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Reynolds number - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Reynolds number
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless

quantity that is used to help predict similar flow patterns in different
fluid flow situations. The concept was introduced by George Gabriel
Stokes in 1851,[2] but the Reynolds number is named after Osborne
Reynolds (18421912), who popularized its use in 1883.[3][4]
The Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to
viscous forces and consequently quantifies the relative importance
of these two types of forces for given flow conditions.[5] Reynolds
numbers frequently arise when performing scaling of fluid dynamics
problems, and as such can be used to determine dynamic similitude
between two different cases of fluid flow. They are also used to
characterize different flow regimes within a similar fluid, such as
laminar or turbulent flow:

A vortex street around a cylinder.

This occurs around cylinders, for any
fluid, cylinder size and fluid speed,
provided that there is a Reynolds
number of between ~40 and 103. [1]

laminar flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers, where viscous forces are dominant, and is
characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion;
turbulent flow occurs at high Reynolds numbers and is dominated by inertial forces, which tend to
produce chaotic eddies, vortices and other flow instabilities.
In practice, matching the Reynolds number is not on its own sufficient to guarantee similitude. Fluid flow is
generally chaotic, and very small changes to shape and surface roughness can result in very different flows.
Nevertheless, Reynolds numbers are a very important guide and are widely used.

Contents
1 Definition
1.1 Flow in pipe
1.2 Flow in a wide duct
1.3 Flow in an open channel
1.4 Flow around airfoils
1.5 Object in a fluid
1.5.1 In viscous fluids
1.5.2 Sphere in a fluid
1.5.3 Oblong object in a fluid
1.5.4 Fall velocity
1.6 Packed bed
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1.7 Stirred vessel

2 Transition and turbulent flow
3 Pipe friction
4 Similarity of flows
5 Smallest scales of turbulent motion
6 In physiology
7 Derivation
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links

Definition
The Reynolds number can be defined for several different situations where a fluid is in relative motion to a
surface.[n 1] These definitions generally include the fluid properties of density and viscosity, plus a velocity
and a characteristic length or characteristic dimension. This dimension is a matter of convention for
example radius and diameter are equally valid to describe spheres or circles, but one is chosen by
convention. For aircraft or ships, the length or width can be used. For flow in a pipe or a sphere moving in a
fluid the internal diameter is generally used today. Other shapes such as rectangular pipes or non-spherical
objects have an equivalent diameter defined. For fluids of variable density such as compressible gases or
fluids of variable viscosity such as non-Newtonian fluids, special rules apply. The velocity may also be a
matter of convention in some circumstances, notably stirred vessels. The Reynolds number is defined below
for each case.
[6]

where:
is the mean velocity of the object relative to the fluid (SI units: m/s)
is a characteristic linear dimension, (travelled length of the fluid; hydraulic diameter when dealing
with river systems) (m)
is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pas or Ns/m or kg/(ms))
is the kinematic viscosity (

) (m/s)

is the density of the fluid (kg/m).

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Note that multiplying the Reynolds number by

yields

, which is the ratio of the inertial forces

to the viscous forces.[7] It could also be considered the ratio of the total momentum transfer to the molecular
momentum transfer.

Flow in pipe
For flow in a pipe or tube, the Reynolds number is generally defined as:[8]

where:
is the hydraulic diameter of the pipe; its characteristic travelled length,

, (m).

is the volumetric flow rate (m3/s).

is the pipe cross-sectional area (m).
is the mean velocity of the fluid (SI units: m/s).
is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pas = Ns/m = kg/(ms)).
is the kinematic viscosity (

(m/s).

is the density of the fluid (kg/m).

For shapes such as squares, rectangular or annular ducts where the height and width are comparable, the
characteristical dimension for internal flow situations is taken to be the hydraulic diameter,
, defined
as:

where A is the cross-sectional area and P is the wetted perimeter. The wetted perimeter for a channel is the
total perimeter of all channel walls that are in contact with the flow.[9] This means the length of the channel
exposed to air is not included in the wetted perimeter.
For a circular pipe, the hydraulic diameter is exactly equal to the inside pipe diameter,

. That is,

For an annular duct, such as the outer channel in a tube-in-tube heat exchanger, the hydraulic diameter can
be shown algebraically to reduce to

where
is the inside diameter of the outside pipe, and
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is the outside diameter of the inside pipe.

