MATH132: Calculus

Week 6
Frank Valckenborgh
Department of Mathematics
Macquarie University

Tuesday 2 April 2013

Thursday 4 April 2013

Frank Valckenborgh

Quote of the week

Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas.

Vergilius, Georgica, 29 BCE

What is wanted is not the will to believe, but the will

to find out, which is the exact opposite.
Bertrand Russell, Skeptical Essays, 1928

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

Definition
The number L is called the right hand limit of f as x a+ if for
every  > 0 there exists a > 0 such that
if 0 < x a < then |f (x) L| <  .

We write lim+ f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L or f (x) L as x a+ .

xa

>

x a

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

Definition
The number L is called the left hand limit of f as x a if for
every  > 0 there exists a > 0 such that
if 0 < a x < then |f (x) L| <  .

We write lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L or f (x) L as x a .

xa

<

x a

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

Example
Let
f (x) =

1
1

for x > 0 ,
for x < 0 ,
for x = 0 .

Then
lim f (x) = 1 ,

x0+

lim f (x) = 1 .

x0

In this example, both the left and right hand limits exist, but they
are not equal .

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

Example
Consider the function f : R \ {0} R given by
f (x) =

x
.
|x|

Then
lim f (x) = 1 ,

x0+

lim f (x) = 1 .

x0

In this example also, both the left and right hand limits exist, but
they are not equal .

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

It is straightforward to verify that the arithmetic of limits and the
squeezing principle both apply to one sided limits. In addition, we
have the following
Theorem
We have lim f (x) = L if and only if
xa

lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = L .

xa

xa

Proof: Suppose that lim f (x) = L , and pick any  > 0 . There is a
xa

corresponding > 0 such that

x D : 0 < |x a| < |f (x) L| <  .

Because this condition is stronger than the conditions we need, we also

have
x D : 0 < x a < |f (x) L| <  ,
x D : 0 < a x < |f (x) L| <  .
Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

Conversely, suppose that
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L .

xa

xa+

Again, choose any  > 0 . There exist 1 > 0 such that

x D : 0 < x a < 1 |f (x) L| < 

and 2 > 0 (in general different from the 1 above) such that
x D : 0 < a x < 2 |f (x) L| <  .

Let := min {1 , 2 } . If x D is any point which satisfies

0 < |x a| < , both conditions above are satisfied simultaneously, and
so we certainly have |f (x) L| <  also, which proves our assertion.

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

Example
Consider the function f : R \ {0} R given by the prescription
1
x 7 2 . It is clear that the point x = 0 is a limit point of the
x
domain of this function, and since
1
= lim x 2 = 0
x0
x0 f (x)
lim

the function f itself is increasing (since f (x) > 0 for all x in its
domain) without bound when x 0 .

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

This situation, and its analog in the negative direction, occurs
sufficiently often to state the following
Definition
Let a be a limit point of the domain D of a function f . We say
that f (x) + when x a or that
lim f (x) = +

xa

if the following condition is satisfied:

M R : > 0 : 0 < |x a| < f (x) > M .

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

Similarly , we have the
Definition
Let a be a limit point of the domain D of a function f . We say
that f (x) when x a or that
lim f (x) =

xa

if the following condition is satisfied:

M R : > 0 : 0 < |x a| < f (x) < M .

The symbols + and should not be understood as

numbers.

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

The following proposition is left as an exercise.
Proposition
Let a be a limit point of the domain of the function f . Then we
have
lim |f (x)| = + iff

xa

lim

xa

1
=0.
f (x)

Proof: Exercise.

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

Example
The function f : R R given by f (x) =

1
satisfies
x

1
=0
x0 f (x)
lim

hence
lim |f (x)| = +

x0

but f (x) 6 + and f (x) 6 .

As a matter of fact, we have
lim f (x) = +

x0+

and
lim f (x) = .

x0

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

Quite often, we are required to investigate the asymptotic behaviour
of a function, that is, its behaviour when the independent variable
grows without bound in the positive or the negative direction.
Definition
We say that f (x) L when x + or that
lim f (x) = L

x+

if the following condition is satisfied:

 > 0 : M > 0 : x > M |f (x) L| <  .

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

Definition
We say that f (x) L when x or that
lim f (x) = L

if the following condition is satisfied:

 > 0 : M > 0 : x < M |f (x) L| <  .

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

The following situations can also occur, of course.
Definition
We say that f (x) + when x + or that
lim f (x) = +

x+

if the following condition is satisfied:

N > 0 : M > 0 : x > M f (x) > N .

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

Definition
We say that f (x) when x + or that
lim f (x) =

x+

if the following condition is satisfied:

N > 0 : M > 0 : x > M f (x) < N .

Similar definitions hold for x .

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

A sequence can be regarded as a function a : N R or s : N C ,
and it is conventional to denote the value of a sequence at n N
almost always by an instead of a(n) .
The notation lim an = L is then used to indicate that
n+

 > 0 : N N : n N : |an L| <  .

If this is the case, one says that the given sequence converges to
L , and one also denotes this as an L . If the sequence n 7 an
does not converge to L , we write an 6 L instead.

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

Example
Consider
the sequence n 7
xn := n n 1 0 , and so

n
n . Since n n 1 we have

n = (1 + xn )n
n  
X
n k
=
x
k n
k=0
 
n 2

x .
2 n
2
It follows that xn2 n1
, and so, applying the squeeze principle,

2
lim xn
= 0 , and so also lim xn = 0 . Because the limit of
n+

n+

a sum is the sum of the limits, we then also have

lim

n+
Frank Valckenborgh

n=1.

