Manufacturing Process II

Project Report

Manufacturing of Crankshaft & Camshaft

Group Member

Registration No

Rasikh Tariq

ME 113006

Muhammad Mubbasher Khan

ME 113126

M.Taha

ME113085

M. Ali

ME 113115

Shoaib Rasheed

ME 113061

Abdur Rehman

ME 113072

Table of Contents
Introduction to Crankshaft ............................................................................................................................ 3
Forces Imposed on a Crankshaft ................................................................................................................... 3
Crankshaft Materials ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Forging and Casting .................................................................................................................................. 4
Machining ................................................................................................................................................. 4
Crankshaft Diagram Terminology ................................................................................................................ 5
Balancing Holes ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Connecting Rod Journals (Pins) ................................................................................................................ 5
Counter Weights ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Crankshaft Bolt Hole ................................................................................................................................ 5
Flywheel/Flexplate Bolt Holes ................................................................................................................. 6
Key and Keyways ..................................................................................................................................... 6
Main Journals Bearing & Connecting Rod Journals (Crankpin Journals) ................................................ 6
Oil Passages .............................................................................................................................................. 6
Pilot Bearing or Bushing Hole .................................................................................................................. 6
Radius or Rolled Fillet .............................................................................................................................. 6
Rear Flange ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Seal Surface .............................................................................................................................................. 7
Snout ......................................................................................................................................................... 7
Thrust Bearing .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Crankshaft Manufacturing using Conventional Machining Processes ......................................................... 7
Crankshaft Machining Step-by-Step ............................................................................................................. 7
General Cutting Machines Terminology................................................................................................... 7
Requirements With Regard to the Ceratizit Inserts................................................................................... 8
Basic Characteristics Of Ceratizit Inserts ................................................................................................. 8
Steps in The Machining Of A Crankshaft ................................................................................................. 8
Riffle/Gun Drilling.................................................................................................................................... 8
Surface Treatment Processes on Crankshaft ................................................................................................. 8
Crankshaft Balancing .................................................................................................................................... 9
Harmonic Balancer ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Other Processes of Crankshaft Manufacturing ............................................................................................. 9
Casting ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
Forging .................................................................................................................................................... 10
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Comparison of Forged Crankshaft versus Cast Crankshaft .................................................................... 10

Different Organization Manufacturing Crankshafts ................................................................................... 10
Introduction to CAM................................................................................................................................... 11
Cam Shaft ................................................................................................................................................... 11
Material Selection for Cam Design ............................................................................................................. 11

Chilled Iron Castings: ..................................................................................................................... 11

Billet Steel:...................................................................................................................................... 11

Importance of Cam ..................................................................................................................................... 11

Types of Cam Failure.................................................................................................................................. 12
Dry Wear................................................................................................................................................. 12
Contact Fatigue ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Diesel Engine Cam Galling .................................................................................................................... 12
Reasons and Causes for Cam Failure .......................................................................................................... 12
Incorrect Break-In Lubricant .................................................................................................................. 12
Correct Break-In Procedure .................................................................................................................... 12
Spring Pressure ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Manufacturing of Camshaft ........................................................................................................................ 13
Forging Process to Manufacture Camshaft ................................................................................................. 13
Machining Process Sequence to Manufacture Camshaft ............................................................................ 13
Surface Finishing Process on Camshaft ...................................................................................................... 13

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Introduction to Crankshaft
The crankshaft, sometimes abbreviated to crank, is responsible for conversion between
reciprocating motion and rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating
linear piston motion into rotational motion, whereas in a reciprocating compressor, it converts
the rotational motion into reciprocating motion.