For calculations involving flow in non-circular ducts, the hydraulic diameter can be substituted for the
diameter of a circular duct, with reasonable accuracy.

Flow in a wide duct

For a fluid moving between two plane parallel surfaceswhere the width is much greater than the space
between the platesthen the characteristic dimension is twice the distance between the plates.[10]

Flow in an open channel

For flow of liquid with a free surface, the hydraulic radius must be determined. This is the cross-sectional
area of the channel divided by the wetted perimeter. For a semi-circular channel, it is half the radius. For a
rectangular channel, the hydraulic radius is the cross-sectional area divided by the wetted perimeter. Some
texts then use a characteristic dimension that is four times the hydraulic radius, chosen because it gives the
same value of Re for the onset of turbulence as in pipe flow,[11] while others use the hydraulic radius as the
characteristic length-scale with consequently different values of Re for transition and turbulent flow.

Flow around airfoils

Reynolds numbers are used in airfoil design to (among other things) manage "Scale Effect" when
computing/comparing characteristics (a tiny wing, scaled to be huge, will perform differently).[12] Fluid
dynamicists define the chord Reynolds number, R, like this: R = Vc / where V is the flight speed, c is the
chord, and is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid in which the airfoil operates, which is 1.460x105 m2/s
for the atmosphere at sea level.[13] In some special studies a characteristic length other than chord may be
used; rare is the "span Reynolds number" which is not to be confused with span-wise stations on a wing
where chord is still used.[14]

Object in a fluid
The Reynolds number for an object in a fluid, called the particle Reynolds number and often denoted Rep,
is important when considering the nature of the surrounding flow, whether or not vortex shedding will
occur, and its fall velocity.
In viscous fluids
Where the viscosity is naturally high, such as polymer solutions and polymer melts, flow is normally
laminar. The Reynolds number is very small and Stokes' Law can be used to measure the viscosity of the
fluid. Spheres are allowed to fall through the fluid and they reach the terminal velocity quickly, from which
the viscosity can be determined.
The laminar flow of polymer solutions is exploited by animals such as fish and dolphins, who exude
viscous solutions from their skin to aid flow over their bodies while swimming. It has been used in yacht
racing by owners who want to gain a speed advantage by pumping a polymer solution such as low
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molecular weight polyoxyethylene in water, over the wetted surface of the hull.
It is, however, a problem for mixing of polymers, because turbulence is needed to distribute fine filler (for
example) through the material. Inventions such as the "cavity transfer mixer" have been developed to
produce multiple folds into a moving melt so as to improve mixing efficiency. The device can be fitted onto
extruders to aid mixing.
Sphere in a fluid
For a sphere in a fluid, the characteristic length-scale is the diameter of the sphere and the characteristic
velocity is that of the sphere relative to the fluid some distance away from the sphere, such that the motion
of the sphere does not disturb that reference parcel of fluid. The density and viscosity are those belonging to
the fluid.[15] Note that purely laminar flow only exists up to Re = 10 under this definition.
Under the condition of low Re, the relationship between force and
speed of motion is given by Stokes' law.[16]
Oblong object in a fluid
The equation for an oblong object is identical to that of a sphere,
with the object being approximated as an ellipsoid and the axis of
length being chosen as the characteristic length scale. Such
considerations are important in natural streams, for example, where
there are few perfectly spherical grains. For grains in which
measurement of each axis is impractical, sieve diameters are used
instead as the characteristic particle length-scale. Both
approximations alter the values of the critical Reynolds number.
Fall velocity
The particle Reynolds number is important in determining the fall
velocity of a particle. When the particle Reynolds number indicates
laminar flow, Stokes' law can be used to calculate its fall velocity.
When the particle Reynolds number indicates turbulent flow, a
turbulent drag law must be constructed to model the appropriate
settling velocity.

