1

Highway Alignment and Surveys

Highway alignment:The position or the layout of the centre line of the highway on
the ground is called the alignment. The horizontal alignment. The
horizontal alignment includes the straight path, the horizontal
deviations and curves, changes in gradient and vertical curves are
covered under vertical alignment of roads.
A new road should be aligned very carefully as Improper
alignment would result in or more of the following disadvantages:a)

Increase in construction cost.

b)

Increase in maintenance cost.

c)

Increase in vehicle operation cost.

d)

Increase in accident rate.

Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to

change the alignment due to Increase in cost of adjoining land and

construction of

costly structures by the road side. Hence the

important of careful consideration while finalizing the alignment of a

new road need not be over emphasized.
Requirements:The basic requirements of an ideal alignment between 2
terminal stations are that it should be :
a) short.
b) Easy
c) Safe
d) Economical.

Short: -It is desirable to have a short alignment between two

terminal stations.

A Straight

alignment

would

be

though there may be several practical considerations

would cause deviation from the

shortest
which

shortest path.

Easy: - The alignment should be such that its is easy to construct

and maintain

the roads

alignment should be

with

minimum

problems.

Also

the

easy for operation of vehicles with easy

gradients and curves.

Safe: - The alignment should be safe enough for construction and
maintenance from the view point of stability of natural hill
slopes,

embankment and cut slopes and

embankments also it

foundation

of

should be safe for the traffic operation with

geometric features.
Economical:- The road alignment could be considered economical
only if the total cost including initial cos5, maintenance cost and
vehicle
operation cost is lowest. All these factors should
be given due
consideration before working out the
economics of each
alignment.
The alignment should be such that it would offer maximum
utility by serving maximum population and products.
Factors controlling alignment
For alignment to be shortest, it should be straight between the
2 terminal stations. This is not always possible due to various
practical difficulties such as intermediate obstructions and
topography. A shortest route may have very steep gradients and
hence not easy for vehicle operation. Similarly, there may be
construction and maintenance problems along a route, which may
otherwise be short and easy. Roads are often deviated from the
shortest route in order to cater for intermediate places of
importance or obligatory points.
A road which is economical in the initial construction cost,
need not necessarily be the most economical in maintenance or in
vehicle operation cost. It may also happen that the shortest and
4

easiest route for vehicle operation may work out to be the costliest
of the different alternatives from construction viewpoint. Thus it
may be seen that an alignment can seldom fulfil all requirements
simultaneously; hence a judicial choice is made considering all
factors.
The various factors that control the highway alignment in
general may be listed as:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Obligatory points.
Traffic
Geometric design
Economics
Other considerations.

In hill roads additional care has to be given for;

a)
Stability
b)
Drainage
c)
Geometric standards of hill roads and
d)
Resisting length
a) Obligatory Points: There are control points governing the
alignment of the highways. These control points may be divided
broadly into 2 categories.
1)
2)

Points through which the alignment is to pass

Points through which the alignment should not
pass.

1)

Obligatory points through which the road alignment has

to pass may cause the alignment to often deviate from
the shortest or easiest path.

2)

Obligatory points through which road should not pass

also may make it necessary to deviate from the
proposed shortest alignment. The obligatory points
shortest alignment. The obligatory points which should
be avoided while aligning a road include religious
places, very costly structures, unsuitable land etc.,

b) Traffic: The alignment should suit traffic requirements. Origin

and destination study should be carried out in the area and the
desire lines be drawn showing the trend of traffic flow. The new
road to be aligned should keep in view the desired lines, traffic
flow patterns and future trends.

c) Geometric design: Geometric design factors such as gradient,

radius of curve and sight distance also would govern the final
alignment of highway

Engineering surveys for highway locations.

Before a highway alignment is finalised in highways project, the
engineering surveys are to be carried out. The surveys may be
completed in 4 stages.
The stages of the engineering surveys are:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Map study.
Reconnaissance.
Preliminary surveys
Final location and detailed surveys.