F IGURE 1: A CRANKSHAFT, F LYWHEEL WITH

A P ISTON USING A CONNECTING R OD

Crankshaft (red), pistons (gray) in their cylinders (blue), and flywheel (black)
It is typically connected to a flywheel to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the four-stroke
cycle, and sometimes a torsional or vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce the
torsional vibrations often caused along the length of the crankshaft by the cylinders farthest from
the output end acting on the torsional elasticity of the metal.
Crankshaft used in high production automotive engines may be either forged or cast. Forged
crankshafts are stronger than the cast crankshaft, but they are more expensive. Casting materials
and techniques have improved cast crankshaft quality so that they are used in most production
automotive engines.

Forces Imposed on a Crankshaft

The obvious source of forces applied to a crankshaft is the product of combustion chamber
pressure acting on the top of the piston. High-performance, normally-aspirated Spark-ignition
(SI) engines can have combustion pressures in the 100-bar neighborhood (1450 psi) That level of
force exerted onto a crankshaft rod journal produces substantial bending and torsional moments
and the resulting tensile, compressive and shear stresses.
However, there is another major source of forces imposed on a crankshaft, namely Piston
Acceleration. The combined weight of the piston, ring package, wristpin, retainers, the conrod
small end and a small amount of oil are being continuously accelerated from rest to very high
velocity and back to rest twice each crankshaft revolution.
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A piston engine is a vibration machine. It generates horizontal and vertical shaking vibrations,
fore and aft rocking moments, and torsional excitations galore. The torsional component of the
output is the subject of this discussion.
There is a rotating mass associated with each crankpin, which must be counteracted.

Crankshaft Materials
The steel alloys typically used in high strength crankshafts have been selected for what each
designer perceives as the most desirable combination of properties.
The alloying elements typically used in these carbon steels are manganese, chromium,
molybdenum, nickel, silicon, cobalt, vanadium, and sometimes aluminum and titanium. Each of
those elements adds specific properties in a given material. The carbon content is the main
determinant of the ultimate strength and hardness to which such an alloy can be heat treated.

Different Procedures to Manufactures Crankshaft

Forging and Casting
Crankshafts can be forged from a steel bar usually through roll forging or cast in ductile steel.
Today more and more manufacturers tend to favor the use of forged crankshafts due to their
lighter weight, more compact dimensions.
Machining
Crankshafts can also be machined out of a billet, often a bar of high quality vacuum remelted
steel. Though the fiber flow (local in homogeneities of the material's chemical composition
generated during casting) doesnt follow the shape of the crankshaft (which is undesirable), this
is usually not a problem since higher quality steels, which normally are difficult to forge, can be
used.

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Crankshaft Diagram Terminology

Following diagram shows the terminology of a crankshaft generally identified by manufacturing
industry.

F IGURE 2: CRANKSHAFT DIAGRAM TERMINOLOGY

Balancing Holes
When the crankshaft rotates, at high RPMs, vibration can occur. Balancing the crankshaft, which
requires that weight is either removed or added to the crankshaft, is often accomplished.
Connecting Rod Journals (Pins)
Connecting rod journals, often referred as pins are the part of the crankshaft where the
connecting rods attach to. There is one rod journal for each piston/connecting rod in the engine.
These journals have a machined surface so the connecting rod bearings can move smoothly as
the crankshaft rotates. To maintain adequate timing, the connecting rod journals maintain a
specific degree apart from each other, which does vary for specific engines and ignition firing
orders.

F IGURE 3: F LEXPLATE BOLT H OLE, P ILOT BLUSING HOLE

AND C RANKSHAFT B OLT H OLE

Counter Weights
Counterweights adds weight to the crankshaft so that it reduces vibration at any RPM or position.
Crankshaft Bolt Hole
The crankshaft bolt, or as is commonly referred to as a balancer bolt, is used to secure the
harmonic balancer (damper) to the crankshaft.
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Flywheel/Flexplate Bolt Holes

A flywheel or flexplate contains a ring gear which a vehicles starter turns when the ignition is
turned into the starting position. Regardless of what type of transmission the vehicle has, these
bolt holes are used to secure either the flexplate or flywheel to the crankshaft.