Packed bed
For fluid flow through a bed of approximately spherical particles of
diameter D in contact, if the "voidage" is and the "superficial
velocity" is vs, the Reynolds number can be defined as:[17]

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Qualitative behaviors of fluid flow

over a cylinder depends to a large
extent on Reynolds number; similar
flow patterns often appear when the
shape and Reynolds number is
matched, although other parameters
like surface roughness have a big
effect

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or

or

The choice of equation depends on the system involved: the first is

successful in correlating the data for various types of packed and
fludized beds, the second Reynolds number suits for the liquid-phase
data, while the third was found successful in correlating the fludized
bed data, being first introduced for liquid fluidized bed system.[17]
Laminar conditions apply up to Re = 10, fully turbulent from 2000.[15]

Stirred vessel
In a cylindrical vessel stirred by a central rotating paddle, turbine or
propeller, the characteristic dimension is the diameter of the agitator
. The velocity is
where
is the rotational speed. Then the
Reynolds number is:

Creeping flow past a sphere:

streamlines, drag force Fd and
force by gravity Fg.

The system is fully turbulent for values of Re above 10 000.[18]

Transition and turbulent flow

In boundary layer flow over a flat plate, experiments confirm that, after a certain length of flow, a laminar
boundary layer will become unstable and turbulent. This instability occurs across different scales and with
different fluids, usually when
,[19] where is the distance from the leading edge of the
flat plate, and the flow velocity is the freestream velocity of the fluid outside the boundary layer.
For flow in a pipe of diameter , experimental observations show that for "fully developed" flow,[n 2]
laminar flow occurs when
and turbulent flow occurs when
.[20] In the
interval between 2000 and 3000, laminar and turbulent flows are possible and are called "transition" flows,
depending on other factors, such as pipe roughness and flow uniformity. This result is generalized to noncircular channels using the hydraulic diameter, allowing a transition Reynolds number to be calculated for
other shapes of channel.
These transition Reynolds numbers are also called critical Reynolds numbers, and were studied by Osborne
Reynolds around 1895.[4] The critical Reynolds number is different for every geometry.[21]
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Pipe friction
Pressure drops seen for fully developed flow of fluids through pipes
can be predicted using the Moody diagram which plots the Darcy
Weisbach friction factor against Reynolds number
and
relative roughness
. The diagram clearly shows the laminar,
transition, and turbulent flow regimes as Reynolds number
increases. The nature of pipe flow is strongly dependent on whether
the flow is laminar or turbulent.

Similarity of flows
In order for two flows to be similar they must have the same
geometry, and have equal Reynolds numbers and Euler numbers.
When comparing fluid behavior at corresponding points in a model
and a full-scale flow, the following holds:

The Moody diagram, which describes

the DarcyWeisbach friction factor f
as a function of the Reynolds number
and relative pipe roughness.

quantities marked with 'm' concern the flow around the model and the others the actual flow. This allows
engineers to perform experiments with reduced models in water channels or wind tunnels, and correlate the
data to the actual flows, saving on costs during experimentation and on lab time. Note that true dynamic
similitude may require matching other dimensionless numbers as well, such as the Mach number used in
compressible flows, or the Froude number that governs open-channel flows. Some flows involve more
dimensionless parameters than can be practically satisfied with the available apparatus and fluids, so one is
forced to decide which parameters are most important. For experimental flow modeling to be useful, it
requires a fair amount of experience and judgement of the engineer.