1. Map study:
If the topography map of the area is available, it is possible to
suggest the likely routes to the road. In India, topographic maps
are available from the Survey of India with 15 or 30m
countdown intervals. The main features like rivers, hill, valleys,
etc., are also so shown on these maps. By careful study of maps,
it is possible to have an idea of several possible alternate routes
so that further details of these may be studied later at the site.
2. Reconnaissance: The second stage of surveys for highway
location is the reconnaissance to examine the general character
of the area for deciding the most general character of the area
for deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies.
A field survey party may inspect a fairly road stretch of
land along the proposed alternative routes of map in the field.
Only very simple instrument like abney level, tangent clinometer,
barometer etc., All relevant details not available in the maps are
collected and noted down. Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land,
ridge, hills, permanent structures and other obstructions along
the route which are not available in the map. Approximate
values of gradient, length of gradients and radius of curves of
alternate alignments.

Preliminary survey:
6

The main objectives of the preliminary survey are.

1. To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after
the reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary
physical information and details of topography, drainage
and soil.
2. To compare the different proposals in view of requirements
of a good alignments.
3. To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other
construction aspects and to workout the cost of alternate
proposals.
4. To finalise the best alignment from all considerations.
Final location and detailed survey:
The alignment finalised at the design office after the preliminary
survey is to be first located on the field by establishing the centre
line. Next detailed survey should be carried out for collecting the
information necessary for the preparation of plans and constructions
details for the highway project.
Location:
The centre line of the road finalised in the drawings is to be
translated on the ground during the location survey. This is done
using a transit theodolite and by staking of the centre line. The
location of the centre line should follow, as closely as practicable,
the alignment is finalised after the preliminary surveys.
Detailed surveys:
Temporary benchmarks are fixed t interval of about 250 metres
and at ll drainage and under pass structures. Levels along the final
centre line should be taken at all staked points. Levelling work is of
great importance as the vertical alignment, earth work calculations
and drainage details are to be worked out from the level notes. All
river crossing, valley etc., should be surveyed in details upto
considerable distances on either side. CBR values of soils along the
alignments may be determined for designing the pavement.

Drawing And Report

Drawings:
1. Key plan showing the road between maklidurga railway
stations and hadonahally, via temple.
2. Contour plan of the given real stretch of length 1.0 km and
given width, showing all details of the road and other features
(Plane table and direct conforming).
3. Longitudinal section showing all details including the centre
line of existing road and realigned road after redesign.
Scale: 1cm=20m (PLAN) 1=2000 horizontal, 1=200 vertical.
4. Total 10 typical c/s are taken at straight and curved sections
of the road showing existing cross section details(Including
shoulder and side drains and proposed sections after
realignment, scale and of the proposed sections after
realignment)
Scale: 1=100(Vertical)
1=100(Horizontal)
5. Typical pavement cross sections:
All the drawing should be done by individual batches on
the same day of the work and should be shown to the concerned
staff.
Estimates:
The project estimates should consist of general abstract of
cost and detailed estimates for each major head.
Project Report:
The project report forms an important part of the project
document.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Objectives.
Minimum geometric design standards as per IRC.
Field work details.
Geometric deficiency and re-design details.
Laboratory work and graphs.
Pavement design details.
Mix design details.
Estimation of quantities of materials
Drawing
Recommendations.
8

Highway Project:
New Highway Project:
The new highway project work may be divided into the following
stages;
1.
2.
3.

Route selection.
Collection of materials.
Construction stages including quality control

Steps in new project work:

1. Map study

: With help of available topographic

maps of the area.

2. Reconnaissance Survey: A general idea of a topography and

other
features,
soil
identification.
2

3. Preliminary survey
survey

: Topographic details and soil

along alternate alignments,
consideration of geometric design

and
other requirements of alignments.
4. Location of final
alignments
driving pegs
chosen
5. Detailed survey

: Transfer of the alignment from the

drawings to the ground by
along the centre line of finally
alignment.
: Survey of the highway construction
work for preparation of longitudinal

and
cross-sections, computations of earth
work, quantities and other
construction
materials and details of geometric
design.
6. Materials survey
their

: Survey of construction materials,

collection and testing.

7. Design
cut

: Design details of embankment and

slopes, foundation of
embankments
and bridges, pavement layers.
8. Earth Work

: Excavations for highway cutting and

drainage system, construction of
embankments.

9.Pavement Constructions :
construction

Preparation

of

sub-grade

of sub-base and surface courses.

10. Construction Controls

: Quality control tests during different

stages of constructions and to check
the road.

