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a) a .a a
am
m n
b) n a
a
m n
m n
c) a
a mn
f) a .b ab
e) a 1
d) a
1
an
a
b
g) .
b
a
a c
a b cd
a b cd
then we have,
and
.
b d
a b cd
a b cd
b b2 4ac
b b2 4ac
and, x
where D b2 4ac .
2a
2a
logb p
log ba
1
log p a
b) log a p
c) log a m n nlog a m
m
log a m log a n
n
e) log a
f) log a a 1
g) log a a p plog a a p
h) a log
f ( x)
f ( x) .
x2
xn
2
n
. log e a ... . log e a ...
n
2!
!
x2 x3
xn
... ... for all x.
2! 3!
n!
x 2 x3 x 4
..., 1 x 1
2
3
4
b) log e 1 x x
x2 x3 x 4
..., 1 x 1 .
2
3
4
General Useful Formulae By OP Gupta (INDIRA AWARD Winner, Elect. & Comm.Engineering)
n
c) 1 x 1 nx
d)
n n 1 2 n n 1 n 2 3
x
x ... such that 1 x 1 and n Z or n Q .
2!
3!
xn an
x n 1 a.x n 2 a 2 .x n3 ... a n 1 .
xa
a) sin x x
n( n 1)
2
n
n ( n 1)(2 n 1)
6
n( n 1)
2
NUMBER SYSTEM
01. Natural numbers: The numbers used in ordinary counting i.e. 1, 2, 3,..., are called natural numbers (and
positive integers as well). The set of natural nos. is denoted by N . Also if we include 0 to the set of natural
numbers, we get set of the whole numbers which is denoted by the symbol W.
Therefore N= 1, 2,3,... and, W= 0,1, 2,3,... .
02. Integers: The numbers ... 3, 2, 1,0,1, 2,3,... are called integers. The set of integers is denoted by
I or Z . Though now we use Z instead of I to symbolize the set of integers.
Therefore, I or Z= ... 3, 2, 1, 0,1, 2,3,... .
Clearly N Z .
Also from the above discussion, it is evident that integers are of three types viz.:
+
p
, where p and q are integers and q 0 , is called a rational
q
; p, q Z and q 0
q
Clearly N Z Q .
Therefore Q=
p
. The set of irrational nos. is denoted by T .
q
05. Real numbers: The set of all numbers either rational or irrational, is called real number. The set of real
nos. is denoted by R .
Clearly N Z Q R .
Algebraic Identities:
2
b) a 2 b 2 a b a b
d) a b a 3 3a 2b 3ab 2 b3
a) a b a 2 2 ab b 2
c) a b a 3 3a 2 b 3ab 2 b3
e) a 3 b3 a b a 2 ab b 2
2
f) a 3 b 3 a b a 2 ab b 2
h) a 3 b 3 c 3 3abc a b c a 2 b 2 c2 ab bc ca .
Concept of Infinity:
We consider the existence of two symbols and outside the set of real numbers R and would call them
minus infinity and plus infinity respectively with the fact x for every x R .
Thus and are not real numbers but just the symbols (like we use x, y etc.).
When we write x , we mean that:
a) x is larger than any real number however large.
b) x is not a fixed number.
, if c 1
Also c 0, if 0 c 1 .
1, if c 1
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