Smallest scales of turbulent motion

In a turbulent flow, there is a range of scales of the time-varying fluid motion. The size of the largest scales
of fluid motion (sometimes called eddies) are set by the overall geometry of the flow. For instance, in an
industrial smoke stack, the largest scales of fluid motion are as big as the diameter of the stack itself. The
size of the smallest scales is set by the Reynolds number. As the Reynolds number increases, smaller and
smaller scales of the flow are visible. In a smoke stack, the smoke may appear to have many very small
velocity perturbations or eddies, in addition to large bulky eddies. In this sense, the Reynolds number is an
indicator of the range of scales in the flow. The higher the Reynolds number, the greater the range of scales.
The largest eddies will always be the same size; the smallest eddies are determined by the Reynolds
number.
What is the explanation for this phenomenon? A large Reynolds number indicates that viscous forces are
not important at large scales of the flow. With a strong predominance of inertial forces over viscous forces,
the largest scales of fluid motion are undampedthere is not enough viscosity to dissipate their motions.
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The kinetic energy must "cascade" from these large scales to progressively smaller scales until a level is
reached for which the scale is small enough for viscosity to become important (that is, viscous forces
become of the order of inertial ones). It is at these small scales where the dissipation of energy by viscous
action finally takes place. The Reynolds number indicates at what scale this viscous dissipation occurs.

In physiology
Poiseuille's law on blood circulation in the body is dependent on laminar flow. In turbulent flow the flow
rate is proportional to the square root of the pressure gradient, as opposed to its direct proportionality to
pressure gradient in laminar flow.
Using the definition of the Reynolds number we can see that a large diameter with rapid flow, where the
density of the blood is high, tends towards turbulence. Rapid changes in vessel diameter may lead to
turbulent flow, for instance when a narrower vessel widens to a larger one. Furthermore, a bulge of
atheroma may be the cause of turbulent flow, where audible turbulence may be detected with a stethoscope.

Derivation
The Reynolds number can be obtained when one uses the nondimensional form of the incompressible
Navier-Stokes equations for a newtonian fluid expressed in the lagrangian derivative:

Each term in the above equation has the units of a "body force" (force per unit volume) with the same
dimensions of a density times an acceleration. Each term is thus dependent on the exact measurements of a
flow. When one renders the equation nondimensional, that is when we multiply it by a factor with inverse
units of the base equation, we obtain a form which does not depend directly on the physical sizes. One
possible way to obtain a nondimensional equation is to multiply the whole equation by the following factor:

where:
is the mean velocity,

or , relative to the fluid (m/s).

is the characteristic length (m).

is the fluid density (kg/m).
If we now set:

we can rewrite the Navier-Stokes equation without dimensions:

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where the term

Finally, dropping the primes for ease of reading:

This is why mathematically all newtonian, incompressible flows with the same Reynolds number are
comparable. Notice also, in the above equation, as
the viscous terms vanish. Thus, high
Reynolds number flows are approximately inviscid in the free-stream.

See also
Reynolds transport theorem
Drag coefficient
Deposition (geology)

Notes
1. ^ The definition of the Reynolds number is not to be confused with the Reynolds equation or lubrication
equation.
2. ^ Full development of the flow occurs as the flow enters the pipe, the boundary layer thickens and then stabilizes
after several diameters distance into the pipe.

References
1. ^ Tansley, Claire E.; Marshall, David P. (2001). "Flow past a Cylinder on a Plane, with Application to Gulf
Stream Separation and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current"
(http://www.met.reading.ac.uk/~ocean/Dynamics/pub/tm01b.pdf). Journal of Physical Oceanography 31 (11):
32743283. Bibcode:2001JPO....31.3274T (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001JPO....31.3274T).
doi:10.1175/1520-0485(2001)031<3274:FPACOA>2.0.CO;2 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1175%2F15200485%282001%29031%3C3274%3AFPACOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2).
2. ^ Stokes, George (1851). "On the Effect of the Internal Friction of Fluids on the Motion of Pendulums".
Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 9: 8106. Bibcode:1851TCaPS...9....8S
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1851TCaPS...9....8S).
3. ^ Reynolds, Osborne (1883). "An experimental investigation of the circumstances which determine whether the
motion of water shall be direct or sinuous, and of the law of resistance in parallel channels". Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society 174 (0): 935982. doi:10.1098/rstl.1883.0029
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1883.0029). JSTOR 109431 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/109431).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reynolds_number

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(http://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1883.0029).
JSTOR 109431 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/109431).

