Reading Text 10

Most people have busy lives, and certainly most health care workers have busy
schedules. If we are going to give ihe best cnre to our patients, it is important that they be in
the right place at the right tiwe. If they anive late, or become lost, it may mean delaying or
missing important diagnostic procedures or treatment. It is, therefore, very impmiant that we
provide clear instructions regarding appointments.
In many cases, it is necessary to make appointments by telephone. This is not the best
means of communication. Not only may the sound be poor, but we lose the benefit of visual
cues, so-called body language. Because of the difficulty and embarrassment, both you and
your non-Japanese speaking patients may be anxious to end a telephone conversation too
soon. They may think they ha-;e understood you, or even preter:d that they have understood
when in fact they did not. Alway0 take the time to confirm important infmmation.
After making an appointment by telephone, a common and very useful practice in
Japan is to fax patients a map showing where they are supposed to go. If you are sending a
patient from one place to another in a large hospital, it may be worthwhile to draw a map or
accompany them at least part of the way. This S!Dall incon\'enience to you may save a lot of
trouble later, and makes a strong impression on the patient about your kindness.
Often in Japan, patients are kept waiting for a long time before they are examined or
treated. This may not be the custom in other countries. In some countries, patients expect to
be seen at precisely the time of their appointment. Be aware ofthis, and if there is likely to be
a long wait, explain this to your patients. If they are warned ahead of time and are prepared
for a long wait, this will avoid misunderstandings.
Situation 1: A patient telephcr:es to m2ke an appointment.

Receptionist (answering the telephone): Hai, Takeda Byoin desu.

Patient: Ob dear! Auco ... moshi moshi. Anoo ... eigs uekimasu ka?
Receptionist: Yes, this is the Takeda Hospital. How can I relp you?
Patient: I would like to make an appointment.
Receptionist: Ce1ic.inly. Have you been here before?
Patient: No, this is my first time. I think I am pregnant and I would like to see a doctor.
Receptionist: Well, we have well-mother check-ups on Monday, Wednesday and Friday
afternoons, and on Tuesday morning. When would you like to come in?
Patient: Can I make an appointment for next Wednesday afternoon?
Receptionist: Wednesday the 29th? Yes, that's okay. The clinic is open from 1:00 p.m. until
5:00p.m. We don't make appointments, but you shouldn't have to wait too long.
Patient: Between 1:00 and 5:00 on Wednesday the 29th. Okay. Now, I have your address, but
can you tell me how to get there?
Receptionist: We're easy to find. We're rigL. :n front of the A4 exit at Honmachi Station.
Would you like me to fax you a map?
Patient: No, that's okay. I know the station. A4 exit. Next Wednesday between 1:00 and 5:00.
Thanks very much.
Page 32

Patterns:

* I would like to I want to I need to

... sec a dcctor
... talk to a public health nurse
... consult a midwife
*We have well mother check-ups I clinic hours I openings
... on Monday I weekdays I weekends I afternoons
... from 1 to 5 pm
* When I how soon
... would you like to I can you I do you need to
D ... come in I see the doctor

* Can I I I'd like to

... make I get I have an appointment
D ... for next Wednesday I as soon as possible I right away

* The clinic is open I we are open I clinic hours are

... from 1 to 5
:=-: ...

on Wednesdays

u ... rnomi::1gs I weekdays

* Can yo'J tell ::ne lplea~e tel11-:1-2 I how d0 ... the way to the clinic
... get there I to the clinic
* Would you like me to I shall I
... fax you a map I give you directions I tell you how to ...
Situation 2: A patient in a large hospital is being sent to the X-ray department.
Doctor: Okay, Mr. Smith, next I would like to get an X-ray of your shoulder. Please take this
fo

.,l

to Ihe X-ray department. They will look after you

Mr. Smith: Thanks, but where is the X-ray department?

Doctor: The X-ray department is in the North Wing, on the 3rd floor.
Mr. Smith: Can you tell me how to get to the North Wing? I've never been to this hospital
before.
Doctor: Let me show you on this map. We are here, and the N0rth Wing is here. Just go down
this hall, and then take these elevators to the 3rd floor. You will see a sign when you get off
of the elevator.
Mr. Smith: G1eat. And when should I come back?

