Introduction

Inductionheatingisanoncontactheatingprocess.Ituseshighfrequencyelectricitytoheatmaterialsthatareelectrically
conductive.Sinceitisnoncontact,theheatingprocessdoesnotcontaminatethematerialbeingheated.Itisalsovery
efficientsincetheheatisactuallygeneratedinsidetheworkpiece.Thiscanbecontrastedwithotherheatingmethodswhere
heatisgeneratedinaflameorheatingelement,whichisthenappliedtotheworkpiece.ForthesereasonsInductionHeating
lendsitselftosomeuniqueapplicationsinindustry.

HowdoesInductionHeatingwork?
Asourceofhighfrequencyelectricityisusedtodrivealargealternatingcurrentthrougha
coil.Thiscoilisknownastheworkcoil.Seethepictureopposite.
Thepassageofcurrentthroughthiscoilgeneratesaveryintenseandrapidlychanging
magneticfieldinthespacewithintheworkcoil.Theworkpiecetobeheatedisplaced
withinthisintensealternatingmagneticfield.
Dependingonthenatureoftheworkpiecematerial,anumberofthingshappen...

Thealternatingmagneticfieldinducesacurrentflowintheconductiveworkpiece.The
arrangementoftheworkcoilandtheworkpiececanbethoughtofasanelectrical
transformer.Theworkcoilisliketheprimarywhereelectricalenergyisfedin,andthe
workpieceislikeasingleturnsecondarythatisshortcircuited.Thiscausestremendous
currentstoflowthroughtheworkpiece.Theseareknownaseddycurrents.
Inadditiontothis,thehighfrequencyusedininductionheatingapplicationsgivesrisetoa
phenomenoncalledskineffect.Thisskineffectforcesthealternatingcurrenttoflowina
thinlayertowardsthesurfaceoftheworkpiece.Theskineffectincreasestheeffective
resistanceofthemetaltothepassageofthelargecurrent.Thereforeitgreatlyincreasesthe
heatingeffectcausedbythecurrentinducedintheworkpiece.
(Althoughtheheatingduetoeddycurrentsisdesirableinthisapplication,itisinterestingtonotethattransformer
manufacturersgotogreatlengthstoavoidthisphenomenonintheirtransformers.Laminatedtransformercores,powdered
ironcoresandferritesareallusedtopreventeddycurrentsfromflowinginsidetransformercores.Insideatransformerthe
passageofeddycurrentsishighlyundesirablebecauseitcausesheatingofthemagneticcoreandrepresentspowerthatis
wasted.)

AndforFerrousmetals?
Forferrousmetalslikeironandsometypesofsteel,thereisanadditionalheatingmechanismthattakesplaceatthesame
timeastheeddycurrentsmentionedabove.Theintensealternatingmagneticfieldinsidetheworkcoilrepeatedlymagnetises
anddemagnetisestheironcrystals.Thisrapidflippingofthemagneticdomainscausesconsiderablefrictionandheating
insidethematerial.HeatingduetothismechanismisknownasHysteresisloss,andisgreatestformaterialsthathavealarge
areainsidetheirBHcurve.Thiscanbealargecontributingfactortotheheatgeneratedduringinductionheating,butonly
takesplaceinsideferrousmaterials.Forthisreasonferrousmaterialslendthemselvesmoreeasilytoheatingbyinduction
thannonferrousmaterials.
Itisinterestingtonotethatsteelloosesitsmagneticpropertieswhenheatedaboveapproximately700C.Thistemperatureis
knownastheCurietemperature.Thismeansthatabove700Ctherecanbenoheatingofthematerialduetohysteresis
losses.Anyfurtherheatingofthematerialmustbeduetoinducededdycurrentsalone.Thismakesheatingsteelabove
700Cmoreofachallengefortheinductionheatingsystems.ThefactthatcopperandAluminiumarebothnonmagnetic
andverygoodelectricalconductors,canalsomakethesematerialsachallengetoheatefficiently.(Wewillseethatthebest
courseofactionforthesematerialsistoupthefrequencytoexaggeratelossesduetotheskineffect.)

WhatisInductionHeatingusedfor?
Inductionheatingcanbeusedforanyapplicationwherewewanttoheatanelectricallyconductivematerialinaclean,
efficientandcontrolledmanner.
Oneofthemostcommonapplicationsisforsealingtheantitampersealsthatarestucktothetopofmedicineanddrinks
bottles.Afoilsealcoatedwith"hotmeltglue"isinsertedintotheplasticcapandscrewedontothetopofeachbottleduring
manufacture.Thesefoilsealsarethenrapidlyheatedasthebottlespassunderaninductionheaterontheproductionline.
Theheatgeneratedmeltstheglueandsealsthefoilontothetopofthebottle.Whenthecapisremoved,thefoilremains
providinganairtightsealandpreventinganytamperingorcontaminationofthebottle'scontentsuntilthecustomerpierces
thefoil.

Anothercommonapplicationis"getterfiring"toremovecontaminationfromevacuatedtubessuchasTVpicturetubes,
vacuumtubes,andvariousgasdischargelamps.Aringofconductivematerialcalleda"getter"isplacedinsidethe
evacuatedglassvessel.Sinceinductionheatingisanoncontactprocessitcanbeusedtoheatthegetterthatisalreadysealed
insideavessel.AninductionworkcoilislocatedclosetothegetterontheoutsideofthevacuumtubeandtheACsourceis
turnedon.Withinsecondsofstartingtheinductionheater,thegetterisheatedwhitehot,andchemicalsinitscoatingreact
withanygassesinthevacuum.Theresultisthatthegetterabsorbsanylastremainingtracesofgasinsidethevacuumtube
andincreasesthepurityofthevacuum.
YetanothercommonapplicationforinductionheatingisaprocesscalledZonepurificationusedinthesemiconductor
manufacturingindustry.Thisisaprocessinwhichsiliconispurifiedbymeansofamovingzoneofmoltenmaterial.An
InternetSearchissuretoturnupmoredetailsonthisprocessthatIknowlittleabout.
Otherapplicationsincludemelting,weldingandbrazingormetals.Inductioncookinghobsandricecookers.Metal
hardeningofammunition,gearteeth,sawbladesanddriveshafts,etcarealsocommonapplicationsbecausetheinduction
processheatsthesurfaceofthemetalveryrapidly.Thereforeitcanbeusedforsurfacehardening,andhardeningof
localisedareasofmetallicpartsby"outrunning"thethermalconductionofheatdeeperintothepartortosurroundingareas.
Thenoncontactnatureofinductionheatingalsomeansthatitcanbeusedtoheatmaterialsinanalyticalapplicationswithout
riskofcontaminatingthespecimen.Similiarly,metalmedicalinstrumentsmaybesterilisedbyheatingthemtohigh
temperatureswhilsttheyarestillsealedinsideaknownsterileenvironment,inordertokillgerms.