F IGURE 4: S EAL SURFACE , SEAL S URFACE OIL

GROOVES, CRANK B OLT, KEY AND W ASHER

Key and Keyways

The crankshaft key, which fits into the keyway as a press fit, is a significant part of the
crankshaft as it aids to align the crankshaft in the proper position.
Main Journals Bearing & Connecting Rod Journals (Crankpin Journals)
The main journal bearings hold the crankshaft in place and prevent the forces created by the
piston and transmitted to the crankshaft by the connecting rods from dislodging the crankshaft.
The connecting rod bearings help resolve the reciprocating linear motion of pistons to the
rotating motion of the crankshaft by means of crankpin on the crankshaft.
Oil Passages
Oil passages on the crankpin and main journals help to feed oil directly to the bearings. The thin
film of oil that forms between the bearings and the journals is what protects the crankshaft from
damage.
Pilot Bearing or Bushing Hole
Manual transmissions utilize an input shaft that aids in the alignment of the clutch assembly to
the flywheel. The input shaft alignment is made possible with the use of a pilot bearing or
bushing, which is normally a pressed fit into the hole on the. Because manual transmissions use a
torque converter to connect the flexplate to the transmission.
Radius or Rolled Fillet
On each journal, where the bearing surface meets the counterweight, there is a radius or rolled
fillet. Although small and typically measured with a radius gauge, this area adds a great deal of
strength to the crankshaft. By minimizing 90 degree angles on each journal, the force of the
combustion process is evenly distributed throughout the crankshaft.
Rear Flange
The rear flange of the crankshaft provides a strong surface area to accept the flexplate or
flywheel bolts. The rear flange is often machined to help in balancing crankshafts as well.

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Seal Surface
The seal surface on a crankshaft is responsible for helping to keep oil within the engine.
Snout
The crankshaft snout, or nose as many people refer to it as, provides a location for the crankshaft
timing gear sprocket and harmonic balancer to attach to. The crankshaft snout contains a keyway
and key so that the sprocket and balancer may be accurately positioned to ensure proper timing
and balance.
Thrust Bearing
A crankshaft must also have a limited amount of backward and forward motion, which is
commonly referred to as endplay. Most crankshafts are installed with .005-.010 of endplay, and
the thrust surface of the crankshaft is what prohibits excessive endplay.

Crankshaft Manufacturing using Conventional Machining Processes

Billet crankshafts are fully machined from a round bar of the selected material. This method of
manufacture provides extreme flexibility of design and allows rapid alterations to a design in
search of optimal performance characteristics. In addition to the fully-machined surfaces, the
billet process makes it much easier to locate the counterweights and journal webs exactly where
the designer wants them to be.
This process involves demanding machining operations, especially with regard to counterweight
shaping and undercutting, rifle-drilling main and rod journals, and drilling lubrication passages.
The availability of multi-axis, high-speed, high precision CNC machining equipment has made
the carved-from-billet method quite cost-effective, and, together with exacting 3D-CAD and
Finite Element Analysis design methodologies, has enabled the manufacture of extremely precise
crankshafts which often require very little in the way of subsequent massaging for balance
purposes.
Some years ago, there was an effort at Cosworth to build a Formula One crankshaft by welding
together various sections, which comprised the journals, webs and counterweights. The
purported intent was to be better able to create exactly the shape and section of the various
components, thereby reducing moment of inertia while achieving the same or better stiffness.
While no one was willing to reveal details about the effort, it is rumored to have been run once or
twice then abandoned due to the high cost and complexity compared to the measurable benefits.

Crankshaft Machining Step-by-Step

General Cutting Machines Terminology

Cutting speeds (up to 260 m/min.)

Planetary milling cutters with diameters ranging from 350 to 750 mm
Dry machining leading to high temperature stress on the cutting material
High number of teeth of the planetary milling cutters (40 up to 200 teeth)
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Main bearing and webs are machined at the same time with two planetary milling cutters
Due to the length and the relatively small diameter of the crankshaft, machining stability
is low.