Page 33

Doctor: I want to see the X-rays before you go home. Please wait for them to develop the Xrays.
Mr. Smith: Will that take long?
Doctor: It may take about 30 minutes to develop the film. Then bring the X-rays back here.
Okay?
Mr. Smith: I understand. I'll wait for them to develop the X-rays, and then I'll bring them to
you.
P~tterns:

I would like to I want to I we need

~o

... get I take an X-ray

... do some more tests
* Please I you should take
... this form I requisition I prescription
... to the X-ray department I lab I pharmacy
* Where is I how do I get to
... the X-ray I physiotherapy department
... pediatrics I obstetrics
*Car>. J'ou show/tell me ...

* Let me I I'll
... show you on this metp
... draw ycu

map

... get you a map

... show you the way
* When should I I do I need to I what time should I
... come back I see you again I return
* Please wait I you should vvait I you may have to wait
... for them to develop the X-ray
... for the X-ray
... for the results

Discussion:
1. In situation 1, what additional questions do you think the receptionist should have asked?
2. In situation 1, what addit!cmal information do you think the receptionist should have given
to the patient?

Page 34

3. Why do you think it is a good idea or a bad idea to make specific appointment times for
each patient?
4. In the second situation, the doctor showed the patient a map to help him find the X-ro.y
department. What advantage does a map have over spoken directions?
5. Apart from maps, what other methods can a hospital use to help patients find their way
around?

Reading Text 11

Receiving health care in Japan requires completing a certain amount of paper work.
This seems natural to Japanese people, but may be a major source of stress to patients from
other countries.
An obvious and important soL..rce of stress is that Japanese paperwork has to be
completed in the Japanese language - naturally! However, very few visitors or foreign
residents are capable of reading and writing Japanese well enough to complete the necessary
forms without assistance. This creates embarrassment and feelings ofhelplessness which
compound an already stressful situation. Sooner or later, you will almost certainly be called
upon to assist someone in filling out Japanese forms. Try to consider nGt just the information
that you need to gather, but also the feelings of the patient you are assisting.
Additionally, the health care system in Japan is naturally different from that in a
visit0r's home country. In some ways the Japanese system may be better, in other ways it may
bE' worse. However, just bemg different creates stress in patients who do not know \'.hat to
expect, and do not know what is expected of them. You may have unconscious assumptions
that your breig11 patients understand the system, when in far::t they don't. Witl:om ap1~earing
condescending, be prepared to give clear instructions, in simple language to patients who
need to perform certain tasks in your hospital or clinic.
Finally, you should understand that many people in Japan may seem overly
bureaucratic. Visitors may be used to a much simpler system, where care is provided without
much attention to gathering personal information. This is not always the case, but to some
non-Japanese it may seem that there is too much paperwork, and that they are asked to
provide information which seems irrelevant to health care. You cannot change the system of
your hospital or clinic, but try to be flexible and understanding of the cause of your patient's
stress.
Situation 1: A patient comes to a clinic for the first time.

Receptionist: Is this your first v:sit?

Patient: Yes, it is.
Receptionist: Then you will need to fill out this form. Can you read Japanese?
Patient: Not really. Can you help me?
Receptionist: Certainly. Print your last name here, and your first name here. (Patient

write~

name on form.)
Receptionist: Is this your family name?
Patient: That's right. Now what goes here? (Points to space for address on form.)
Page 35

Receptionist: Your address goes here and your telephone number goes here.
Patient: What does this say? (Pointing to fonn.)
Receptionist: That says age.
Patient: What should I put here?
Receptionist: Put your birthday there - year, month and day.
Patient: That was easy. Thank you.
Receptionist: You're welcome. Now, may I see your health card?
Patient: Here you

a~e.

Receptionist: Thank you. Now, you can have a seat over there, and I will call you in just a
few minutes.
Patterns:

* Is this
... your first visit I your initial visit I your first time
D ... here/to see us

* Have you been here before

*You need to
... fill out this form .
... fill in this registration form
... complete this curd
*Can you
... read J apa11ese
... write Japanese
... read and write Japanese
*Do you understand ...
* Write I print I put
... :,'our last name here
... your surname there
... your family name in this box
* Is this your
... family name I address in Japan I employer's address
*Your
... address I name I age
D ... goes here I there I on that line

Page 36

* That /this says

... age I employer I address

* Put I write I rrint your

... birthday I surname I address here
*May /can I see
... your health card I insurance card I referral letter

* Please show me I Do you have I Did you bring ...