WhatisrequiredforInductionHeating?
Intheoryonly3thingsareessentialtoimplementinductionheating:
1. AsourceofHighFrequencyelectricalpower,
2. Aworkcoiltogeneratethealternatingmagneticfield,
3. Anelectricallyconductiveworkpiecetobeheated,
Havingsaidthis,practicalinductionheatingsystemsareusuallyalittlemorecomplex.Forexample,animpedancematching
networkisoftenrequiredbetweentheHighFrequencysourceandtheworkcoilinordertoensuregoodpowertransfer.
Watercoolingsystemsarealsocommoninhighpowerinductionheaterstoremovewasteheatfromtheworkcoil,its
matchingnetworkandthepowerelectronics.Finallysomecontrolelectronicsisusuallyemployedtocontroltheintensityof
theheatingaction,andtimetheheatingcycletoensureconsistentresults.Thecontrolelectronicsalsoprotectsthesystem
frombeingdamagedbyanumberofadverseoperatingconditions.However,thebasicprincipleofoperationofany
inductionheaterremainsthesameasdescribedearlier.

Practicalimplementation
Inpracticetheworkcoilisusuallyincorporatedintoaresonanttankcircuit.Thishasanumberofadvantages.Firstly,it
makeseitherthecurrentorthevoltagewaveformbecomesinusoidal.Thisminimiseslossesintheinverterbyallowingitto
benefitfromeitherzerovoltageswitchingorzerocurrentswitchingdependingontheexactarrangementchosen.The
sinusoidalwaveformattheworkcoilalsorepresentsamorepuresignalandcauseslessRadioFrequencyInterferenceto
nearbyequipment.Thislaterpointbecomingveryimportantinhighpoweredsystems.Wewillseethatthereareanumber
ofresonantschemesthatthedesignerofaninductionheatercanchoosefortheworkcoil:

Seriesresonanttankcircuit
Theworkcoilismadetoresonateattheintendedoperatingfrequencybymeansofacapacitorplacedinserieswithit.This
causesthecurrentthroughtheworkcoiltobesinusoidal.Theseriesresonancealsomagnifiesthevoltageacrossthework
coil,farhigherthantheoutputvoltageoftheinverteralone.Theinverterseesasinusoidalloadcurrentbutitmustcarrythe

fullcurrentthatflowsintheworkcoil.Forthisreasontheworkcoiloftenconsistsofmanyturnsofwirewithonlyafew
ampsortensofampsflowing.Significantheatingpowerisachievedbyallowingresonantvoltageriseacrosstheworkcoil
intheseriesresonantarrangementwhilstkeepingthecurrentthroughthecoil(andtheinverter)toasensiblelevel.
Thisarrangementiscommonlyusedinthingslikericecookerswherethepowerlevelislow,andtheinverterislocatednext
totheobjecttobeheated.Themaindrawbacksoftheseriesresonantarrangementarethattheinvertermustcarrythesame
currentthatflowsintheworkcoil.Inadditiontothisthevoltageriseduetoseriesresonancecanbecomeverypronouncedif
thereisnotasignificantlysizedworkpiecepresentintheworkcoiltodampthecircuit.Thisisnotaprobleminapplications
likericecookerswheretheworkpieceisalwaysthesamecookingvessel,anditspropertiesarewellknownatthetimeof
designingthesystem.
Thetankcapacitoristypicallyratedforahighvoltagebecauseoftheresonantvoltageriseexperiencedintheseriestuned
resonantcircuit.Itmustalsocarrythefullcurrentcarriedbytheworkcoil,althoughthisistypicallynotaprobleminlow
powerapplications.

Parallelresonanttankcircuit
Theworkcoilismadetoresonateattheintendedoperatingfrequencybymeansofacapacitorplacedinparallelwithit.This
causesthecurrentthroughtheworkcoiltobesinusoidal.Theparallelresonancealsomagnifiesthecurrentthroughthework
coil,farhigherthantheoutputcurrentcapabilityoftheinverteralone.Theinverterseesasinusoidalloadcurrent.However,
inthiscaseitonlyhastocarrythepartoftheloadcurrentthatactuallydoesrealwork.Theinverterdoesnothavetocarry
thefullcirculatingcurrentintheworkcoil.Thisisverysignificantsincepowerfactorsininductionheatingapplicationsare
typicallylow.Thispropertyoftheparallelresonantcircuitcanmakeatenfoldreductioninthecurrentthatmustbe
supportedbytheinverterandthewiresconnectingittotheworkcoil.Conductionlossesaretypicallyproportionaltocurrent
squared,soatenfoldreductioninloadcurrentrepresentsasignificantsavinginconductionlossesintheinverterand
associatedwiring.Thismeansthattheworkcoilcanbeplacedatalocationremotefromtheinverterwithoutincurring
massivelossesinthefeedwires.
Workcoilsusingthistechniqueoftenconsistofonlyafewturnsofathickcopperconductorbutwithlargecurrentsofmany
hundredsorthousandsofampsflowing.(ThisisnecessarytogettherequiredAmpereturnstodotheinductionheating.)
Watercoolingiscommonforallbutthesmallestofsystems.Thisisneededtoremoveexcessheatgeneratedbythepassage
ofthelargehighfrequencycurrentthroughtheworkcoilanditsassociatedtankcapacitor.

Intheparallelresonanttankcircuittheworkcoilcanbethoughtofasaninductiveloadwitha"powerfactorcorrection"
capacitorconnectedacrossit.ThePFCcapacitorprovidesreactivecurrentflowequalandoppositetothelargeinductive
currentdrawnbytheworkcoil.Thekeythingtorememberisthatthishugecurrentislocalisedtotheworkcoilandits
capacitor,andmerelyrepresentsreactivepowersloshingbackandforthbetweenthetwo.Thereforetheonlyrealcurrent
flowfromtheinverteristherelativelysmallamountrequiredtoovercomelossesinthe"PFC"capacitorandtheworkcoil.
Thereisalwayssomelossinthistankcircuitduetodielectriclossinthecapacitorandskineffectcausingresistivelossesin
thecapacitorandworkcoil.Thereforeasmallcurrentisalwaysdrawnfromtheinverterevenwithnoworkpiecepresent.
Whenalossyworkpieceisinsertedintotheworkcoil,thisdampstheparallelresonantcircuitbyintroducingafurtherloss
intothesystem.Thereforethecurrentdrawnbytheparallelresonanttankcircuitincreaseswhenaworkpieceisenteredinto
thecoil.