Requirements With Regard to the Ceratizit Inserts

High resistance to thermal shock.

Consistent quality of the cutting material providing process security at the customer
Long tool life, therefore low tool changing costs.
Smooth surface thanks to lower frictional heat and wear

Basic Characteristics Of Ceratizit Inserts

Geometry of the insert is mainly defined by the profile of the crankshaft.

Ceratizit chooses the insert to be applied as well as the geometry of the cutting edge

Steps in The Machining Of A Crankshaft

Cutting and centering.

Internal and external profile milling of the pin of the bearing and connection rod bearing
pin.
Turning of the main bearing pins and the end parts.
Deburring.
Solid carbide deep hole drilling

Riffle/Gun Drilling
Gun drilling is a process that produces deep, straight holes in a variety of materials. A gundrill
tool differs from a conventional twist drill by its unique head geometry; a standard gundrill has a
single effective cutting edge. Guide pads burnish the hole while drilling, allowing the hole to
maintain straightness. The result of this burnishing activity is a very round hole with a precision
diameter.

Surface Treatment Processes on Crankshaft

Surface treatments are used to improve wear characteristics of crankshaft journals. Surface
treatments only affect a shallow area and if the crank is ground it must be re-treated to retain the
same surface hardness. Generally following surface treatment processes are used:

Nitriding
Induction Hardening
Deep-Case Nitriding
An older heat-treating process that hardens the material to a greater depth. Deep casehardened cranks often cant be repaired.
Hard Chroming
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An electrolytic process that deposits chromium on metal. Hard chroming creates a 0.010to 0.030-inch-thick surface that improves wear, corrosion, and heat resistance.
Crankshaft Polishing
This is a necessary step to prepare the crankshaft for the assembly of an engine.

Crankshaft Balancing
As the cylinders in engine fire, they move up and down, generating torque that's transferred into
the crankshaft. Each time a cylinder fires, a force acts upon the crankshaft, causing it to twist.
But this force also causes vibrations in the crankshaft, and at certain frequencies, the shaft can
resonate, which makes the vibrations even worse.
These vibrations from the engine can become too much for the crankshaft to bear, causing it to
fail. So, it is very important that a crankshaft must be balanced properly, this is the reason that
the counterweights are added or crankshaft is grinded very precisely to make it perfectly
balanced.

Harmonic Balancer
Harmonic balancer is a circular device, made of rubber and metal, is bolted at the front end of the
crankshaft to help absorb vibrations. It's usually connected to the crank pulley, which drives
accessories like the air conditioner. The rubber inside the pulley is what actually absorbs the
vibrations and keeps them at a safe level. In essence, the device is designed to help prevent
crankshaft failure. It's also sometimes called a "dampener."
However, the rubber material can deteriorate over time. So if your harmonic balancer is going
bad, you could get rough engine vibrations, a cracked crankshaft, or even a serpentine belt
(multi-vee, or multi-rib belt) that gets thrown off its track. Replacing one is excellent
preventative maintenances.

Other Processes of Crankshaft Manufacturing

A crankshaft can be manufactured by casting, forging or machining. Manufacturing by either of
methods results in different properties which are discussed below.
Casting
A cast part is made from material being forced or poured into a mold. The part will have thicker
and thinner areas, and takes shape from this molten state. Therefore the material must have good
castability. One of the main properties of a material that has good castability is that it does not
form internal voids on cooling. As a material cools, it shrinks. If there are thick and thin areas,
the thick areas will cool slower than the thin ones, and the thick areas can form voids, and the
part can warp out of shape or crack, or worse, form internal stresses that come out when the part
is used, then crack later. A cast crankshaft is weaker because it is made from cast or nodular