Situation 2: A patient without

t~alth

insuranc".' wishes to make an appointment.

Patient: Hello, I would like to make an app0intment to see the doctor.

Receptionist: Certainly, have you been here before?
Patient: No, this is the first tirr,e.
Receptionist: Then you will have to fill out this form. May I see your health card?
Patient: I don't have Japanese health insurance.
Receptionist: Anyone who stays in Japan more than one year is required to enroll in the
National Health Insurance Plan. Are you working here?
Patient: No, I am an exchange student?
Receptionist: Foreign :::;tudents can :tpply for a health card.
Patient: 1 didn't know that. What should I do?
Receptionist: You can fill in an application at tf:e Ward Offic<::. L1 the meantime, you will
need to pay for any medical treatment personally. But keep the receipts since you may be
able to get a refund from your health insurance ba~k home.
Patient: Thanks for all of your help.
Patterns:

*I would like to
... make I get I arrange an appointment
0 ... to see the doctor I for an examination

*Have you
... been here before I previously
... seen the doctor before
*May I
... see I have your health card I insurance
* Anyone who stays I lives
... in Japan more than one I a year
0 ... is required to/ must I should enroll in the National Health Insurance Plan
Page 37

.'
*If you stay in Japan for ...
* Foreign students I visitors I temporary workers
... can apply for I can get I should have
0 ... a health card I health insurance

* You can I should

... fill in an application I get an application I apply
0 ... at the Ward Office I your school

* You will need I have to pay

... for any medical treatment
0 ... personally I yourself

Discussion:
1. If you were in a foreign country and could not read or write the language, what special

concerns might you have about going to a hospital or clinic?

2. If you worked in a hospital or clinic which had many foreign patients, how might you
prepare yourself to help them with the language?
3. Do you think that temporary visitors should be covered by Japanese National Health
Insurance? What kinds of rules for visitors do you think other countries nave?
4. If you are travelling overseas and become ill, will the Japanese National Health Insurance
pay for y0ur expenses? Wh 1t kinds of rules do you think other countries have for their
re::.idents when they travel?

Page 38

WRITING
We know that effective writing will help students in their coursework but it's equally
important to write well in the workplace. If a job interviewer is considering two qualified
candidates, the candidate who can write well will have the edge. If ycm're interested in
improving your basic writing beyond correct grammar and punctuation, this course will help
you. The more you write, the more confidence you will have in your abilities as a writer.
The best grammar and punctuation in the world can still produce average or even poor
writing if you don't know how to use the sentences _l-irvperly or which type of sentence works
best to get your point across. By the same token, if yc-u can write lyrical sentences but you
string them together inta paragraphs that are a tangled mess, the sense and impact of each
sentence is lost
This course is designed to give students the most flexibility and independence. You set your
own schedule and learn at your convenience. Just because this course is online doesn't mean
you're left on your own. The instructor will be reviewing and grading assignments and is
always available to answer questions through email.
Thi0 course as3umes you have a high school reading and writing level in English, and that
you understand sentence structure, grammar and punctuation.

1.

Writing a

C~mse

and Effect Essay

What is a Cause and Effect Essay?

A cause and effect essay can be defined as,

''A paragraph or essay form which probes and analyzes into the causes (rationale,
r.:asoning and background reasons) along with the effects (consequences, effects and
outcome) for a particular event, happening, condition or behavior".
Typically, students might confuse themselves between a cause and effect essay and a
compare and contrast essay. A cause and effect essay concentrates on the ability of the writer
to hook up the reasons why things happened ami lead to the particular consequences. In
additioa, the writer approaches the sequence of eve!1ts linearly, further analyzing the reasons
and impact vigilantly.
The Domino Effect
At times, an event might trigger another event or happening, which may lead to another
event, and it causes another event to happen. This is known as the causal chain or domino
effect.