Re-alignment project
Necessity of re-alignment:
1. Improvements of horizontal alignment design elements, such as
radius, super elevation, transition curves, clearance on the inner
side of the curve of shifting the curve to provide adequate sight
distance elimination of reverse curves and undesirable zig-zag
etc.,
2. Improvements of vertical alignments like steep gradients,
changes in summit curves to increase sight distance. Correction
of undesirable undulations like humps and dip etc.,
3. Raising the level of a portion of a road which is subjected to
flooding, submergence or water logging during monsoons.
4. Re-construction of weak and narrow bridges, and culverts and
changes in water-way at locations slightly away from the
existing site.
5. Construction of over bridges or under bridges
6. Construction of a bypass.
7. Defence requirements.

10

11

Highway Geometric Design

Importance of geometric design:
The geometric design of a highway deals with the dimensions
and layout of visible features of the highway such as alignment,
sight distances and intersections.
The geometrics of highway should be designed to provide
optimum efficiency in traffic operations with maximum safety at
reasonable cost. The designer may be exposed to either planning of
new highway new work or improvement of existing highways to
meet the requirement of the existing and anticipated traffic.
It is possible to design and construct the pavement of the road
in stages; but it is very expensive and rather difficult to improve the
geometric elements of a road in stages at a later date.
Geometric design of highway deals with following elements:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Cross section elements

Sight distance considerations
Horizontal alignment details
Vertical alignment details
Intersection elements

Highway Cross-Section Elements:

Pavement surface characteristics:
The pavement surface depends on the pavement type which
is decided based on the availability of materials and funds, volume
and composition of traffic, sub-grade and climatic conditions,
construction facilities and cost consideration.
Friction:
The friction between vehicle tyre and pavement surface is one
of the factors determining the operating speed and distance
requirements in stopping and accelerating the vehicles. When a
vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, lateral friction developed
12

counteracts the centrifugal force and thus governs the sage

operating speed. Skid occurs when slide without revolving or when
the wheels partially revolve. When the path travelled along the road
surface is more than the circumferential movements of wheels due
to their rotation.
Slip occurs when a wheel revolves more than the corresponding
longitudinal movement along the roads.
Longitudinal friction coefficient values of 0.35 to 0.40 have been
recommended by IRC depending on speed.
For horizontal curve design, IRC has recommended the lateral
coefficient of friction of 0.15.
Pavement uneveness:
Pavement uneveness measured using Profilograph, Profilometer
or Roughometer.
An equipment capable of integrating the
uneveness of pavement surface to a cumulative scale and that gives
the uneveness index of the surface in cm/km length of road.
The U.S. Bureau of public roads Roughometer is one such device
which could be towed by an automobile.
Uneveness Index
Cm/km
In old pavements
In Below 95
95 to 119
120 to 144
145 to 240
Above 240
In new Pavements
Below 120
120 to 145
Above 145

Riding Quality
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor (Possible resurfing)
Very
Poor
(resurfing
required)
Good (acceptable)
Fair (acceptable)
Poor (not acceptable)

Cross Slope or Camber:

Cross slope or Camber is the slope provided to the road surface
in the traverse direction to drain off the rain water from the road
surface. Important reason:
1. To prevent the entry of surface water to the sub grade soil
through pavement, the stability, surface condition and life of
the pavement get adversely affected if the water enters in the
sub-grade and soil gets soaked.
13

2. To prevent the entry of water into the bituminous pavement

layer.
Types of road surface

Range of Camber

Heavy to Light
Cement Concrete and high 1 in 50(2.0%)
type bituminous surface
60(1.7%)
Thin bituminous surface
1 in 40(2.5%)
50(2.0%)
Water bound macadam
1 in 33(3.0%)
40(2.5%)
Earth
1 in 25(4.0%)
33(3.0%)

1.
2.
3.
4.

to

in

to

in

to

in

to

in

For the project: Thin bituminous surface of 1 in 40 Camber is

selected.
Width of pavement or Carriageway:
The pavement or carriageway width depends on the width of
traffic lane and number of lanes. The lane width is determined on
the basis of width of vehicle and minimum clearance, which may be
provided for safety.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Class of road
Single lane
Two lanes, without raised kerbs
Two Lanes with, raised kerbs
Intermediate Carriageway
Multi-lane pavements

Width of Carriage way

3.75m
7.0m
7.5m
5.5m
3.5m per lane

For the project: Two lanes with raised kerbs of 7.5m carriageway is
selected.
Kerbs:
Kerbs indicates the boundary between the pavements and
shoulder; or some times islands or foot path or kerb parking space.
1. Low or mountable type kerbs which remain in through traffic
lanes, yet allow the driver to enter the shoulder area.