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cast iron, not really because it is cast. It is cast because the material is very castable, but is
impossible to forge.
Forging
Forged part is made from a chunk of metal. It is then usually heated, and it is pounded into shape
in a forging die. The extra metal oozes out from between the forging dies and must be ground
off. This is why there is a wide parting line on crankshaft when forged. A forged crank is
stronger because of the steel it is made from. It could be an alloyed 4340 steel with .40% carbon,
or a weaker 1020 steel that is not alloyed and has less (.20%) carbon. The steel used to make a
forged part must have good forgability. It is forged because the material is not very castable. The
forging process does add grain flow and add strength to the part as above, but it is primarily the
higher material Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) and Yield Strength (YS) that make it strong.
Now a forged part generally is more ductile than a cast part. 4340 steel is probably the most
common material for connecting rod and crank forgings. One of the reasons is its balance of high
tensile strength, ductility, and cost. It also responds positively to heat treating, so the surface
hardness and the overall material tensile strength can be increased after machining. It is cheaper
to machine the part when soft, then heat treat it hard.
Comparison of Forged Crankshaft versus Cast Crankshaft

A forged crankshaft is recommended for high power transmission and high rpm
applications whereas a cast crankshaft can tolerate less power
Cast cranks are more economical, but are more brittle and susceptible to breakage
Cast cranks are generally lighter than a comparable forged one
A cast crank will have a narrow parting line whereas a forged one will have a wide
parting line
Forged crankshaft has higher cost than casted one
In fatigue loading the crack growth rate of the forged steel crankshaft is slower than the
ductile cast iron crankshaft
At 106 cycles the fatigue strength of forged steel crankshaft is 36% higher than the
fatigue strength of the ductile cast iron crankshaft

Different Organization Manufacturing Crankshafts

International Crankshaft Inc in Georgetown KY - Companies.

Crankshaft Rebuilders Inc in Sanford FL Companies.
Hind Autocranks Pvt. Ltd.
Crankshaft Manufacture - Lahoma Engineers Ltd.
NSI Crankshaft.

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Introduction to CAM
A cam is a mechanical device used to transmit motion to a follower by direct contact. The driver
is called the cam and the driven member is called the follower. In a cam follower pair, the cam
normally rotates while the follower may translate or oscillate. A familiar example is the camshaft
of an automobile engine, where the cams drive the push rods (the followers) to open and close
the valves in synchronization with the motion of the pistons.

Cam Shaft
A shaft having one or more cams attached to it, and used to operate the valves of an internalcombustion engine. Combustion engines, rotating shaft with attached disks of irregular shape
(the cams), which actuate the intake and exhaust valves of the cylinders. The cams and the
camshaft are usually formed as a unit, with the cams set at angles so as to open and close the
valves in a prescribed sequence as the cams rotate. A separate camshaft for each row of cylinders
is driven by gears or chains from the crankshaft.

Material Selection for Cam Design

Camshafts can be made out of several different types of material. These include:

Chilled Iron Castings: this is a good choice for high volume production. A chilled iron
camshaft has a resistance against wear because the camshaft lobes have been chilled,
generally making them harder. When making chilled iron castings, other elements are added
to the iron before casting to make the material more suitable for its application.
Billet Steel: When a high quality camshaft is required, engine builders and camshaft
manufacturers choose to make the camshaft from steel billet. This method is also used for
low volume production. This is a much more time consuming process, and is generally more
expensive than other methods. However the finished product is far superior. When making
the camshaft, CNC lathes, CNC milling machines and CNC camshaft grinders will be used.
Different types of steel bar can be used. These types of camshafts can be used in highperformance engines.

Importance of Cam
Since the inception of the automobile industry, high speed has always been an important
requirement of the vehicles. Due to this fact, where on one side manufacturers focus on fuel
efficiency and environmental impact, they are also bound to meet the demands of extremely high
power for certain applications. The problem that we are concerned about here is the induction of
oscillations in the camshaft when engine is running at steady high speed of 5000 rpm and above,
like in racing cars, for a significant vehicle mileage. These oscillations are caused by cyclic
variations in the resisting torque acting on the camshaft due to valve spring load. If the frequency
of these oscillations is close to surge frequency there may be premature failure of the spring.