Page 39

Format and Outline of a Standard Cause and Effect Essay

Introduction
The introduction consists of statement of thesis topic, thesi:;, statement, background
information and analysis and literature review, if required. The thesis statement is followed
up with by the statement of the main issue by describing the cause in detail with explicit
illustration of circumstances.
First Body Paragraph
The first paragraph of a cause and effect essay introduces and describes the fi:st reason whi.::h
renders the thesis statement o1 hypothesis true. It is followed up by a detailed description and
explanation of the primary reason along with background information or examples and
related material.
Second Body Paragraph
The second paragraph of a cause and effect essay brings in and describes the secondary
reason which renders the thesis statement or hypothesis true. It is followed up by a detailed
description and explanation of the second reason along with establishing a relationship
between the primary and secondary reu.sons or causes.
Third Body Paragraph
The third paragraph of a cause and effect essay states t.he la~t and final reason which effects
the main thesis statement and the primary and secondaj:y cau:;,es. li. estaolishes a correlation
and interdependence among the 3 reasons by m~ans of implementing deduct.ive analysis.
Conclusion
The conclusion recaps the whole essay in general and explicitly states the deductive
reasoning, earlier established from the causes in a categorical order.
Types of Casnal Relationships in Cause and Effect Essays
Necessary Causes
A necessarj' cause is one which needs to be essentially present for a particular event or
happening to occur. A sufficient cause may or may not be accompanied by other causes.
Example: Scientific causes e.g. global warming, natural causes and universal cause and
effect relationships.
Sufficient Causes
A sufficient cause is one which has the ability to produce a certain type of effect
independently but might not be the only source of inducing the designated cause and may or
may not be accompanied by other causes.

Page 40

Example: Social causes e.g. divorce, teenage violence, homosexuality etc.

Contributory Causes
A contributory cause is an impetus which aids in producing a specific effect or outcome but
is not capable of inducing the effect in its independent capacity. A contributory cause is
necessarily accompanied by other causes.

Example: Accidents and events like cars accident or a particular event.

Guide Tips for Drafting Cause an(l Effect Essays
Writing Style

The writing style for (I_ cause and effect essay typically makes use of casual chains, logical
flow of events, systematic order of events and happenings. The writer should make use of
deductive analysis of the existing data to reach provide a logical reasoning of the particular
happening.
Organization

To organize your cause and effect essay, write down all the possible causes that come into
your mind for the specific effect.
Next, nanow down and categori.c:e the causes into parent causes. For examDle if your are
working on the canses of divorce then you can make parent categories of internal; external,
family specific and natural r,aLSPS ancl then assign the sub-causes hke lack o-!:'tolerance,
financial issues, work issues into ea:::L parent cau:se.
Fon;.1at an outline map of your cause and direct inducements. Then, you :::an adjust the map
into your essay structure by f01matting transition words and sentences.
Words and Phrases for Sentence Development in Cause and Effect Essay Writing

as a result

consequently

possibly

certainly

ncce~~ ~rily

initially

above all

finally

leads to

because

due to

probably

may

perhaps

last

equally important

first

unquestionably

therefore

thus

second

undoubtedly

primarily

thereof

Page 41

One reason why ...

The main reasons why

One of the most
important reasons why

There are other

r~a~ons, too, ...
Example:
Sample 1.
There are many reasons why people turn to drugs, and many reasons why they choose
to get help. Some people choose to use drugs because of pressure from family. Others feel
peer pres:>ure from friends. Some people simply want to experiment. 1 here are dso some that
want to get away from a painful reality.
Parents and other family memoers do not realize the damage drugs can do, and how
they can affect their family relations. Family has the power to make people feel the need for
drugs. Recently a friend returned to a detoxification program for alcohol addiction. He was
addicted to alcohol for years, but went to rehabilitation and was clean for over ten months.
His family had been pressing him and felt he was still using drugs, even though he was clean.
Sample 2.
Every day, everywhere we go we get a teenage girl pregnant. As teenagers we don't
realize the long term em~ct that unprotected sex will have on us. Not only do we run the risk
of pregnancy, but we also run the risk of getting a very nasty disease.
l was 5-esh out ofhigh school and my girlfriend (Sarah) was a senior, when we found
out Sarah w2s pregnant! It 'vas a scctry dc.y that day; there were big decisions to make. Should
we have an abortio11? Should we give the baby up for adoption? What will we do for
ilisuranr:e? Should we get manicd? What will we do for money? Me being against abortion
and would not?