14

2. Semi-barrier type kerb is provided on the periphery of

roadway where the pedestrian traffic is high. Kerb is 15cm
above pavement.
3. Barrier type kerb is provided in built up areas adjacent to
foot paths with considerable pedestrians traffic. Height of
kerbs is above 20cm from pavement.
In rural roads submerged kerbs are sometimes provided at
pavement edge between edge and shoulders.
Road margins:
The various elements included in road margins are shoulder,
parking lane, frontage roads, driveway, cycle track, footpath, guard
rail and embankment slope.
Shoulders are provided along the road edge to serve as an
emergency lane for the vehicle compelled to be taken out of
pavement or raodway.
The minimum shoulder width recommended by IRC is 2.5m
Footpaths or side walks are provided in urban areas when the
vehicular as well as pedestrian traffic are heavy.
Embankment slopes should be as flat as possible for the purpose
of safe traffic movement and also aesthetic reasons.
Width of Roadway or formation:
Width of Roadway is the sum of widths of pavements or
carriageway. Including separators if any; and the shoulders.
The width of Roadway as per IRC
Sl
No
1.
2.
3.

Roadway width, m
Plain Rolling
Mountains and
terrain
steep terrain

Road Classification
National and State Highway
a) Single lane
b) Two lane
Major district roads
a) Single lane
b) Two lane
Other district roads
a) Single
b) Two lanes
15

12.0
12.0

6.25
8.80

9.0
9.0

4.75
-----

7.5
9.0

4.75
-----

4.

Village roads-single lane

7.5
Major district road 9.0m may be taken

4.00

Right of Way:
Right of way is the area of land acquired for the road, along its
alignment.
The land width is governed by following factors:
1. Width of formation depending on the category of highway and
width of roadway and road margins
2. Height of embankment, side slopes, drainage system, sight
distances.
Recommended land width of different roads:

Sl.
No

Road
Classificatio
n

Plain and rolling terrain

Open areas
Normal

1.
2.
3.
4.

Built areas

Range

Normal

Range

National and
30state
45
30
30-60
60
highways
Major district
2525
20
15-25
roads
30
Other
District
15
15-5
15
15-20
roads
Village
1212
10
12-15
Roads
18
For major district road 25-30m land width may be

Mountains and
steep terrain
Open
Built
areas
areas
Normal

Normal

24

20

18

15

15

12

acquired.

Sight distances:
Safe and efficient operation of vehicle on roads depends, among
other factor on road length at which an obstruction, of any, becomes
visible to the driver in the direction of travel. Sight distance
available from point is the actual distance along the road surface.
Stopping sight distance:
16

The sight distance available on a highway at any spot should be

of sufficient length to stop a vehicle travelling at design speed.
Design,
speed, kmph
SSD in m

20

25

30

40

50

60

65

80

100

20

25

30

45

60

80

90

120

180

SSD for given 65 kmph=93m. Hence designed

SSD is as per IRC.

Over taking sight Distance(OSD)

If all vehicles travel on a road at the design speed, then theoretically
there should be no need for any over taking. In fact vehicles do not
move at the designed speed and particularly under mixed traffic
conditions.
The minimum distance open to vision of the driver of a vehicle
intending to overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the
traffic of opposite direction is known as the minimum overtaking
sight distances(OSD).
IRC recommended OSD values:
Speed
kmph
40
50
60
65
80
100

Time component, seconds

For
For overtaking
opposing
Total
manocurve
vehicle
9.0
6.0
15
10.0
7.0
17
10.8
7.2
18
11.5
7.5
19
12.5
8.5
21
14.0
9.0
23

Safe overtaking
sight distance
(metres)
65
235
300
340
470
640

As per IRC recommendation and designed data results are same.