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Types of Cam Failure

Dry Wear
The wear was determined as weight losses of the samples as a function of wear test duration and
loads. The variation of camshaft profile was captured by level sensor during the wear. The
profile variation was continuously monitored on the computer screen throughout the tests. It was
found that the wear mechanisms of the cam surface change along the contact surface. The
maximum wear value was obtained just to cam tip.
Contact Fatigue
Generally, one surface moves over the other in a rolling motion as in a ball rolling over a race in
a ball bearing. The contact geometry and the motion of the rolling elements produce an
alternating subsurface shear stress. Subsurface plastic strain builds up with increasing cycles
until a crack is generated.
Diesel Engine Cam Galling
Heavy duty diesel engines typically use roller followers in contact with the cam to reduce
friction and accommodate high Hertzian stresses. When the rolling contact slips into sliding, cam
galling can occur that may lead to major cam failures. Oil traction has been identified as a
possible source to cause slipping.

Reasons and Causes for Cam Failure

Incorrect Break-In Lubricant
Use only the Moly Paste, Part Number 99002-1 that is included with the cam. This Moly Paste
must be applied to every cam lobe surface, and to the bottom of every lifter face of all flat tappet
cams. Roller tappet cams only require engine oil to be applied to the lifters and cam.
Correct Break-In Procedure
After the correct break-in lubricant is applied to the cam and lifters fill the crankcase with fresh
non-synthetic oil. Prime the oil system with a priming tool and an electric drill so that all oil
passages and the oil filter are full of oil. Pre-set the ignition timing and prime the fuel system.
During this break-in time, verify that the pushrods are rotating, as this will show that the lifters
are also rotating. If the lifters don't rotate, the cam lobe and lifter will fail.
Spring Pressure
Normal recommended spring seat pressure for most mild street-type flat tappet cams is between
85 to 105 lbs. More radical street and race applications may use valve spring seat pressure
between 105 to 130 lbs. This high spring pressure causes the heat created at the cam to be
transferred to the roller wheel, resulting in its early failure.

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Manufacturing of Camshaft
It can be produced by different methods

Forging
Machining

Forging Process to Manufacture Camshaft

In this process the metal rod is produced to exact size of the camshaft, and is then forged under
high pressure presses having shape of camshaft (in this very high pressure hammers (punches)
are required), this is very difficult method because 1 wrong step can lead to big disaster (can
cause damage to machine (cost of machine is very high), can take life of worker).

Machining Process Sequence to Manufacture Camshaft

It starts with a forged metal rod of specified length.

Then lathe machine cut and machine it to some of its shape.
Then the special grinding machine took place.
The grinding machine contains a head for the master pattern of the cam shaft.
The pattern is place in the head and the machine is turned on the wheel rotates and follow
the master cam design converting it on the pre finished form of the camshaft.
Camshaft slowly takes shape in this machine.
Then specialize tool check the finished part for flaws and also check its dimensions and
the rise and fall of the each and every cam (usually 16 cams are on 4 cylinder engine).

Surface Finishing Process on Camshaft

Then the finished product further goes for surface treatment.

First step for surface treatment is to protect the bearing from the chemical reacting that is
going to take place after this step, so for this the bearing are covered with protective layer
of some dye.
Then the cam is 1st rinsed in warm water, and is then placed in weak phosphorous acid
for surface treatment, in this the acid etches the metal at microscopic level which help
metal to resist the wearing and rusting.
After which the cam is finally examined for flaws and final adjustment are made, the dye
which is used to coat the bearing are removed with help of buffing wheel and then the
acid residue was removed by worker bye thorough cleaning.
Then the camshaft is flooded with lubricating oil, excess oil drain out and some of it left
on it helps in prevention of rusting while on the way to shop/car factory.

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