3. Cause/effect paragraphs generally follow basic paragrapl1 fonnat. That is, they begin with a
topic sentence and this sentence is followed by specific supporting details. For example, if
the topic sentence introduces an effect, the supporting sentences all describe causes. Here is
an example:

In recent decades, cities have grown so large that now about 50%
of the Earth's population lives in urban areas. There are several
reasons for this occurrence. First, the increasing industrialization of
the nineteenth century resulted in the creation of many factory jobs,
which tended to be located in cities. These jobs, with their promise of
a better material life, attracted many people from rural areas. Second,
there were many schools established to educate the children of the
new factory laborers. The promise of a better education persuaded
many families to leave farming communities and move to the cities.
Finally, as the cities grew, people established places ofleisure,

Page 42

entertainment, and culture, such as sports stadiums, theaters, and

museums. For many people, these facilities made city life appear
more interesting than life on the fann, and therefore drew them away
from rural communities.

Notice how each supporting sentence is a c&use that explains the effect mentioned in the topic
sentence. In the chart below are the main ideas of the above paragraph, to help you
understand the relationships better:

CAUSES

(Topic Sentence)
Cities have grown very
large.
[There are several reasons
for this.]

Factory jobs attracted people.

Better schools attracted families to

(Cities have grown very

large.)

(Cities have grown very

large.)

Places of leisure, entertainment,

&nd culture
made city life appear more
interesting.

Notice also how the topic sentence is followed by the "focusing" or "prediction" sentence,
There are several reasons for this. Such sentences help the reader anticipate the organization
of the paragraph or essa)'.
2. Writing a Compare and Contrast Essay
Compare and Contr3st Essay Examples

Compare and contrast essay examples are some ofthe easiest college essays you will ever
have to write. We compare and contrast things in everyday life such as; choosing a shirt,
choosing what is for dinner, etc. When you are preparing to write your essay, take a look at
some compare and co:!1trast essay examples to see what you will need to include and not
include in your essay. Here are a few tips that can help you get started.
Most compare and contrast essay examples only consist of a title, introduction paragraph, 3
body paragraphs, and the conclusion. This is pretty standard for most essay formats
regardless if it's an essay example or the real thing. But before you begin writing your essay,

Page 43

it is important to brainstonn your topic and create a list of similarities and differences
between the subjects.
You will introduce the subject in your introduction paragraph. Example: "Though both apples
and oranges are a fruit, they have several differei!Ces, such as where they are grown and how
they are processed." Your opening statement should be general enough to follow it with the
necessary infonnation in the paragraphs to come. If you are too specific with your statement,
there will not be any room for explanation in the body paragraphs.
There are several ways you can develop the body paragraphs of your compare and contrast
essay.
1)
You can compare and contrast the elements of the subject in each paragraph. This is
referred to as point-by-point writing.
2)
You can use one paragraph to write about one subject, and the other paragraph to write
about the other subject. And use the final paragraph to do your comparison of the two
subjects.
3)
You can also limit yourself to writing about one similarity and one difference in your
essay.
4)

You can limit yourself to only the similarities or just the differences.

You don't want to confuse the reader, so it is best if you choose one format :me~ use it
throughout your essay. It is a good idea to try different formats in order to :End the one that
suits your topic. In addition to this, it is important to use good transition between pan:graY'hs
in a compare and contrast essay. Transitions make your essay flow from one point to the next.
Another type of fonnat that you can use to write your compare and contrast essay is to use
cue words. Cue words give clues as to whether you are comparing or contrasting the subjects
and make your essay easier to follow.
Good compare and contrast essay examples can show you exactly how to fonnat your
essay and lets you see what a completed essay should look like. Using these examples can
help prepare you to write your own essay, and give you something to compare your final
draft to in order to see if you have succeeded in writiDg a compelling essay.
Apples and oranges. All you need do in writing a compare and contrast essay is take two
subjects and show their similarities and their differences. When writing a compare and
contrast essay, the basic essay form of title, introduction, three paragraph body, and
conclusion makes it one of the easiest essays to wtite.
Before you begin writing, brainstorm to find similarities and differences between your
subjects.