Impedancematching
Orsimply"Matching".Thisreferstotheelectronicsthatsitsbetweenthesourceofhighfrequencypowerandtheworkcoil

weareusingforheating.InordertoheatasolidpieceofmetalviainductionheatingweneedtocauseaTREMENDOUS
currenttoflowinthesurfaceofthemetal.Howeverthiscanbecontrastedwiththeinverterthatgeneratesthehigh
frequencypower.Theinvertergenerallyworksbetter(andthedesignissomewhateasier)ifitoperatesatfairlyhighvoltage
butalowcurrent.(Typicallyproblemsareencounteredinpowerelectronicswhenwetrytoswitchlargecurrentsonandoff
inveryshorttimes.)IncreasingthevoltageanddecreasingthecurrentallowscommonswitchmodeMOSFETs(orfast
IGBTs)tobeused.Thecomparativelylowcurrentsmaketheinverterlesssensitivetolayoutissuesandstrayinductance.It
isthejobofthematchingnetworkandtheworkcoilitselftotransformthehighvoltage/lowcurrentfromtheinvertertothe
lowvoltage/highcurrentrequiredtoheattheworkpieceefficiently.
Wecanthinkofthetankcircuitincorporatingtheworkcoil(Lw)andits
capacitor(Cw)asaparallelresonantcircuit.
Thishasaresistance(R)duetothelossyworkpiececoupledintothework
coilduetothemagneticcouplingbetweenthetwoconductors.
Seetheschematicopposite.
Inpracticetheresistanceoftheworkcoil,theresistanceofthetank
capacitor,andthereflectedresistanceoftheworkpieceallintroducealoss
intothetankcircuitanddamptheresonance.Thereforeitisusefulto
combinealloftheselossesintoasingle"lossresistance."Inthecaseofa
parallelresonantcircuitthislossresistanceappearsdirectlyacrossthetank
circuitinourmodel.Thisresistancerepresentstheonlycomponentthatcan
consumerealpower,andthereforewecanthinkofthislossresistanceas
theloadthatwearetryingtodrivepowerintoinanefficientmanner.
Whendrivenatresonancethecurrentdrawnbythetankcapacitorandtheworkcoilareequalinmagnitudeandoppositein
phaseandthereforecanceleachotheroutasfarasthesourceofpowerisconcerned.Thismeansthattheonlyloadseen
bythepowersourceattheresonantfrequencyisthelossresistanceacrossthetankcircuit.(Notethat,whendriven
eithersideoftheresonantfrequency,thereisanadditional"outofphase"componenttothecurrentcausedbyincomplete
cancellationoftheworkcoilcurrentandthetankcapacitorcurrent.Thisreactivecurrentincreasesthetotalmagnitudeof
thecurrentbeingdrawnfromthesourcebutdoesnotcontributetoanyusefulheatingintheworkpiece.)
Thejobofthematchingnetworkissimplytotransformthisrelativelylargelossresistanceacrossthetankcircuitdowntoa
lowervaluethatbettersuitstheinverterattemptingtodriveit.Therearemanydifferentwaystoachievethisimpedance
transformationincludingtappingtheworkcoil,usingaferritetransformer,acapacitivedividerinplaceofthetankcapacitor,
oramatchingcircuitsuchasanLmatchnetwork.
InthecaseofanLmatchnetworkitcantransformtherelativelyhighload
resistanceofthetankcircuitdowntosomethingaround10ohmswhich
bettersuitstheinverter.Thisfigureistypicaltoallowtheinvertertorun
fromseveralhundredvoltswhilstkeepingcurrentsdowntoamediumlevel
sothatstandardswitchmodeMOSFETscanbeusedtoperformthe
switchingoperation.
TheLmatchnetworkconsistsofcomponentsLmandCmshownopposite.
TheLmatchnetworkhasseveralhighlydesirablepropertiesinthisapplication.TheinductorattheinputtotheLmatch
networkpresentsaprogressivelyrisinginductivereactancetoallfrequencieshigherthantheresonantfrequencyofthetank
circuit.Thisisveryimportantwhentheworkcoilistobefedfromavoltagesourceinverterthatgeneratesasquarewave
voltageoutput.Hereisanexplanationofwhythisisso
Thesquarewavevoltagegeneratedbymosthalfbridgeandfullbridgecircuitsisrichinhighfrequencyharmonicsaswellas
thewantedfundamentalfrequency.Directconnectionofsuchavoltagesourcetoaparallelresonantcircuitwouldcause
excessivecurrentstoflowatallharmonicsofthedrivefrequency!Thisisbecausethetankcapacitorintheparallelresonant
circuitwouldpresentaprogressivelylowercapacitivereactancetoincreasingfrequencies.Thisispotentiallyverydamaging
toavoltagesourceinverter.Itresultsinlargecurrentspikesattheswitchingtransitionsastheinvertertriestorapidlycharge

anddischargethetankcapacitoronrisingandfallingedgesofthesquarewave.TheinclusionoftheLmatchnetwork
betweentheinverterandthetankcircuitnegatesthisproblem.Nowtheoutputoftheinverterseestheinductivereactanceof
Lminthematchingnetworkfirst,andallharmonicsofthedrivewaveformseeagraduallyrisinginductiveimpedance.This
meansthatmaximumcurrentflowsattheintendedfrequencyonlyandlittleharmoniccurrentflows,makingtheinverter
loadcurrentintoasmoothwaveform.
Finally,withcorrecttuningtheLmatchnetworkisabletoprovideaslightinductiveloadtotheinverter.Thisslightly
lagginginverterloadcurrentcanfacilitateZeroVoltageSwitching(ZVS)oftheMOSFETsintheinverterbridge.This
significantlyreducesturnonswitchinglossesduetodeviceoutputcapacitanceinMOSFETsoperatedathighvoltages.The
overallresultislessheatinginthesemiconductorsandincreasedlifetime.
Insummary,theinclusionofanLmatchnetworkbetweentheinverterandtheparallelresonanttankcircuitachievestwo
things.
1. Impedancematchingsothattherequiredamountofpowercanbesuppliedfromtheinvertertotheworkpiece,
2. Presentationofarisinginductivereactancetohighfrequencyharmonicstokeeptheinvertersafeandhappy.
Lookingatthepreviousschematicabovewecanseethatthecapacitorin
thematchingnetwork(Cm)andthetankcapacitor(Cw)arebothin
parallel.Inpracticebothofthesefunctionsareusuallyaccomplishedbya
singlepurposebuiltpowercapacitor.Mostofitscapacitancecanbe
thoughtofasbeinginparallelresonancewiththeworkcoil,withasmall
amountprovidingtheimpedancematchingactionwiththematching
inductor(Lm.)Combingthesetwocapacitancesintooneleadsustoarrive
attheLCLRmodelfortheworkcoilarrangement,whichiscommonly
usedinindustryforinductionheating.

