camshaft due to valve spring load. If the frequency
of these oscillations is close to surge frequency there may be premature failure of the spring.
Page 11 of 13
Page 12 of 13
Manufacturing of Camshaft
It can be produced by different methods
Forging
Machining
First step for surface treatment is to protect the bearing from the chemical reacting that is
going to take place after this step, so for this the bearing are covered with protective layer
of some dye.
Then the cam is 1st rinsed in warm water, and is then placed in weak phosphorous acid
for surface treatment, in this the acid etches the metal at microscopic level which help
metal to resist the wearing and rusting.
After which the cam is finally examined for flaws and final adjustment are made, the dye
which is used to coat the bearing are removed with help of buffing wheel and then the
acid residue was removed by worker bye thorough cleaning.
Then the camshaft is flooded with lubricating oil, excess oil drain out and some of it left
on it helps in prevention of rusting while on the way to shop/car factory.
Page 13 of 13