Page 44

- ..

Apple juice and orange juice

Apple juice has no pulp. Orange

has pulp.
Pulp and peeling from oranges is
used in sauce. Applesauce
contains only the pulp of the
pared apple.

~uice

Sauce

Use your essay introduction to introduce both subjects and present the points you intend to
make.
Ex: Huwever, although apples and oranges are both fruits, they ~re each ripe with
differences, some of which are shuwn in the way they are grown and processed.
Format the body of your compare and contrast essay in one of severn.l ways:
1. You can compare and contrast different elements of each subject in each paragraph of
your essay body. This is also called "point by point" compa~ison and contrast.
Example 1:
1. (Compare) Apples and oranges are both tree fruits often grown commercially
in large orchards. (Contrast) However, apples grow in every climate and
oranges need tropical temperatures to produce fruit.
2. (compare) Although both fruits can be juiced, (contrast) apples are pressed and
only the juice is bottled whilt bc:th pulp and juice is squeezed from oranges.
3. (Compare) Again, while fruit saucF: is made fro:!ll both apples and oranges,
usually applesauce comes from the pared and plireed apple (contr&sl.) while
orange sauce may contain both the rind and :~1e P'Ilp of tl-:..e orange.
2. You can use one paragraph to discuss one subject, the seconc1 paragraph to discuss the
other and the final paragraph of the body to compare and contra3t the two subjects.
Example 2:
1. Apples are a tree fruit that is often grown commercially in large orchards. As
well as eaten from the tree, apples are also both pressed into apple juice or
pureed and processed into applesauce.
2. Oranges are also a tree fruit, nften ~rown commercially in large orchards. Like
apples, they can be eaten from the tree, squeezed into juices or processed into
orange sauce.
3. (Compare and contrast points discussed in paragraphs one and two.) One big
difference between apples and oranges is the way they are processed. Notice
that while apples are pressed for juice, orange juice is squeezed from the
orange. Another difference is that while apple juice contains only the liquid
pressed from the apple, orange juice may also contain the pulp fi-om the
orange. Although applesauce contains the pureed pulp of the pared apple,
orange sauce may contain bits of orauge rind as well as the pulp of the fi-uit.
3. You can also limit your essay to discuss only one similarity and one difference
between the two subjects.
4. You can structure you essay to compare only sinilarities or to contrast only
differences between your two subjects.
Page 45

Note: To avoid confusing your reader, it's best to follow the same order of representation in
each paragraph. For instance, in example one notice that the order is subject one (apples,)
comparison, and then contrast and followed by subject two (oranges,) comparison, and then
contrast.
You may want to try a couple of different formats for your topic in order to choose which
best suits your subject. In addition, using appropriate transitions between paragraphs is very
important in writing the compare and contrast essay. Transitions help your essay flow
smoothly from point to point yet keep your essay
on topic.
Cue Words
Another technique in w~compare and
contrast essay is to u s e . _ . that links one
paragraph to the next.cue words. Cue words are
clues to whether you are comparing your subjects
or contrasting them and make it easier for your
reader to understand your points.

~
Similarities
0 Is similar to
0 Both
0 Also
0 Too
0 As well
0 Like

Differences
D On the other hand
0 However
0 But
0 Although
0 Unlike
0 While

Like in any essay, finish your essay by

summarizing the points you made in the body.
Ex: Although each is a commercially grown tree fruit, growing temperatures and
differences in processing apples and oranges clearly makes a distinction vetween the
two fmits.
Appropriate use of transitions and cue words help make your essay conclusion easy to
Sl'mmar:ze. \Vritin.g a contrFlst and compare and es~ay is as ::asy as comparing apples and
oranges!
Sample 1.
Major Differences in Hospitals Today and 100 Years Ago