TheLCLRworkcoil
ThisarrangementincorporatestheworkcoilintoaparallelresonantcircuitandusestheLmatchnetworkbetweenthetank
circuitandtheinverter.Thematchingnetworkisusedtomakethetankcircuitappearasamoresuitableloadtotheinverter,
anditsderivationisdiscussedinthesectionabove.
TheLCLRworkcoilhasanumberofdesirableproperties:
1. Ahugecurrentflowsintheworkcoil,buttheinverteronlyhastosupplyalowcurrent.Thelargecirculatingcurrent
isconfinedtotheworkcoilanditsparallelcapacitor,whichareusuallylocatedveryclosetoeachother.
2. Onlycomparativelylowcurrentflowsalongthetransmissionlinefromtheinvertertothetankcircuit,sothiscanuse
lighterdutycable.
3. Anystrayinductanceofthetransmissionlinesimplybecomespartofthematchingnetworkinductance(Lm.)
Thereforetheheatstationcanbelocatedawayfromtheinverter.
4. TheinverterseesasinusoidalloadcurrentsoitcanbenefitfromZCSorZVStoreduceitsswitchinglossesand
thereforeruncooler.
5. Theseriesmatchinginductorcanbealteredtocaterfordifferentloadsplacedinsidetheworkcoil.
6. Thetankcircuitcanbefedviaseveralmatchinginductorsfrommanyinverterstoreachpowerlevelsabovethose
achievablewithasingleinverter.Thematchinginductorsprovideinherentsharingoftheloadcurrentbetweenthe
invertersandalsomakethesystemtoleranttosomemismatchingintheswitchinginstantsoftheparalleledinverters.
FormoreinformationaboutthebehaviouroftheLCLRresonantnetworkseethenewsectionbelowlabelled
"LCLRnetworkfrequencyresponse."
AnotheradvantageoftheLCLRworkcoilarrangementisthatitdoesnotrequireahighfrequencytransformertoprovide
theimpedancematchingfunction.Ferritetransformerscapableofhandlingseveralkilowattsarelarge,heavyandquite
expensive.Inadditiontothis,thetransformermustbecooledtoremoveexcessheatgeneratedbythehighcurrentsflowing

initsconductors.TheincorporationoftheLmatchnetworkintotheLCLRworkcoilarrangementremovesthenecessityof
atransformertomatchtheinvertertotheworkcoil,savingcostandsimplifyingthedesign.However,thedesignershould
appreciatethata1:1isolatingtransformermaystillberequiredbetweentheinverterandtheinputtotheLCLRworkcoil
arrangementifelectricalisolationisnecessaryfromthemainssupply.Thisdependswhetherisolationisimportant,and
whetherthemainPSUintheinductionheateralreadyprovidessufficientelectricalisolationtomeetthesesafety
requirements.

Conceptualschematic
ThesystemschematicbelowsshowsthesimplestinverterdrivingitsLCLRworkcoilarrangement.

NotethatthisschematicDOESNOTSHOWtheMOSFETgatedrivecircuitryandcontrolelectronics!
TheinverterinthisdemonstrationprototypewasasimplehalfbridgeconsistingoftwoMTW14N50MOSFETsmademy
Onsemiconductor(formerlyMotorola.)ItisfedfromasmoothedDCsupplywithdecouplingcapacitoracrosstherailsto
supporttheACcurrentdemandsoftheinverter.However,itshouldberealisedthatthequalityandregulationofthepower
supplyforinductionheatingapplicationsisnotcritical.Fullwaverectified(butunsmoothed)mainscanworkaswellas
smoothedandregulatedDCwhenitcomestoheatingmetal,butpeakcurrentsarehigherforthesameaverageheating
power.TherearemanyargumentsforkeepingthesizeoftheDCbuscapacitordowntoaminimum.Inparticularit
improvesthepowerfactorofcurrentdrawnfromthemainssupplyviaarectifier,anditalsominimisesstoredenergyincase
offaultconditionswithintheinverter.
TheDCblockingcapacitorisusedmerelytostoptheDCoutputfromthehalfbridgeinverterfromcausingcurrentflow
throughtheworkcoil.Itissizedsufficientlylargethatitdoesnottakepartintheimpedancematching,anddoesnot
adverselyeffecttheoperationoftheLCLRworkcoilarrangement.

Inhighpowerdesignsitiscommontouseafullbridge(Hbridge)of4ormoreswitchingdevices.Insuchdesignsthe
matchinginductanceisusuallysplitequallybetweenthetwobridgelegssothatthedrivevoltagewaveformsarebalanced
withrespecttoground.TheDCblockingcapacitorcanalsobeeliminatedifcurrentmodecontrolisusedtoensurethatno
netDCflowsbetweenthebridgelegs.(IfbothlegsoftheHbridgecanbecontrolledindependentlythenthereisscopefor
controllingpowerthroughputusingphaseshiftcontrol.Seepoint6inthesectionbelowabout"Powercontrolmethods"for
furtherdetails.)


Atstillhigherpowersitispossibletouseseveralseperateinverterseffectivelyconnectedinparalleltomeetthehighload
currentdemands.However,theseperateinvertersarenotdirectlytiedinparallelattheoutputterminalsoftheirHbridges.
Eachofthedistributedinvertersisconnectedtotheremoteworkcoilviaitsownpairofmatchinginductorswhichensure
thatthetotalloadisspreadevenlyamongalloftheinverters.

Thesematchinginductorsalsoprovideanumberofadditionalbenefitswheninvertersareparalleledinthisway.Firstly,the
impedanceBETWEENanytwoinverteroutputsisequaltotwicethevalueofthematchinginductance.Thisinductive
impedancelimitsthe"shootbetween"currentthatflowsbetweenparalleledinvertersiftheirswitchinginstantsarenot
perfectlysynchronised.Secondly,thissameinductivereactancebetweeninverterslimitstherateatwhichfaultcurrentrises
ifoneoftheinvertersexhibitsadevicefailure,potentiallyeliminatingfailureoffurtherdevices.Finally,sincealldistributed
invertersarealreadyconnectedviainductors,anyadditionalinductancebetweentheinvertersmerelyaddstothisimpedance
andonlyhastheeffectofslightlydegradingcurrentsharing.Thereforethedistributedinvertersforinductionheatingneed
notnecessarilybelocatedphysicallyclosetoeachother.Ifisolationtransformersareincludedinthedesignsthentheyneed
notevenrunfromthesamesupply!

Faulttolerance
TheLCLRworkcoilarrangementisverywellbehavedunderavarietyofpossiblefaultconditions.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Opencircuitworkcoil.
Shortcircuitworkcoil,(ortankcapacitor.)
Shortedturninworkcoil.
Opencircuittankcapacitor.