OSD for 2-way traffic is assumed to be = 340m
Overtaking Zones:
It is desirable to construct highways in such a way that the
length of road visible ahead at every point is sufficient for safe
overtaking. Overtaking opportunity for vehicles moving at design
speed should be given at frequent intervals. These zones which are
meant for overtaking are called overtaking zones.
Design of horizontal alignment:
17

Design speed:
The design speed in the main factor on which geometrics
design elements depend. The sight distances, radius of horizontal
curve, super elevation, extra widening of pavement length of
summit and valley curves are all dependent on design speed.

Horizontal Curves:
A horizontal highway curve is a curve is a plan to provide
change in direction to the central line of a road. When a vehicle
traverses a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force acts horizontally
outwards through the centre of gravity of the vehicle.
P=WV2
gR
P=Centrifugal force
W=Weight of vehicle,Kg
R=Radius of circular curve,m
V=Speed of vehicle, m/sec
G=acceleration due to gravity=9.8m/sec
Centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve
has 2 effects:
1. Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer
wheels and
2. Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards.
Super elevation:
In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to
reduce tendency of vehicle to overturn or skid.
Outer edge of pavement is raised with respect to inner edge.
If the speed of vehicle is represented as
V Kmph
e +f= V2
127R

Stopping sight distance:

1. Calculate SSD on highway for design speed of 65kmph?

18

Assume total reaction time t may be taken as 2.5 seconds and

design co-efficient of friction as
f= 0.35
V=65kmph
g=9.81m/sec2
V=65 = 18.05m/sec
3.6
SSD=Vt+V2
2gf
=18.05x2.5+ 18.052
2x9.81x0.35
=45.125+47.47
SSD=92.59m
As per IRC 65 kmph OSD is 90 kmph

Over taking sight distance

2) Design O.S.D for designed speed of 65 kmph?
Solution:O.S.D = (d1 + d2 + d3)
V= 65Kmph A= 3.28kmph/sec from table
Assume Vb = V-16 = 65 16 = 49 kmph
Assume reaction times as 2.5 seconds.
d1 = 0.28 Vb x t = 0.28x49.2.5 = 34.3m
d2 = 0.28 Vb x t + 25 = (0.28x49x8.32) + (2x15.8) =
145.75m
S = (0.2 Vb + 6) = 0.2x46+6 = 15.8m
14.4 xS
T=

14.4 x15.8
=

3.28

= 8.32 sec

d3 = 0.28 VT = 0.28 x65x8.32=151.42m

OSD fpr 2-way traffic = d1 + d2 + d3
OSD = 34.3+145.75+151.42
19

OSD = 331.47m
AS per IRC 65kmph OSD is 340m

1.

WET SIEVE ANALYSIS

2.

CONSISTENCY LIMITS

3.

CAMPACTION TEST

4.

CALIFORNIA BEARING RATION TEST

5.

FIELD DENSITY BY SAN REPLACEMENT METHOD

20

Grain size analysis

Aim: -To determine the soil distribution is by sieving
Apparatus: balance, rubber
shaker.
Procedure:-

Set of standard sieves of different sieve sizes,

covered pestle and mortar, oven riffle, sieve

1) Wet sieving may be adopted in the case of clayey or

cohesion soil or when the soil is not grained.
2)

The soil finer than 2mm size is oven dried at 105 o to 110oc
and required quantity taken by riffling is weighed. This
sample is spread in a tray or bucket and covered with
water.

3) In case of soils having fractions that are likely to flocculate

a dispersing agent like sodium hexametaphosphate (2.0g)
of sodium hydroxide (1.0) and sodium carbonate per liter of
water may be added to the water. The mix is stirred and
left for soaking.
4) The soaked soil specimen is placed over set of sieves of
sizes with the finest sieve and pan at the bottom and
washed thoroughly.
5) Washing is continued till the water passing each sieve is
substantially clean. The fraction emptied carefully dried
and weighed separately.
Tabular Column :-

Sl
No
1
2
3

Sieve
Openin
g
Particle
size(m
m)
4.75
2.36
1.18

Mass
of soil
retaine
d

%retianed
= mass of
soil
mass of
soil

Cummalati
ve %
retained

%
finer

5.2
9.8
19.7

1.04
1.96
3.94

1.04
3.0
6.94

98.96
97.00
93.06

21

4
5
6
7
8

600
300
150
75
pan

29.7
82.7
112.2
64.9
175.8

5.94
16.54
22.44
12.98
35.16

12.88
29.88
51.86
64.84
100

87.12
70.58
48.14
35.16
0

Result:- The given soil contains

1) Gravel =1.04%
2) SAND=61.84%
3) Silt and clay = 35.16%

Consistency limits determination

using
casagrande type mechanical liquid limit apparatus.
Materials and equipments:1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)

liquid limit apparatus consisting of a brass cup and rubber.