Medicine has a history spanning many thousands of yea~s and specialized

establishments for treating the sick have also existed for a long period of time. Despite the
fact that hospitals' functions have not changed much durint, the last century, technological
and scient11~..: progress has made possible treatment approa~hes that could not huve be\;n
implemented a hundred years ago and made a large contribution to he:1lth care. The main
differences between hospitals today and a century ago are improved surgical techniques, safer
use of anesthesia, and safer childbirth procedures.
Today, many people take anesthesia for granted and cannot imagine surgery without
local or complete analgesia. Anesthetics are widely-used, and oftentimes, even minor surgery
is done with the mandatory application of these drugs. They have become significantly less
dangerous, and th"' r:ontrol over their usage is applied effectively. This can be attributed to the
invention of there-breathing circuit by Ralph Waters, which facilitated the application of
artificial ventilation during surgery (Stephen 24).
The second significant achievement of modem hospitals is quality supervision over
pregnancy. Today, a woman giving birth can reasonably presume that both she and her child
Page 46

will undergo a healthy process from pregnancy to birth. This has become possible due to the
new and progressive ways of monitoring the status of a mother and her fetus. For instance,
most modem hospitals, with the help of electronic means, can survey a baby's heartbeats
using an internal device positioned directly on the fetus's head which measures the electrical
current produced by the heart (Stephen 26). The cesarean section rate today is approximately
30% in the United States and some birth procedures that were used in the past century have
been revealed as ineffective and have ceased (Berkowitz~ 10). The adoption of new
childbirth technology not only mitigates any risk that might have led to loss oflife or
disability a century ago, but assures a perfect outcome.
These positive changes can be attributed to nume:;ous scientific innovations,
ecor..amic development and better administration pJlicies. Also, decreased levels of illiteracy
both of medical staff and patients should abo be considered. Modem hospitals are
exceptionally scientific and complex institutions and have introduced complex diagnostic and
therapeutic technologies. Many hospitals have also broadened their services and have
transformed into institutions offering health education, research, training and disease
surveillance (Haag en 193 ). Still, this does not mean that modem hospitals do not face
challenges. For example, hospitals, especially those in developing countries, continue to be
plagued with shortages ofhospital beds and other necessities (Haagen 201).
At the same time, a hundred years ago, health care had faced difficulties caused by the
imperfection of treatment methods and drugs. Thus, using anesthesia during surgery a century
ago was linked with danger, sometimes even greater than the surgical procedure itself. The
most popular anesthetics were chloroform and ether, both administered over the patient's
mouth. This led them to fall into a conditior. of deep unconsciousness and many patients lost
their lives as a result of overdose (Haagen 193).
Giving birth to a ~hilda hundred years ago was a challenge as difficult as today, but
the situation was even more complicated due to the absence of modem painkillers and
technologies. A lot of women underwent childbirth with trepidation since they were aware of
a muther, or baby, who had died during this process. Back then, the status of the fetus could
be surveyt:d and monitored only by the means of a specially designed fetal stethoscope. Thus,
it was difficult to predict how the fetus would develop, as well as prevent possible dangers
for mother and child. Lots of women preferred to give birth at home, or just had no access to
hospitals where they could have been taken care of. Although cesarean sections were used
early in the twentieth centnry, the rate of recurrence was low.
Finally, it is important to remember that a hundred years ago, hospitals simply were
far worse equipped and the presence of many diseases as well as the reasons that caused them
were unknown to science. Illnesses that are now successfully cured with several injections of
an appropriate drug could kill a person living a hundred years ago. Besides, sanitary
conditions in cities and villages sometimes were awful and the methods of preventing and
treating epidemics were less effective than today. On the other hand, diseases that would be
resistant to drugs never, or rarely oc~urred and various types of viruses did not mutate at the
rates they do today.
It should be emphasized that there has been a radical transformation in the way
hospitals operate today compared to a century ago. Improvement in anesthetics
administration has made surgery safer and new birth techniques employed by hospitals have
facilitated a smooth child delivery procedure. Most of this can be attributed to new scientific
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innovations. Modern hospitals are not yet in the clear. They still face challenges like the
emergence of new diseases and a lack of adequate facilities which hamper their efforts. When
compared to hospitals that existed a hundred years ago, modem hospitals have transformed
greatly in how they deliver their services.

3. Writing an Argument Essay

How to Write an Argument Essay

Planning Si.age
For an argument es:::ay to be effective, it musi. contain certain elements. For this reason, you
must take a few minutes to plan and prepare before you jump into writing an argument essay.