Allofthesefailuresresultinanincreaseintheimpedancebeingpresentedtotheinverterandthereforeacorrespondingdrop
inthecurrentdrawnfromtheinverter.Theauthorhaspersonallyusedascrewdrivertoshortcircuitbetweenturnsofawork
coilcarryingseveralhundredamps.Despitesparksflyingatthelocationoftheappliedshortcircuit,theloadontheinverter
isreducedandthesystemsurvivesthistreatmentwithease.
Theworstthingthatcanhappenisthatthetankcircuitbecomesdetunedsuchthatitsnaturalresonantfrequencyisjust
abovetheoperatingfrequencyoftheinverter.Sincethedrivefrequencyisstillclosetoresonancethereisstillsignificant
currentflowoutoftheinverter.Butthepowerfactorisreducedduetothedetuning,andtheinverterloadcurrentbeginsto
leadthevoltage.Thissituationisundesirablebecausetheloadcurrentseenbytheinverterchangesdirectionbeforethe
appliedvoltagechanges.Theoutcomeofthisisthatcurrentisforcecommutatedbetweenfreewheeldiodesandthe

opposingMOSFETeverytimetheMOSFETisturnedon.Thiscausesaforcedreverserecoveryofthefreewheeldiodes
whilsttheyarealreadycarryingsignificantforwardcurrent.Thisresultsinalargecurrentsurgethroughboththediodeand
theopposingMOSFETthatisturningon.
Whilstnotaproblemforspecialfastrecoveryrectifiers,thisforcedrecoverycancauseproblemsiftheMOSFETsintrinsic
bodydiodesareusedtoprovidethefreewheeldiodefunction.Theselargecurrentspikesstillrepresentasignificantpower
lossandthreattoreliability.However,itshouldberealisedthatpropercontroloftheinverteroperatingfrequencyshould
ensurethatittrackstheresonantfrequencyofthetankcircuit.Thereforetheleadingpowerfactorconditionshouldideally
notarise,andshouldcertainlynotpersistforanylengthoftime.Theresonantfrequencyshouldbetrackeduptoitslimit,
thenthesystemshutdownifithaswanderedoutsideofanacceptablefrequencyrange.

Powercontrolmethods
Itisoftendesirabletocontroltheamountofpowerprocessedbyaninductionheater.Thisdeterminestherateatwhichheat
energyistransferredtotheworkpiece.Thepowersettingofthistypeofinductionheatercanbecontrolledinanumberof
differentways:

1.VaryingtheDClinkvoltage.
Thepowerprocessedbytheinvertercanbedecreasedbyreducingthesupplyvoltagetotheinverter.Thiscanbedoneby
runningtheinverterfromavariablevoltageDCsupplysuchasacontrolledrectifierusingthyristorstovarytheDCsupply
voltagederivedfromthemainssupply.Theimpedancepresentedtotheinverterislargelyconstantwithvaryingpower
level,sothepowerthroughputoftheinverterisroughlyproportionaltothesquareofthesupplyvoltage.VaryingtheDC
linkvoltageallowsfullcontrolofthepowerfrom0%to100%.
Itshouldbenotedhowever,thattheexactpowerthroughputinkilowattsdependsnotonlyontheDCsupplyvoltagetothe
inverter,butalsoontheloadimpedencethattheworkcoilpresentstotheinverterthroughthematchingnetwork.Therefore
ifprecisepowercontrolisrequiredtheactualinductionheatingpowermustbemeasured,comparedtotherequested"power
setting"fromtheoperatorandanerrorsignalfedbacktocontinuallyadjusttheDClinkvoltageinaclosedloopfashionto
minimisetheerror.Thisisnecessarytomaintainconstantpowerbecausetheresistanceoftheworkpiecechanges
considerablyasitheatsup.(Thisargumentforclosedlooppowercontrolalsoappliestoallofthemethodsthatfollow
below.)

2.Varyingthedutyratioofthedevicesintheinverter.
Thepowerprocessedbytheinvertercanbedecreasedbyreducingtheontimeoftheswitchesintheinverter.Powerisonly
sourcedtotheworkcoilinthetimethatthedevicesareswitchedon.Theloadcurrentisthenlefttofreewheelthroughthe
devicesbodydiodesduringthedeadtimewhenbothdevicesareturnedoff.Varyingthedutyratiooftheswitchesallowsfull
controlofthepowerfrom0%to100%.However,asignificantdrawbackofthismethodisthecommutationofheavy
currentsbetweenactivedevicesandtheirfreewheeldiodes.Forcedreverserecoveryofthefreewheeldiodesthatcanoccur
whenthedutyratioisconsiderablyreduced.Forthisreasondutyratiocontrolisnotusuallyusedinhighpowerinduction
heatinginverters.

3.Varyingtheoperatingfrequencyoftheinverter.
Thepowersuppliedbytheinvertertotheworkcoilcanbereducedbydetuningtheinverterfromthenaturalresonant
frequencyofthetankcircuitincorporatingtheworkcoil.Astheoperatingfrequencyoftheinverterismovedawayfromthe
resonantfrquencyofthetankcircuit,thereislessresonantriseinthetankcircuit,andthecurrentintheworkcoildiminishes.
Thereforelesscirculatingcurrentisinducedintotheworkpieceandtheheatingeffectisreduced.

Inordertoreducethepowerthroughputtheinverterisnormallydetunedonthehighsideofthetankcircuitsnaturalresonant
frequency.Thiscausestheinductivereactanceattheinputofthematchingcircuittobecomeincreasinglydominantasthe
frequencyincreases.Thereforethecurrentdrawnfromtheinverterbythematchingnetworkstartstolaginphaseand
diminishinamplitude.Bothofthesefactorscontributetoareductionintherealpowerthroughput.Inadditiontothisthe
laggingpowerfactorensuresthatthedevicesintheinverterstillturnonwithzerovoltageacrossthem,andtherearenofree
wheeldioderecoveryproblems.(Thiscanbecontrastedwiththesituationthatwouldoccuriftheinverterweredetunedon
thelowsideoftheworkcoil'sresonantfrequency.ZVSislost,andthefreewheeldiodesseeforcedreverserecoverywhilst
carryingsignificantloadcurrent.)
Thismethodofcontrollingpowerlevelbydetuningisverysimplesincemostinductionheatersalreadyhavecontrolover
theoperatingfrequencyoftheinverterinordertocaterfordifferentworkpiecesandworkcoils.Thedownsideisthatitonly
providesalimitedrangeofcontrol,asthereisalimittohowfastpowersemiconductorscanbemadetoswitch.Thisis
particularlytrueinhighpowerapplicationswherethedevicesmayalreadyberunningclosetomaximumswitchingspeeds.
Highpowersystemsusingthispowercontrolmethodrequireadetailedthermalanalysisoftheresultsofswitchinglossesat
differentpowerlevelstoensuredevicetemperaturesalwaysstaywithintolerablelimits.
Formoredetailedinformationaboutpowercontrolbydetuningseethenewsectionbelowlabelled"LCLRnetwork
frequencyresponse."