4. ^ a b Rott, N. (1990). "Note on the history of the Reynolds number". Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 22 (1):
111. Bibcode:1990AnRFM..22....1R (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990AnRFM..22....1R).
doi:10.1146/annurev.fl.22.010190.000245 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.fl.22.010190.000245).
5. ^ Falkovich, G. (2011). Fluid Mechanics (http://www.weizmann.ac.il/complex/falkovich/fluid-mechanics).
Cambridge University Press.
6. ^ Reynolds Number (http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/BGH/reynolds.html)
7. ^ Batchelor, G. K. (1967). An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 211215.
8. ^ "Reynolds Number" (http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/reynolds-number-d_237.html).
Engineeringtoolbox.com.
9. ^ Holman, J. P. Heat Transfer. McGraw Hill.
10. ^ Fox, R. W.; McDonald, A. T.; Pritchard, Phillip J. (2004). Introduction to Fluid Mechanics (6th ed.).
Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons. p. 348. ISBN 0-471-20231-2.
11. ^ Streeter, V. L. (1962). Fluid Mechanics (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
12. ^ P. B. S. Lissaman (1983). "Low-Reynolds-Number Airfoils,"
(http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.fl.15.010183.001255). Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. (15): 223
39. doi:10.1146/annurev.fl.15.010183.001255 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.fl.15.010183.001255).
13. ^ ISO. "International Standard Atmosphere" (http://wwwmdp.eng.cam.ac.uk/web/library/enginfo/aerothermal_dvd_only/aero/atmos/atmos.html). eng.cam.ac.uk.
14. ^ Uwe Ehrenstein; Christophe Eloy. "Skin friction on a moving wall and its implications for swimming animals"
(https://www.irphe.fr/~eloy/PDF/JFM2013b.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 11 February 2014.
15. ^ a b Rhodes, M. (1989). Introduction to Particle Technology (http://books.google.com/books?
id=P9Qgvh7kMP8C&pg=PA29). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-98482-5.
16. ^ Dusenbery, David B. (2009). Living at Micro Scale. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. p. 49.
ISBN 978-0-674-03116-6.
17. ^ a b Dwivedi, P. N. (1977). "Particle-fluid mass transfer in fixed and fluidized beds". Industrial & Engineering
Chemistry Process Design and Development 16 (2): 157165. doi:10.1021/i260062a001
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fi260062a001).
18. ^ Sinnott, R. K. Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering, Volume 6: Chemical Engineering Design (4th
ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 73. ISBN 0-7506-6538-6.
19. ^ De Witt, D. P. (1990). Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer. New York: Wiley.
20. ^ Holman, J. P. (2002). Heat Transfer. McGraw-Hill. p. 207.
21. ^ Shih, Merle C. Potter, Michigan State University, David C. Wiggert, Michigan State University, Bassem
Ramadan, Kettering University ; with Tom I-P. (2012). Mechanics of fluids (Fourth edition. ed.). p. 105.
ISBN 978-0-495-66773-5.

Further reading
Zagarola, M. V. and Smits, A. J., "Experiments in High Reynolds Number Turbulent Pipe Flow."
AIAA paper #96-0654, 34th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting, Reno, Nevada, January 1518,
1996.
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Jermy M., "Fluid Mechanics A Course Reader," Mechanical Engineering Dept., University of
Canterbury, 2005, pp. d5.10.
Hughes, Roger "Civil Engineering Hydraulics," Civil and Environmental Dept., University of
Melbourne 1997, pp. 107152
Fouz, Infaz "Fluid Mechanics," Mechanical Engineering Dept., University of Oxford, 2001, p. 96
E. M. Purcell. "Life at Low Reynolds Number", American Journal of Physics vol 45, pp. 311 (1977)
[1] (http://jilawww.colorado.edu/perkinsgroup/Purcell_life_at_low_reynolds_number.pdf)
Truskey, G. A., Yuan, F, Katz, D. F. (2004). Transport Phenomena in Biological Systems Prentice
Hall, pp. 7. ISBN 0-13-042204-5. ISBN 978-0-13-042204-0.

External links
The Reynolds Number
(http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/reynolds.htm) at Sixty
Symbols

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