Limits and Continuity

Given a sequence n 7 an , one can sum the first N + 1 terms to
obtain a partial sum
sN = a0 + a1 + + aN .

If the sequence of partial sums n 7 sn converges to S say, one

usually denotes this as follows
+
X

ak = S

k=0

where

+
X
k=0

ak := lim sn = lim
n+

Frank Valckenborgh

n+

n
X
k=0

ak .

Limits and Continuity

Example
Let x R , with x 6= 1 , and consider the sequence n 7 x n . Then
sn = 1 + x + + x n

and so
sn =

1 x n+1
.
1x

For x > 1 or x < 1 we easily see that |sn | + . On the other

hand, for |x| < 1 we have
lim sn = lim

n+

n+

n
X
k=0

a familiar result.

Frank Valckenborgh

x =

+
X
k=0

xk =

1
,
1x

Limits and Continuity

Example
We have seen previously that


1
1+
n

n

n
X
1
.
k!
k=0

1 n

and that the sequence n 7 1 + n is increasing and bounded

above (by the value 3). By definition of the supremum of the
corresponding set S, given  > 0 , there is an N N such that
1+

1 N
N

and so
sup S 1 +

> sup S  .


1 n
n

> sup S 

for all n N . We infer that the limit of the sequence exists and is
given by


1 n
lim

n+

1+

Frank Valckenborgh

= sup S .

Limits and Continuity

Example
On the other hand, we also had


1
1+
n

n
X




1
1 1 n1 1 n2 1
k!

k1
n

m
X




1
1 1 n1 1 n2 1
1+
k!

k1
n

n
=1+

k=1

k=1

where the last inequality holds for m n . Knowing from the

argument above that it exists, we can take the limit for n +
at both sides and this yields
lim

n+

1+

1 n
n

1+

k=1

m
X
k=0

Frank Valckenborgh

m
X
1
k!

1
.
k!

Limits and Continuity

Example
The left hand side above equals sup S and so it is a fixed number.
n
X
1
This implies that the sequence n 7
, which is obviously
k!
k=0
increasing, also has a limit. Moreover, using a similar argument as
above we then have
n
X
1
sup S .
n+
k!

lim

k=0

From the first inequality on the previous slide we also deduce that
lim

n+

1+

1 n
n

Frank Valckenborgh

n
X
1
.
n+
k!

lim

k=0

Limits and Continuity

Example
Altogether, we have established the fact that
lim

n+

1+

1 n
n

+
X
1
.
k!
k=0

As you will see later, the infinite sum at the right is actually the
definition of the irrational number e . More generally,
e x :=

+ k
X
x
k=0

Frank Valckenborgh

k!

Limits and Continuity

Example
Show that lim

n+

1 n
n

= e 1 .

We have
lim

n+

1 n
n

= lim

n+

n1 n
n
!n
1

= lim

1
1+ n1

n+

!n1
1

= lim

1
1+ n1

n+

=
lim

n+

Frank Valckenborgh

1+

1
n1

lim

n+

n1 =

1
e

n1
n

Limits and Continuity

Proposition
The number e is irrational.
Proof: As usual, we proceed by contradiction. Assume then that e =
for some m, n N . According to the previous examples, we have
0<e

n
+
X
X
1
1
=
k!
k!
k=0

k=n+1

1
1
+
+
(n + 1)!
(n + 2)!

1
1
1
=
1+
+
+
(n + 1)!
n+2
(n + 3)(n + 2)

1
1
1
<
1+
+
+

(n + 1)!
n+1
(n + 1)2
!
1
1
1
=
.
=
1
(n + 1)! 1 n+1
n n!
=

Frank Valckenborgh

m
n

Limits and Continuity

Therefore, we have
0 < n n! e

n
X
1
k!

!
<1.

k=0

Now n n! e = m n! by our assumption, and this is then an integer. In

addition, also
n!

n
X
1
n!
= n! + n! +
+ + 1
k!
2!
k=0

and so this term is also an integer. We then have to conclude that our
assumption yields an integer strictly between 0 and 1, and so we have
obtained a contradiction.

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

Definition
Let f : D R be a function, and let a D . The function f is said
to be continuous at a if
lim f (x) = f (a) .

xa

In other words,
 > 0 : > 0 : x D : |x a| < |f (x) f (a)| <  .

The function f is continuous if it is continuous at all points of its

domain.
Remark: The definition above requires that the limit exists and is
equal to f (a) .

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

Example
The function f : R R given by f (x) = |x| is continuous.
The function g1 : R>0 R with g1 (x) = 1/x is continuous.
The function g2 : R \ {0} R where g2 (x) = 1/x is continuous.
(
1 if x 0
The function h1 : R R given by h1 (x) =
is not
1 if x < 0
continuous at the point 0 , but continuous everywhere else.
(
1 if x > 0
The function h2 : R \ {0} R given by h1 (x) =
1 if x < 0
is continuous.

Frank Valckenborgh

Limits and Continuity

The following results are an immediate consequence from the
properties of limits.
Proposition
Suppose that f and g are continuous at the point a in their
common domains. Then
(i) the function f + g given by (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) , is
continuous at a ;
(ii) the function fg given by (fg )(x) = f (x)g (x) , is continuous at
a;
(iii) the function gf , given by gf (x) = gf (x)
(x) and defined for all x in
the intersection of the domains of f and g for which
g (x) 6= 0 , is continuous at a .

Frank Valckenborgh