Grooving tools with 1cm gauge handle.
ASTM and casagrande (BS) type.
Glass plate about 40cm square
425 micron sieve
electronic weighing machine
moisture containers
oven of oven 105o - 110oc
stop watch

Procedure :
1) By means of the grooving tool gauge and adjustment plate,
adjust cup of the liquid limit apparatus to fall exactly 1cm on
the point of contact on the base.
2) Take about 150gm of an air dried soil samples passing
425micron. Sieve and mix thoroughly with distilled water to
give a stiff and uniform paste/ leave the soil for a suitable
maturing time which may extend upto 24 hrs for heavy clays.
3) Place a portion of the paste in the cup, level off with a spatula
the top surface symmetrically to give a maximum depth of 1
cm cut a uniform, straight groove by drawing
firmly a
grooving tool through the soil paste along the diameter
through the centre of the hinge.

22

4) Turn the handle at a rate of 2 revolutions per second and

count number of blows until the 2 pars of soil come in contact
at the bottom of the groove along a distance of about 13-mm.
The groove should be closed by a flow of the soil and not by
slippage.
5) Record the number of blows at which the groove closes.
Remove about 15g of soil forming the edges of the groove
that flowed together and determine the water content by
oven-drying.
6) Transfer the remaining soil in the cup to the main soil sample
on the glass plate and mix thoroughly after adding a small
amount of water, clean the cup and grooving tool.
7) The test should always proceed from the drier to the wetter
condition of the soil. Least of 4 tests readings were given
ranging from 15 to 40 blows for each addition of water soil is
mixed for at least 5 minutes.

Observation:
Test No
No.
of
flows
Container
No
Mass con
+
wet
soul(gm)
Mass
of
cont + dry
soil(gm)
Mass
of
empty
container
moisture
content(%
)
Liquid
limit(grap
h)

10

21

23

05

07

16.4

12.6

15.2

14.9

11.9

14.4

9.1

8.6

10.1

25.86

21.21

18.6

17.5%

Result:- The given soil has liquid limit = 17.5%

23

Plastic limit test

Object:-

To determine the plastic limit of a soil and also to

calculate the plasticity index.

Apparatus:Porcelain dish, about 12-cm in diameter spatula, about

2-cm wide ground glass plate about 20cm by 15cm, oven, rod,
425micron sieve electronic weighing machine.
Procedure:
1) Mix thoroughly about 30g of soil passing a 425 micron sieve
with distilled water in the evaporating dish or on the glass
plate until it is plastic enough to be shaped into a small ball.
2) Take about 10gm of the plastic soil mass. Form a ball of it and
them roll into a thread with the fingers on the ground glass
plate. When a diameter of 3-mm is reached, remoulded the
soil again into a ball.
3) Repeat this rolling and remoulding process until the thread
starts just crumbling at a diameter of 3mm. Keep the
crumbled threads for moisture content determination.
4) Repeat the test twice more with fresh samples and calculate
the plastic limit Wp as the average of three moisture contents.
Plasticity Index:-zero
After determining the liquid limit Wl and plastic limit Wp, plasticity index is
calculated as Ip = Wl - Wp
Result:- The soil is silt and non-plastic soil as plastic limit is zero.
HRB Classification:-A-4

24

Compaction Test
Object:- To determine the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density.
Apparatus:- Cylindrical mould, rammer, mould accessories, IS sieves.
Procedure:1) Take a representive sample weighing approximately 20kg of
thoroughly mixed dried material passing 4.75mm Is sieve.
2) Clean the mould and fix it to the base take the empty weight
of the mould . the inside of mould is greased.
3) At least attach the collar to the inside of the mould is greased.
4) Mix the soil thoroughly take about 2.5kg of soil and compact
it, in the mould in 3 layers and each layer he being compacted
by 25 blows.
5) Remove the collar and cut the excess soil with the help of
straight edge clean the mould from outside and weigh it to
nearest gram.
6) Repeat step 4 and 5 for about 5 or 6 time using a fresh part of
soil specimen and after adding a higher water content than
the proceeding specimen.