4.Varyingthevalueoftheinductorinthematchingnetwork.
Thepowersuppliedbytheinvertertotheworkcoilcanbevariedbyalteringthevalueofthematchingnetwork
components.TheLmatchnetworkbetweentheinverterandthetankcircuittechnicallyconsistsofaninductiveanda
capacitivepart.Butthecapacitivepartisinparallelwiththeworkcoil'sowntankcapacitor,andinpracticetheseareusually
oneandthesamepart.Thereforetheonlypartofthematchingnetworkthatisavailabletoadjustistheinductor.
Thematchingnetworkisresponsiblefortransformingtheloadimpedanceoftheworkcoiltoasuitableloadimpedancetobe
drivenbytheinverter.Alteringtheinductanceofthematchinginductoradjuststhevaluetowhichtheloadimpedanceis
translated.Ingeneral,decreasingtheinductanceofthematchinginductorcausestheworkcoilimpedancetobetransformed
downtoalowerimpedance.Thislowerloadimpedancebeingpresentedtotheinvertercausesmorepowertobesourced
fromtheinverter.Conversely,increasingtheinductanceofthematchinginductorcausesahigherloadimpedancetobe
presentedtotheinverter.Thislighterloadresultsinalowerpowerflowfromtheinvertertotheworkcoil.
Thedegreeofpowercontrolachieveablebyalteringthematchinginductorismoderate.Thereisaalsoashiftintheresonant
frequencyoftheoverallsystemThisisthepricetopayforcombiningtheLmatchcapacitanceandtankcapacitanceinto
oneunit.TheLmatchnetworkessentiallyborrowssomeofthecapacitancefromthetankcapacitortoperformthematching
operation,thusleavingthetankcircuittoresonateatahigherfrequency.Forthisreasonthematchinginductorisusually
fixedoradjustedincoarsestepstosuittheintendedworkpiecetobeheated,ratherthanprovidetheuserwithafully
adjustablepowersetting.

5.Impedancematchingtransformer.
ThepowersuppliedbytheinvertertotheworkcoilcanbevariedincoarsestepsbyusingatappedRFpowertransformerto
performimpedanceconversion.AlthoughmostofthebenefitoftheLCLRarrangementisintheeliminationofabulkyand
expensiveferritepowertransformer,itcancaterforlargechangesinsystemparametersinawaythatisnotfrequency
dependent.Theferritepowertransformercanalsoprovideelectricalisolationaswellasperformingimpedance
transformationdutytosetthepowerthroughput.
Additionallyiftheferritepowertransformerisplacedbetweentheinverter'soutputandtheinputtotheLmatchcircuitits
designconstraintsarerelaxedinmanyways.Firstly,locatingthetransformerinthispositionmeansthattheimpedancesat
bothwindingsarerelativelyhigh.i.e.voltagesarehighandcurrentsarecomparitivelysmall.Itiseasiertodesigna
conventionalferritepowertransformerfortheseconditions.Themassivecirculatingcurrentintheworkcoiliskeptoutof
theferritetransformergreatlyreducingcoolingproblems.Secondly,althoughthetransformerseesthesquarewaveoutput
voltagefromtheinverter,it'swindingscarrycurrentsthataresinusoidal.Thelackofhighfrequencyharmonicsreduces

heatinginthetransformerduetoskineffectandproximityeffectwithintheconductors.
Finallythetransformerdesignshouldbeoptimisedforminimuminterwindingcapacitanceandgoodinsulationatthe
expenseofincreasedleakageinductance.Thereasonforthisisthatanyleakageinductanceexhibitedbyatransformer
locatedinthispositionmerelyaddstothematchinginductanceattheinputtotheLmatchcircuit.Thereforeleakage
inductanceinthetransformerisnotasdamagingtoperformanceasinterwindingcapacitance.

6.PhaseshiftcontrolofHbridge.
Whentheworkcoilisdrivenbyavoltagefedfullbridge(Hbridge)inverterthereisyetanothermethodofachievingpower
control.Iftheswitchinginstantsofbothbridgelegscanbecontrolledindependentlythenitopensupthepossibilityof
controllingpowerthroughputbyadjustingthephaseshiftbetweenthetwobridgelegs.
Whenbothbridgelegsswitchexactlyinphase,theybothoutputthesamevoltage.Thismeansthereisnovoltageacrossthe
workcoilarrangementandnocurrentflowsthroughtheworkcoil.Conversely,whenbothbridgelegsswitchinantiphase
maximumcurrentflowsthroughtheworkcoilandmaximumheatingisachieved.Powerlevelsbetween0%and100%can
beachievedbyvaryingthephaseshiftofthedrivetoonehalfofthebridgebetween0degreesand180degreeswhen
comparedtothedriveoftheotherbridgeleg.
Thistechniqueishighlyeffectiveaspowercontrolcanbeachievedatthelowerpowercontrolside.Thepowerfactorseen
bytheinverteralwaysremainsgoodbecausetheinverterisnotdetunedfromtheresonantfrequencyoftheworkcoil,
thereforereactivecurrentflowthroughfreewheelingdiodesisminimised.

InductionHeatingCapacitors
Therequirementsforcapacitorsusedinhighpowerinductionheatingareperhapsthemostdemandingofanytypeof
capacitor.Thecapacitorbankusedinthetankcircuitofaninductionheatermustcarrythefullcurrentthatflowsinthework
coilforextendedperiodsoftime.Thiscurrentistypicallymanyhundredsofampsatmanytensorhundredsofkilohertz.
Theyarealsoexposedtorepeated100%voltagereversalatthissamefrequencyandseethefullvoltagedevelopedacross
theworkcoil.Thehighoperatingfrequencycausessignificantlossesduetodielectricheatingandduetoskineffectinthe
conductors.Finallystrayinductancemustbekepttoanabsoluteminimumsothatthecapacitorappearsasalumpedcircuit
elementcomparedtothereasonablylowinductanceoftheworkcoilitisconnectedto.
Correctchoiceofdielectricsandextendedfoilconstructiontechniquesareusedtominimisetheamountofheatgenerated
andkeepeffectiveseriesinductancetoaminimum.However,evenwiththesetechniquesInductionheatingcapacitorsstill
exhibitsignificantpowerdissipationduetotheenormousRFcurrentstheymustcarry.Thereforeanimportantfactorintheir
designisallowingtheeffectiveremovalofheatfromwithinthecapacitortoextendthelifeofthedielectric.
Thefollowingmanufacturersproducepurposebuiltcomponents:
HighEnergyCorp.(UKdistributerisAMSTechnologies.)
VishayComponents.
CelemPowerCapacitors.basedinIsrael.

RangeofhighpowerinductionheatingcapacitorsfromHighEnergyCorp.

HighpowerconductioncooledmicacapacitorfromCelemPowerCapacitors.Celem
(PicturescourtesyofSteveConner)
NotethelargesurfaceareaoftheconnectionplatesontheCelemconductioncooledcomponentsandthereactivepower
rating(KVAR)printedontheratinglabel.Higherpowerunitspicturedaboveinaluminiumcaseshaveconnectionsfor
watercoolinghosestoremovetheheatgeneratedinternally.

LCLRnetworkfrequencyresponse
TheLCLRnetworkisa3rdorderresonantsystemconsistingoftwoinductors,onecapacitorandoneresistor.Thebodeplot
belowshowsthewayinwhichsomeofthevoltagesandcurrentswithinthenetworkchangeasthedrivefrequencyis
altered.TheGREENtracesrepresentthecurrentpassingthroughthematchinginductor,andthereforetheloadcurrentseen
bytheinverter.TheREDtracesrepresentthevoltageacrossthetankcapacitor,whichisthesameasthevoltageacrossthe
inductionheatingworkcoil.ThetopgraphshowstheACmagnitudesofthesetwoquantities,whilstthebottomgraph
showstherelativephaseofthesignalsrelativetotheACoutputvoltagefromtheinverter.