Find a Good Topic

To find good topic for an argument essay you should consider several issues that will have
two conflicting points of view or very different conclusions. As you look over a list of topics
you should find one that really sparks your interest.
While a strong interest in a topic is important, it's not enough to be interested. You have to
consider what position yon can back up with reasoning and evidence. It's one thing to hav~
strong belief, but when shaping an argument you'll have to explain why your belief is
reasonable and logical.

As you explore the topics, make a mental list of points you could use as evidence for or
against an issue.

Consider Both Sides of Your Topic and Take a Position

Once you have selected a topic you feel strongly about, you should make a list of points for
both sides ofthe argument and pick a side. One of your first objectives in your essay will be
to present both sides of your issue with an assessment of each. Of course, you will conclude
that one side (your side) is the best conclusion.
In the planning stage you will need to
you'll shoot them down!

consid~r

strong arguments for the "other" side. Then

Gather Evidence
When we think of arguments we might picture two red-faced people speaking quite loudly
and making dramatic gestures. But that's because face-to-face arguments often become
emotional. In fact, the act of arguing involves providing proof to support your claim, with or
without emotions.

In an argument essay you will have to provide evidence without providing too much drama.
You'll explore two sides of a topic (briefly) and provide proof as to why one side or position
is the 'best one.
Writing Stage

Once you've given yourself a solid foundation to work with, you can begin to craft your
essay. An argument essay should contain three parts: the introduction, the body, and the
conclusion. The length of these parts (number of paragraphs) will vary, depending on the
length of your essay assignment.
1. Introduce your topic and assert your side

As in any essay, the first paragraph of your argument essay should contain a brief explanation
of your topic, some background information, and a thesis statement. In this case, your thesis
will be a statement of your position on a particular controversial topic.
Example introductory paragraph with thesis statement:
Since the tum of the new century, a theory has emerged concerning the end of the world, or at
least the end of life as we know it. This new theory centers around the year 2012, a date that
many claim has mysterious origins in ancient manuscripts from many different cultures. The
most noted characteristic ofthis date is that it appears to mark the end of the Mayan calendar.
But there is no evidence to suggest that the Maya saw ar.y grea.t relevance to this date. In fact,
none of the claims surrounding a 2012 doomsday event hold up to scientific inquiry. The year
2012 will pass without a major, life-altering catastrophe.
2. Present both sides of the controversy

The body of your essay will comain the meat of your argument. You should go into more
detail about the two sides of your controversy and state the strongest points of the counterside of your issue.
After describing the "other" side, you will present your own viewpoint and then provide
evidence to show why your position is the correct one.
Select your strongest evidence and present your points on~;; JY one. Use a mix of evideuce
types, from statistics, to other studies and anecdotal stories. This part of your paper could be
any length, from two paragraphs to two hundred pages.
Re-state your position as the most sensible one in your summary paragraphs.
Tips for Your Essay:

A void emotional language

Know the difference between a logical conclusion and an emotional point of view
Don't make up evidence
Cite your sources
Make an outline

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Be prepared to defend your side by knowing the strongest arguments for the other
side. You might be challenged by the teacher or by another student.

Argumentative essay:
In my argumentative coursework I am arguing that abortion is wrong and not to be
mistaken with 'Abortion should be made illegal.' I will explain later why I have made this
statement. Abortion is the termination of an unborn child in its mother's womb for up to
twenty four weeks of the pregnancy or in special circumstances e.g. Disability diagnosis a
termination right up until the mother goes in to labor. I think +he above definition is an easier
and less harsh way of saying that abortion is the mw..<derin; of a human being
Argumentative Essay:
Smoking Should be Banned in Public Places Smoking is one of the leading killers in
North America and innocent people shouldn't die because of it. For years people have been
smoking in public thinking 'it's my body, I can do whatever I want to it,' but now that it has
been proven that smoking not only harms the smoker, but also those around him or her. They
should not be allowed to smoke around other people in public. Smoking in public places
causes a considerable amount of harm to people and the government should be doing more to
protect its citizens Cigarettes are full of many harmful substances and if many pP-ople knew
what they were inhaling they would probably quit immediately

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