Observation
Diameter of mould = 10cm = d
Height of mould = 12.6cm = h
Volume of mould = 989.6cm = v
Type of test = Heavy compaction.
Weight of rammer = 4.89kg
No. of layers = 3
No. of blows/layer =56
25

Tabular column
Determinati
on on
Mass mould
+ comp soil
(gm)
Mass comp
soil (gm)
Empty
mould
Bulk density
g/cc
Container
No
Empty
weight of
container
(gm)
Container
+ wet soil
(gm)
Container
+ dry soil
(gm)
% water
content

1+w

6611

6709

6835

6909

1936

2334

2160

2234

1972

2386

2386

2386

2386

2836

2.18

2.25

1..99

1.95

2.05

6647

13

15

486

04

208

12

8.8

16.22

16

19

24.4

14

17.98

14.6

18.3

22.6

13.1

4.25

7.44

11..1

13.1

15.42

1.87

1.9

1.96

1.99

1.73

8.0

kn/m3
Result:- 1) Maximum dry density of soil = 2.02 kn/m3
2) OMC = 11.8%

26

Determination of California bearing ratio

Aim :- To determine California bearing ratio of sub-grade soil.
Apparatus :- Mould, steel cutting collar, spacer disc, surcharge
weights, dial ganges, Is sieve of 4.75mm and 20mm Is sieve,
miscellaneous scales, soaking tank, drying oven, filter paper, dishes
and calibrating measuring jar.
Procedure:Dynamically compacted specimen
1) Sieve the material through 20mm Is sieve
2) Take about 5kg of representative sample for fine grained soils
and about 5kg for granular soils in mixing pan.
3) Add the water content equal to optimal moisture content.
4) Mix together the soil and water uniformly
5) Clamp the mould along with extension collar to base plate
6) Place the coarse filter paper on the top of the spacer disc.
7) Pour soil-water mix in the mould in such a quantity that after
compaction about 1/3rd of the mould is filled.
8) Give 56 blows with rammer weighing 2.6kg falling through
310mm evenly spread on the surface.
9) Scratch the top layer of compacted surface Add more soil and
compact

in similar fashion fill the mould completely in 5

layers
10)

Remove the extension collar and trim off the excess soil

by a straight edge.
11)

Remove the base plate, spacer disc and the filter paper

and not down the weight of mould and compacted specimen.

27

12)

Place a coarse filter paper on the perforated base plate.

13)

Invert the mould containing compacted soil and clamp it

to the base plate.

Soaking of specimen
1. Put a filter paper on the top of the soil and place the
adjustable stem and perforated plate on the top of the filter
paper.
2. Put annular weights to produce a surcharge equal to the
weight of the base material and pavement expected in actual
construction. Each 2.5kg weight is equivalent to 7cm of
construction. A minimum 2 weight should be put.
3. Immerse the mould assembly and weights etc., in a tank of
water allowing free access of water to the top and bottom of
specimen.
4. Mount tripod of the specimen measuring device on the edge
of the mould and not down the initial reading of dial gauge.
5. Keep the let-up undisturbed for 96 hours maintain constant
water level.
6. Take the final reading at the end of period remove the tripod
and take out mould allow to drain.
7. Remove the weights, perforated plate and top filter paper and
weigh.

Penetration test.
1) Place the surcharge weights back on the top of the soaked soil
specimen, place the assembly on the penetration test
machine.
2) Seat the penetration piston at the centre of the specimen with
the smallest possible load the full contact is established
between the surface of the specimen and the piston.
28

3) Set the dial gauge and proving ring readings zero . apply load
on penetration piston at 1.25mm/min. noted down the load at
designated penetration.
4) At end detachet it form the penetration test.

Dry density by sand replacement method.