Fromtheamplitudepartofthebodeplotitcanbeseenthatmaximumvoltageisdevelopedacrosstheworkcoil(topred
trace)atonefrequencyonly.Atthisfrequencycurrentthroughtheworkcoilisalsomaximumandthelargestheatingeffect
isdevelopedatthisfrequency.Itcanbeseenthatthisfrequencycorrespondstothemaximumloadcurrentdrawnfromthe
inverter(topgreentrace.)Itisworthnotingthatthemagnitudeoftheinverterloadcurrenthasanullatafrequencyonly
slightlylowerthanthatwhichgivesmaximumheating.Thisplotshowstheimportanceofaccuratetuninginaninduction
heatingapplication.ForahighQsystemthesetwofrequenciesareveryclosetogether.Thedifferencebetweenmaximum
powerandminimumpowercanbeonlyafewkilohertz.
Fromthebottomgraphwecanseethatforfrequenciesbelowthemaximumpowerpoint,theworkcoilvoltage(green)isin
phasewiththeoutputvoltagefromtheinverter.Astheoperatingfrequencyincreasesthephaseangleoftheworkcoil
voltagechangesabruptlythrough180degrees(phaseinversion)rightatthepointwheremaximumpowerisbeing
processed.Thephaseangleoftheworkcoilvoltagethenremainsshiftedby180degreesfromtheinverteroutputvoltagefor
allfrequenciesabovethemaximumpowerpoint.
Fromthebottomgraphwecanalsoseethattheloadcurrentfromtheinverterexhibitsnotonebuttwoabruptphasechanges
astheoperatingfrequencyisprogressivelyincreased.Inverterloadcurrentinitiallylagstheinverter'soutputvoltageby90
degreesatlowfrequencies.Loadcurrentabruptlyslewsthrough180degreestoaphaseleadof90degreesastheoperating
frequencypassesthroughthe"nullfrequency"ofthenetwork.Invertercurrentremainsleadingby90degreesuntilthe
maximumpowerpointisreached,whereitagainabruptlyslewsthrough180degreesandreturnstothe90degreelagging
phaseonceagain.
Whenweconsiderthatonlycurrentoutoftheinverterthatisinphasewiththeoutputvoltagecontributestorealpower
transferwecanseethattheseabrupttransitionsfrom90degreesto+90degreesclearlyneedamoredetailedexamination...

Thebodeplotaboveshowstheareaofinterestaroundthenullfrequencyandthemaximumpowerpointinmoredetail.It
alsoshowsafamilyofcurvesdepictingthebehaviouroftheinductionheatingtankcircuitwithavarietyofdifferent
workpiecespresent.Thisallowsustogetafeelforhowthenetworkbehaveswithalargelossyworkpiecetohavingno
workpiecepresentatall,andallloadsinbetween.
Withnoworkpieceinstalled,lossesarelowandQfactorishigh.Thisgivesrisetothesharplypeakingcurrentsandvoltages
inthetopgraph,andtheabruptlychangingphaseshiftsinthebottomgraph.Asalossyworkpieceisintroducedtheoverall
QfactoroftheLCLRnetworkfalls.Thiscauseslessresonantriseintheinverterloadcurrentandthevoltageacrossthe
workcoil.Theresonantpeaksbecomelesstall,andbroaderastheQfactorfalls.Likewisethephaseoftheinvertercurrent
waveformandtheworkcoilvoltageslewlessrapidlyforlowerQfactors.
Fromthesegraphswecandeduceafewimplicationsforanycontrolsystemthatmusttracktheresonantfrequencyofthe
LCLRarrangementandcontrolpowerthroughput.FirstlythereismoreresonantriseintheLCLRnetworkwhenthere
isnoworkpiecepresent.Thereforethecurrentdeliveredfromtheinvertershouldbedecreasedtopreventtheworkcoiland
tankcapacitorcurrentsskyrocketingintheabsenceofanysignificantlossinthesystem.Secondly,theinverterloadcurrent
withnoloadmustbetrackedveryaccuratelyiftheinverterisnottoseeeitheraleadingorlaggingloadcurrentbecauseit
slewssoquicklythroughzerodegrees.
Converselywecansaythatwithalargelossyworkpiecepresent,therewillbelessresonantriseinherentintheLCLR
arrangementandtheinverterwillhavetosupplymoreloadcurrentinordertoachievetherequiredlevelofcurrent
intheworkcoil.However,thecontrolelectronicsnowdonotneedtotracktheresonantfrequencysocloselysincethe
diminishedQgivesaloadcurrentthatshiftsphaseinamoreleisurelymanner.
Finallyanumberofpointsareworthyofconsiderationfromtheplotabovewhenconsideringanautomaticcontrolstratergy
totracktheresonantfrequencyofanLCLRinductionheater.Forverylossyworkpiecematerials,(orlargevolumesofmetal
thatintroduceasignificantoverallloss)wecanseethattheinverterloadcurrentphase(bottomgreenplot)sometimesfailsto
evercrossthroughzerodegreestoleadingphase.Thismeansthattheinverterloadcurrentwithheavyworkloadscannotbe

inphaseandisalwayslaggingbysomeamount.Furthermoretheinverterloadcurrentisnotmonotonicasfrequencyis
swept.ThereforedirectfeedbackfromaCurrentTransformer(CT)ontheinverteroutputisnotaviableoption.Whilstit
mayappeartoworkfinewithnoworkpiecefittedoronlymoderateheatingloads,itdoesnottracktheresonantfrequency
correctlyandwillfailtooperatesatisfactorilyastheworkloadincreasesandnetworkQfalls!(Directfeedbackfrominverter
outputcurrentusingaCTtoformafreerunningpoweroscillatorresultsinadesignwhichoscillatesatlowloadbutfalls
outofselfoscillationwhentheworkloadisincreased.)
Incontrastwecanseethattheworkcoilvoltage(andtankcapacitorvoltage)phase(bottomredplot)ismonotonicwith
increasingfrequency.Furthermoreitconsistentlypassesthroughthe90degreephaselagpointexactlyatthefrequency
whichgivesmaximumpowerregardlessofhowheavilytheworkcoilisloaded.Thesetwomeritsmakethetankcapacitor
voltagewaveformanexcellentcontrolvariable.Inconclusiontheinverterfrequencyshouldbecontrolledsoasto
achieveaconsistent90degreelagbetweenthetankcapacitorvoltageandtheinverteroutputvoltageinorderto
achievemaximumpowerthroughput.Wecannowlabelsomeareasofinterestonthebodeplotdiagrambelow.