Aim : - To determine the density of the given soil by
replacement method.

sand

Apparatus:- Sand pouring cylinder, trowel or bent spoon cylindrical

calibrating container, metal tray balance crucibles, oven, tongs,
glass plate measuring jar.
Procedure:1) Measure the internal volume of the caliberating container
from the volume of water required to fill the container.
2) Fill the pouring cylinder with sand with in about 1 cm of the
top and weigh it
3) Place the pouring cylinder connected on the top of
caliberating container.
4) Open the shutter to allow the sand to run out and fill the
caliberating cylinder.
5) When there is no further movement of sand in the pouring
cylinder, close the shutter.
6) Remove the pouring cylinder on a plane surface such as
glass plate.
7) Place the pouring cylinder on a plane surface such as glass
plate.
8) Open the pouring cylinder on a plane surface such as glass
plate. Where there is no movement of sand in the cylinder
close the shutter.
9) Weigh the pouring cylinder with remaining sand.
29

Measurement of soil density

1) clean and level the ground where the liquid field density is
required.
2) Fill the pouring cylinder with dry sand with in about 1 cm of
the top and weigh it.
3) Place the metal tray with the central hole over the portion of
soil to be tested.
4) Excavate the soil approximately 10cm dia and 15 cm deep
with bent spoon. The hole in the tray will guide the dia of the
hole to be made in the soil.
5) Collect the excavated soil in the metal tray weigh into the
nearest gram.
6) Determine moisture content of excavated soil
7) Place the pouring cylinder covers the hole
8) Open the shutter and allow the sand to run out into the hole
when there is no movement of sand the shutter is closed.
9) Remove the cylinder and weigh it.
Observations:1) Size of pouring cylinder : 380mm ht ,115 mm dia.
2) Sand : passing 1.0mm retained on 0.6mm sieve.

Observation and Tabular column:

Caliberation :1
2
3
4
5

Initial mass of cylinder + sand (M1) gm

Mass of pouring cylinder+ sand (before
pouring in calibrating cylinder) (M2)gm
Volume of caliberating container (cm3)
Mass of cylinder + sand (M3) (after
making a cone on level surface)(M3)gm
Mass of sand to fill calibrating container
only
M4= M1 2M2+M3 (gm)
30

7025
5150
1162.38
4850
7025-51504850=1575

Bulk density of sand

b M1
(3)
(g/cm3)

1575= 1.35g/cm3
1162.38

Density of soil in place

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Mass tray + excavated soil (gm)

Mass tray empty (gm)
Mass excavated soil (M) (1) (2) (gm)
Mass cylinder + sand after pouring
sand in hole (M4) gm
Mass of sand in hole + cone = M1 M4
(gm)
Mass of sand in hole M = M1 M4 - M2
Volume of hole (V) = M

sand

Bulk density of soil

Result:-

(g/cm )

1) Insitu density of soil = 1.7 g/cm3

31

3397
1738
1696 gms
7025
1749
1323
1323 =980
1.35
1696 = 1.7
980

32

Design of flexible pavement.

Pavement is defined as relatively stable crust constructed over the natural soil for the
purpose of supporting and disturbing the wheel loads and providing an adequate
wearing surface.
Depending on the mode of supporting and distributing loads, pavements are classified
as flexible, rigid and semi flexible.

The flexible pavements consists of a relatively tin wearing surface built over a base
course and sub-base course and they rest on compacted sub grade . The flexible
pavements are able to resist only very small tensile stresses.

Rigid pavements are made up of Portland cement concrete and may or may not have
base course between the pavement and the sub-grade. A rigid pavement can take
appreciable tensile stresses and is capable of bridging small weakness and depression
in the sub-grade.

Semi flexible pavement. Is made of dry clean concrete or soil cement and possess
qualities of intermediate between flexible and rigid pavements. A semi-flexible
pavement possess appreciable flexural strength but its modulus of elasticity is
considerably lower than that of concrete.

Design of pavement thickness by CBR method as per IRC recommendations

1) Given Data:Number of present commercial vehicles/day
to be considered for designing the pavement
2) Obtained data form laboratory test :CBR (%) = 7.91%
33

= 650vehicles/day

Adopt : Adopt curve E in the graph. As its vehicle density ranges form 450-1500
vehicles/day
Depth of construction in (mm) = 260
There for Adopt = 265 mm = 270 mm

Carpet

PREMIXED BITUMINOUS CARPET

20MM
75MM

WBM

GRADE 1
75MM

GRADE 2
GSB

GRANULAR SUB BASE

Pavement section by CBR Method

34

100MM

35