Thewhiteverticallineindicatesthefrequencyatwhichthetankcapacitorvoltage(andalsotheworkcoilvoltage)lagthe
inverteroutputvoltageby90degrees.Thisisalsothepointwheremaximumvoltageisdevelopedacrosstheworkcoiland
maximumcurrentflowsthroughit.Thewhitelineiswhereyouwanttobetodevelopthemaximumpossibleheatingeffect
intheworkpiece.Ifwelookattheinverterloadcurrentphase(bottomgreenplot)wecanseethatthisisalwaysbetween0
degreesand90degreeswhenitcrossesthewhitelinenomatterhowabruptlyorslowlyitslews.Thismeansthatthe
inverteralwaysseesaloadcurrentthatiseitherinphaseoratworstslightlylagginginpowerfactor.Suchasituationisideal
forsupportingZVSsoftswitchingintheinverterandpreventingfreewheeldiodereverserecoveryproblems.
Lookingtotherightofthewhitelinewehavetheareashadedinbluelabelled"InductiveLoadregion."Astheoperating
frequencyisincreasedabovethemaximumpowerpoint,thevoltageacrosstheworkcoildecreasesandlessheatingeffectis
generatedintheworkpiece.Theinverterloadcurrentalsofallsandbeginstolaginphaserelativetotheoutputvoltageofthe
inverter.Thesepropertiesmaketheblueshadedregiontheidealplacetooperateinordertoachievecontroloverinduction

heatingpower.Bydetuningtheinverterdrivefrequencyonthehighsideofthemaximumpowerpoint,powerthroughput
canbereducedandtheinverteralwaysseesalaggingpowerfactor.
Conversely,totheleftofthewhitelinewehaveabandoffrequencieslabelled"CapacitiveLoadregion."Astheoperating
frequencyisdecreasedbelowthemaximumpowerpoint,theworkcoilvoltagealsofallsandlessheatingeffecttakesplace.
However,thisisaccompaniedbytheinverterloadcurrentpossiblyslewingtoaleadingphaseanglewhenlossesinthe
workpiecearelowandQfactorishigh.Thisisundesirableformanysolidstateinvertersastheleadingloadcurrentcauses
lossofZVSandleadstoforcedreverserecoveryoffreewheelingdiodesincurringraisedswitchinglossesandvoltage
overshoots.Thereforethecapacitiveloadregionisnotrecommendedforachievingpowerthroughputcontrol.
Theverticalpurplelinemarkstheotherendofthecapacitiveloadregion,wheretheinverterloadcurrenttransitionsagainto
lagging"Inductive"loadcurrent.ThissecondInductiveregionisoflittleinterestsinceitdoesnotachievesignificantpower
throughput,andcannotbereachedwithoutpassingthroughthepotentiallydamagingcapacitiveloadregionanyway.When
theLCLRnetworkisdrivenfromasquarewaveinvertervoltagethereisalsoriskofsignificantcurrentflowataharmonicof
thedrivefrequency.Itismarkedonthediagramheremerelyforcompleteness.
Note:Thephaseofthetankcapacitorvoltagewassuggestedasacontrolvariableanddiscussedextensivelyintheplots
above.Thisisbecausethisvoltagecanbeeasilysensedusingahighfrequencyvoltagetransformerandprovidesallthe
necessarycontrolinformation.Whilstitexhibitsa90degreephaseshiftrelativetotheinverteroutputvoltage(whichmayat
firstappearundesirable)itisstillabettercontrolvariablethantryingtosensethetankcapacitorcurrent.Althoughthetank
capacitorcurrentisinphasewiththeinverteroutputthiscurrentcanbemanyhundredsofampsmakingclosedcoreferrite
CTsimpractical.Furthermorethe90degreephaseshiftofthetankcapacitorvoltagewaveformmeansthatit'szero
crossingsareintentionallydisplacedintimeawayfromthepotentiallynoisyswitchinginstantsoftheinverter.This90
degreephaseshiftofthevoltagefeedbacksignalcanbeallowedforinthedesignofthecontrolelectronicsandisasmall
pricetopayfortheeasedsensingandincreasednoiseimmunitygained.

Coolingrequirements
#Addcommentshereaboutwatercooling#

Heatingpictures

Waveforms

ThisshowstheinverteroutputcurrentwaveformwhendrivingtheLCLRworkcoilarrangementclosetoitsresonant
frequency.Thispointcorrespondstomaximumpowerthroughputandthereforemaximumheatingeffect.Notehowthe
inverterloadcurrentisalmostapuresinusoid.

ThisshowstheinverteroutputcurrentwaveformwhendrivingtheLCLRworkcoilarrangementsubstantiallyaboveits
naturalresonantfrequency.Thisoperatingpointgivesreducedpowerthroughputanddiminishedheatingeffect.At
frequenciesabovethenaturalresonantfrequencyoftheLCLRworkcoilarrangementtheinductivereactanceofthe
matchingnetworkdominatesandtheinverter'sloadcurrentlagstheappliedvoltage.Noticethetriangularloadcurrent
causedbytheinductiveloadintegratingtheinverter'ssquarewavevoltageoutputovertime.

Thisshowsthevoltageacrosstheworkcoilundernormaloperationwhendrivenclosetoresonance.Noticethatthevoltage
waveformisapuresinusoidinshape.ThisisalsotrueforthecurrentwaveformandminimisesharmonicradiationandRF
interference.InthiscasethevoltageacrosstheworkcoilisalsohigherthantheDCbusvoltagesuppliedtotheinverter.
BothofthesepropertiesareattributedtothehighQfactoroftheinductionheatingtankcircuit.

Thisshowstheoutputvoltagefromtheinverterwhenitismistunedtoafrequencythatisbelowthenaturalresonant
frequencyoftheworkcoil.Noticetheveryfastriseandfalltimesofthesquarewaveaccompaniedbyexcessivevoltage
overshootandringing.TheseareallattributedtoforcedreverserecoveryoftheMOSFETbodydiodeswhilstenduringthis
undesirableoperatingmode.(Overshootandringingisduetoreverserecoverycurrentspikesshockexcitingstray
inductanceintheinverterlayoutintoparasiticoscillation.)

Thisshowstheoutputvoltagefromtheinverterwhenitistunedveryslightlyabovethenaturalresonantfrequencyofthe
workcoil.Noticethattheriseandfalltimesofthesquarewavearemorecontrolled,andthereiscomparativelylittle
overshootorringing.ThisisduetotheZeroVoltageSwitching(ZVS)whichtakesplacewhentheinverterrunsinthis
favourableoperatingmode.

Thisshowstheoutputvoltagefromtheinverterwhenitistunedpreciselytotheresonantfrequencyoftheworkcoil.
Althoughthissituationactuallyachievesmaximumpowerthroughput,itdoesnotquiteachieveZeroVoltageSwitchingof
theMOSFETs.Noticethelittlenotchesontherisingandfallingedgesofthevoltagewaveform.Theseoccurbecausethe
midpointofthebridgeleghasnotbeenfullycommutatedtotheoppositesupplyrailduringthedeadtimebeforethenext
MOSFETturnson.Inpracticeasmallamountofinductivereactancepresentedtotheinverterhelpsprovidetherequired
commutatingcurrentandachieveZVS.Forthisreasonthesituationdescribedforthepreviousphotographispreferableto
beingpreciselyintune.

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